MODULE 1: Introduction to Developmental Psychology

DEVELOPMENT
A systematic changes and continuities in the individual occur between conception and
death, or from “womb to tomb.”
Changes as systematic, implying that they are orderly, patterned, and relatively enduring.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
The branch of psychology is devoted to identifying and explaining the continuities and
changes that individuals display over time.
One area of psychology that explains the course of physical, social, emotional, moral, and
intellectual development over a person’s life span.

HISTORY
Developmental psychology first appeared as an area of study in the late 19th century
(Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2007). Developmental psychology focused initially
on child and adolescent development and was concerned about children’s minds and
learning (Hall, 1883).
There are several key figures in developmental psychology. In 1877, the famous
evolutionary biologist Charles Darwin undertook the first study of developmental
psychology on innate communication forms. Not long after, physiologist William Preyer
(1888) published a book on the abilities of an infant.
The 1900s saw many significant people dominating the developmental psychology field
with their detailed theories of development: Sigmund Freud (1923, 1961), Jean Piaget
(1928), Erik Erikson (1959), Lev Vygotsky (1978), John Bowlby (1958), and Albert
Bandura (1977).
By the 1920s, the scope of developmental psychology had begun to include adult
development and the aging process (Thompson, 2016).
In more recent years, it has broadened further to include prenatal development
(Brandon et al., 2009). Developmental psychology is now understood to encompass the
complete lifespan (Baltes et al., 2007).

Types of Change in Development (Qualitative and Quantitative Changes)

In the development of a human being, major types of changes are manifested as follows:

1. Change in Size – there is a change in physical and mental growth.

 2. Change in Proportion – Physical development is not only limited to size. It is also
apparent in mental health. At first, a child is interested in himself alone, others, and toys.
Finally, his interests are directed toward members of the opposite sex.

3. Disappearance of old features – some features that disappear are the thymus glands,
baby hair, and baby forms of locomotion such as creeping and crawling.

4. Acquisition of New Features – new features are acquired such as the primary and
secondary sex characteristics as well as new mental traits like curiosity, sex urge,
knowledge, morals and standards, religious beliefs, forms of language, and types of
neurotic tendencies.

STAGES OF LIFE (An Overview of Periods of the Life Span)

Period of Life Age Range

Prenatal period Conception to birth
Infancy First 2 years of life (the first month is the neonatal or newborn period)
3 to 5 or 6 years (some prefer to describe as toddlers children who
Early childhood
have begun to walk and are age 1 to 3)
Middle childhood 6 to about 11 (or until the onset of puberty)
Approximately 12 to 21 (or when the individual becomes relatively
Adolescence
independent of parents and begins to assume adult roles)
20s to 30s (some distinguish an emerging adulthood period from 18
Early adulthood
to 29)
Middle adulthood 40s to 50s
60s and older (some break out subcategories such as the young-old,
Late adulthood
old-old, and very old based on differences in functioning)
Genetic Factors That Affect Human Growth and Development

One more key element of human growth and development left to explore is genetics. Genetics influences
the speed and way in which people develop, though other factors, such as parenting, education,
experiences, and socioeconomic factors, are also at play. The multiple genetic factors that affect human
growth and development include genetic interactions and sex chromosome abnormalities.

1. Genetic Interactions

Genes can act in an additive way or sometimes conflict with one another

2. Gene-Environment Interactions

Humans’ genetic information is always interacting with the environment, and sometimes this can impact
development and growth

3. Sex Chromosome Abnormalities

Sex chromosome abnormalities impact as many as 1 in 500 births.

a. Turner syndrome- happens when one of the X chromosomes is missing or partially missing. It
only affects females and results in physical characteristics like short stature and webbed neck
b. Down syndrome is another common example of how genetics can impact development. This
chromosomal disorder may cause some individuals to experience physical or intellectual
development differences.
c. Klinefelter syndrome
 It is also called 47, XXY, is a chromosomal condition that affects development in people who are
assigned male at birth. The signs and symptoms of Klinefelter syndrome vary. In some cases,
the features are so mild that the condition is not diagnosed until puberty or adulthood.
Researchers believe that up to 65 percent of people with Klinefelter syndrome are never
diagnosed.

d. Fragile X Syndrome
Fragile X syndrome is a genetic condition that causes a range of developmental problems
including learning disabilities and cognitive impairment. Usually, males are more severely
affected by this disorder than females

Developmental Disabilities

refer to a group of conditions present at birth that impact intellectual abilities, physical abilities,
language, and behavior. These disabilities are usually identified in childhood and affect a person
throughout their lives. Developmental disabilities are common, affecting about 1 in 6 children.

