Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109397

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Journal of Energy Storage

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Research papers

Theoretical and experimental study on improving diaphragm compressor

design for hydrogen refueling stations through use of a free moving oil
piston concept
Shengdong Ren a, Xiaohan Jia a, *, Long Shi c, Kai Li a, Xueyuan Peng a, b
a
School of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, China
b
State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Flow in Power Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, No. 28 Xianning West Road, Xi'an 710049, China
c
The Fifth Gas Production Plant of Changqing Oilfield Branch, Wushenqi017300, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The diaphragm compressor is the essential component of a hydrogen refueling station, but the traditional design
Diaphragm compressor method results in low cavity volumetric efficiency and high refilling oil pressure. This study proposes a design
Hydrogen refueling station method using a free moving oil piston to optimize the cavity volume. This method allows the cavity volume to be
Design method
utilized to the maximum, and a “zero pressure” stage occurs at the end of the suction process, which greatly
Cavity volumetric efficiency
Oil pressure
improves the cavity volumetric efficiency and reduces the refilling oil pressure. To further examine and verify the
superiority of this method, 90 MPa and 200 MPa diaphragm compressors were designed and produced for
comparison, and their simulation study was conducted simultaneously. The results demonstrate that this pro­
posed design method can raise the cavity volumetric efficiency of the 90 MPa diaphragm compressor in the
experimental case from 0.37 to 0.66. Additionally, the benefit increases with the compressor pressure. For the
case of a 200 MPa diaphragm compressor, the cavity volumetric efficiency increases from 0.19 to 0.64.

1. Introduction options. Compressed gas hydrogen storage is the most advanced tech­
nique currently used in the vehicle sector [17]. The hydrogen storage
The growing concerns about energy and environmental issues have density increases with hydrogen pressure [18], which improves the
made it urgent to search for sustainable and green energy sources [1,2]. cruising range of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and is good for the econ­
Hydrogen is recognized as the ideal solution of all alternatives [3], omy. Therefore, the hydrogen refueling station is a significant infra­
which has the advantages of being widely sourced [4], having broad structure [19], and hydrogen compressors are vital dynamic devices.
applications [5], and being zero-emission [6]. The application of The greatest energy density that hydrogen can be stored depends on the
hydrogen energy and fuel cells in the transportation field [7] is regarded discharge pressure of the hydrogen compressor and the pressure rating
as an effective way to accelerate energy transition [8] and reduce carbon of the hydrogen storage bottle. Currently, the pressure levels of onboard
emissions. Hydrogen energy has received widespread attention around hydrogen storage bottles are mostly 35 MPa and 70 MPa. Some com­
the world [9,10]. However, the industrial application of hydrogen en­ panies are working on 105 MPa onboard hydrogen storage bottles,
ergy and fuel cell vehicles are confronted by the challenges of low en­ which require a compressor to operate at 140 MPa or even higher
ergy density of hydrogen [11] and high infrastructure construction costs discharge pressure. High discharge pressure reduces compressor effi­
[12]. ciency and reliability, which increases hydrogen storage costs. There­
Since hydrogen has the smallest molar mass, its energy density is fore, the development of high-efficiency and high-reliability hydrogen
only 0.03 % that of gasoline [13] and 14 % that of natural gas [14] at compressors is of great significance for reducing hydrogen energy stor­
atmospheric pressure. It is necessary to overcome the issue of raising the age costs and promoting the development of the hydrogen energy sector.
energy density [15]. High-pressure gaseous hydrogen storage, liquid Various types of compressors [20] have been developed, including
hydrogen storage, solid hydrogen storage [16], and organic liquid diaphragm compressors [21], ionic liquid compressors [22–24], recip­
hydrogen storage are some of the current hydrogen storage technology rocating compressors [25], hydraulic drive piston compressors [26,27],

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (X. Jia).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.109397
Received 7 August 2023; Received in revised form 13 October 2023; Accepted 21 October 2023
Available online 31 October 2023
2352-152X/© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
S. Ren et al. Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109397

as well as chemical compressors [28]. The diaphragm compressor is the 2. Methodology

most used type, which owes to its advantages of ultrahigh operating
pressures, zero leakage of compressed gas and clean working medium. The research methodology applied in this study is provided in Fig. 1.
Despite this, diaphragm compressor technologies still do not meet A new design method for diaphragm compressors is proposed with a
the demand for hydrogen energy development, especially the large-scale design of free moving oil piston and new matching design of cavity
construction of 70 MPa hydrogen refueling stations [29]. The diaphragm volume considering oil compressibility. To examine and verify the su­
compressor has clear drawbacks of low flow rate and high failure rate. periority of this method, 90 MPa and 200 MPa diaphragm compressors
Numerous studies have been done on the low flow rate to improve it and were designed and produced for comparison, and their simulation study
satisfy the hydrogen refueling capacity. Lei et al. [30] analyzed the was conducted simultaneously. Besides, Compared with the traditional
reasons for the decrease in flow rate and proposed solutions. Altukhov design method, it shows that the newly designed diaphragm compressor
et al. [31] found that the compressibility of the working fluid and the has high efficiency and excellent performance.
dead space in the gas cavity had a significant effect on the flow rate. The structure model of the new designed diaphragm compressor with
Hyun et al. [32] analyzed the oil density, deflection of the diaphragm, a free moving oil piston is shown in Fig. 2 and the diagram of the
gas and oil pressure during a cycle of the compression process and structure and oil system is shown in Fig. 3. Similar to the traditional
studied the flow rate features. Jia et al. [33] studied the influence of diaphragm compressor, the working cavity is composed of a gas plate,
clearance volume on the flow rate of diaphragm compressors and pro­ an oil plate and a set of metal diaphragms. The diaphragms are fixed
posed a cavity design method to reduce the dead volume. The authors between the gas plate and the oil plate. The gas plate and one side of the
[21] studied the effect of hydraulic oil compressibility on the volumetric diaphragm surface enclose the gas cavity, and the oil plate and the other
efficiency of diaphragm compressors and revealed the reasons for the side of the diaphragm enclose the oil cavity. The oil head support is
low volumetric efficiency of high-pressure diaphragm compressors. provided with an inner oil cylinder, located below the oil plate. In
The high failure rate is the bigger obstacle to the application of describing the structure of diaphragm compressors, it is customary to
diaphragm compressors. Unscheduled downtime due to diaphragm refer to the gas plate side as the upside and the oil plate side as the
compressor failure even accounts for about 30 % of the total mainte­ downside, without indicating the upper and lower sides of the space. A
nance time in hydrogen refueling station applications [34]. The most free moving oil piston is set in the oil cylinder. The chamber between the
frequent failure of diaphragm compressors is diaphragm rupture. Re­ diaphragms and the oil piston is filled with hydraulic oil. Below the oil
searchers have made many efforts to study the causes of diaphragm piston is the piston rod, which is attached to the crosshead and moves
rupture [35,36] and to improve the lifetime [37,38]. The cavity profile reciprocally under the actuation of the crank linkage mechanism.
of the diaphragm compressor is a vital factor. Many efforts have been The unique feature of the structure proposed in this study is that the
made to search for more befitting cavity profiles to improve the stress of oil piston is not connected to the piston rod. The oil piston moves under
the diaphragm, and varieties of new profiles have been proposed in the the forces of the piston rod and the hydraulic oil. In the upstroke, the
last decades [39–42]. Admittedly, the results of previous studies provide piston rod contacts and pushes the oil piston upward to the top dead
several options for the design of diaphragm compressors, but this does center (TDC). The hydraulic oil is forced upward by the piston to cause
not fundamentally solve the problem of easy diaphragm rupture. the diaphragm to deform into the gas cavity. As the volume of the gas
The internal working process of a diaphragm compressor is complex. cavity decreases, the gas is compressed until it surpasses the back
The oil leakage and oil compressibility have a relatively large impact. It pressure and is discharged through the discharge valve. Then during the
is more likely to have excessive hydraulic oil leakage leading to irregular downstroke, the piston rod moves to the bottom dead center (BDC)
diaphragm movement, and more loss of volumetric efficiency due to the driven by the crank connecting rod mechanism. Fresh gas then enters the
oil compressibility of a high-pressure diaphragm compressor. In addi­
tion, the oil pressure in the oil cavity is always maintained at a relatively
high-pressure level, which is a challenge for the refilling oil pump.
This study proposes a new design method for a high-pressure dia­
phragm compressor with a free moving oil piston. The oil piston moves
as a result of the combined action of the piston rod and oil pressure, and
the piston and piston rod can be detached. In addition, through the
proposed cavity volume matching design, where the compressibility of
oil is considered, a unique ‘zero pressure’ process occurs at the end of the
suction process, solving the problem of high refilling oil pressure. The
total volume of hydraulic oil is reduced with this design method, which
reduces the effect of oil compressibility on the volumetric efficiency.
More beneficially, the newly proposed cavity volume matching method
maximizes the utilization of the cavity volume of the diaphragm
compressor and can significantly improve the cavity volume efficiency.
Further, a 90 MPa and a 200 MPa diaphragm compressor were designed
and produced with this method for experimental verification and the
simulation model was built. The results demonstrate that this proposed
design method can raise the cavity volumetric efficiency of the 90 MPa
and 200 MPa diaphragm compressors in the experimental cases from
0.37 to 0.66 and from 0.19 to 0.64. The results proved the feasibility and
superiority of this design method. Moreover, the performance is even
better when applied to conditions with greater discharge pressure. The
method proposed in this study can improve hydrogen energy storage
efficiency, reduce hydrogen storage costs, and promote the construction
of hydrogen energy infrastructure.