Most Common Developmental Disabilities

Intellectual disabilities include any disability that affects brain functioning or intelligence,
including your ability to learn new concepts, use logical reasoning, and problem-solving, and use
other mental skills. They also refer to socializing and adaptive life skills which require mental and
intellectual capabilities.
1. ADHD
The exact cause of ADHD isn’t clear yet, but experts believe genetics are likely at play. Other
factors that may increase your risk of developing ADHD include a history of brain injury,
exposure to lead during pregnancy or early childhood, being born premature or of low birth
weight, and having a parent who consumed alcohol or smoked during pregnancy

ADHD is divided into three main types:

inattentive type
hyperactive-impulsive type
combination type
Each type of ADHD is tied to one or more characteristics. ADHD is characterized by inattention
and hyperactive-impulsive behavior.

2. Autism
is thought to have more than one cause and is more likely if you have multiple risk factors. Some
of the risk factors for autism are having a sibling who has autism, genetic predispositions,
experiencing a birth injury, and being born to older parents

3. Learning Disabilities
Genetics may play a role, as many children with learning disabilities also have parents with
learning disabilities. Other factors may include alcohol or substance abuse during pregnancy,
inadequate, nutrition during early childhood, and exposure to lead.

4.Hearing Loss
About half of all hearing loss in babies is genetic. Some babies may have a condition that includes
hearing loss, such as Down syndrome or Usher syndrome. Other cases may be due to infections
 acquired during pregnancy or after birth, head injuries, facial or head differences, and
neurological conditions

The Lifespan Perspective

Overview

Important Changes occur in each period of development

Children and adults experience major life passages

Increased longevity

Principles of Human Growth and Development

1. Development proceeds from the head downward.

This is known as the cephalocaudal principle. According to this principle, the child
gains control of the head first, then the arms, and finally the legs. Infants develop
control of head and face movements within the first two months after birth. Over the
next few months, they learn to lift themselves using their arms. By 6 to 12 months,
infants typically begin to gain control over their legs and may start to crawl, stand, or
even walk. Coordination of arms generally precedes coordination of legs.
2. Development proceeds from the center of the body outward.
This follows the principle of proximodistal development, which describes the
direction of development. The spinal cord develops before the outer parts of the body,
meaning that the child’s arms develop before the hands, and the hands and feet develop
before the fingers and toes. Muscles in the fingers and toes, which are crucial for fine
motor skills, are among the last to develop.
3. Development depends on maturation and learning.

What Causes Us to Develop?

Two important processes that underlie developmental change:

a. Maturation – refers to the biological unfolding of the individual according to species-

typical biological inheritance and a person’s biological inheritance.
b. Learning – The process through which our experiences produce relatively permanent
changes in our feelings, thoughts, and behaviors.

Maturation also refers to the sequential nature of biological growth and development.
 Biological changes occur in a specific order, providing children with new abilities.
Changes in the brain and nervous system are significant contributors to maturation,
helping children improve both cognitive (thinking) and motor (physical) skills. Children
must reach a certain level of maturity before they can acquire new skills, a concept
known as readiness. The child's environment and the learning that occurs through
experiences largely determine whether the child will reach optimal development. A
stimulating environment, combined with diverse experiences, allows a child to develop
to their full potential.

4. Development proceeds from the simple (concrete) to the more complex.

Children use their cognitive and language skills to reason and solve problems. For
instance, learning to recognize relationships between things (such as similarities) or to
classify objects is a crucial part of cognitive development. The process of understanding
how an apple and an orange are alike begins with simple or concrete thoughts, such as
describing the objects based on color.
5. Growth and development is a continuous process.
As a child develops, they build on previously acquired skills, with new skills forming the
basis for further achievements. Most children follow a similar developmental pattern,
where one stage lays the foundation for the next.
6. Growth and development proceed from the general to the specific.
In motor development, infants first grasp objects using their entire hand before refining
their grip to use only the thumb and forefinger. Early motor movements are generalized,
undirected, and reflexive, such as waving arms or kicking, before becoming more
precise and directed, such as reaching for or creeping toward an object. Growth
progresses from large muscle movements to more refined, smaller muscle movements.
7. There are individual rates of growth and development.
Each child grows at their own pace, with individual variations in the timing of
developmental milestones. Although the patterns and sequences of growth and
development are generally consistent among children, the rate at which they reach
developmental stages varies. Recognizing individual differences in development rates
emphasizes the importance of not relying solely on age and stage characteristics to
describe or label children. There is a range of ages for any developmental task, and the
concept of an "average child" is a misconception. For instance, some children may begin
walking at ten months, while others may not start until eighteen months. Some children
are more active, while others are more passive; this does not predict future intelligence
or abilities. Additionally, development is not uniform within a child; a child’s intellectual
development may progress faster than their emotional or social development.

Understanding these principles of development aids in planning appropriate activities and

providing stimulating and enriching experiences for children. This knowledge also helps in
encouraging and supporting young children’s learning effectively.

REFERENCES:
Gines, A.C. et al (1998) Developmental Psychology: A Textbook for College Students in Psychology and
Teacher Education. Rex Bookstore.

Sigelman, C.K. and Rider, E.A. (2010) Life-Span Human Development 7th Edition. Wadsworth Cengage
Learning.