Fig. 1. The methodology of this study.

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S. Ren et al. Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109397

Fig. 2. Structure model of the diaphragm compressor with a free moving oil piston.

Fig. 3. Diagram of the compressor structure and oil system.

gas cavity, and the pressure in the gas cavity is the suction pressure. Gas process, the refilling oil pressure has to reach at least the suction pres­
pressure forces the diaphragm to deform into the oil cavity, and hy­ sure, which can be as high as 100 MPa in ultra-high pressure conditions.
draulic oil drives the piston to move to the BDC and maintain a fit with This is a challenge to the oil refilling pump and the oil refilling system.
the piston rod. The piston in this proposed design is in a free motion state, thus during
In matching with the proposed structure, the hydraulic system has the downstroke, the piston rod won't push it back to BDC. To alter the
been significantly improved. In a traditional diaphragm compressor matching relationship between the cavity volume and the piston stroke
hydraulic system, there is a plunger pump that forcibly refills a certain volume, the cavity volume can be appropriately lowered. This enables
volume of oil into the oil cavity to compensate for leaks at each stroke. the diaphragm to deform downwards to properly fit the oil plate, and a
Although the oil refilling process is mostly designed in the suction unique ‘zero pressure’ process of the hydraulic oil will occur at the end

3
S. Ren et al. Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109397

of the suction process due to the oil rapid expansion. Correspondingly,

an accumulator is set in the oil supplement line. A certain volume of oil
is pumped by the plunger pump into the accumulator with each stroke,
and the accumulator refuels the oil cavity during the “zero pressure”
stage. In this manner, the plunger pump can always work at low pres­
sure, which is determined by the pressure of the accumulator. More
importantly, this cavity design method takes into account the
compressibility of the oil, and avoids a significant quantity of redundant
cavity volume caused by the compression and expansion of hydraulic
oil, which greatly improves the cavity volume efficiency.

3. Mathematical modelling

3.1. Calculation of oil volume

The volume change of hydraulic oil under high-pressure conditions

can no longer be ignored, which will directly affect the work process of
the diaphragm compressor. In previous study, the author discovered that
every 10 MPa increase in oil pressure in the experimental compressor
Fig. 5. Theoretical p-θ diagram of the oil pressure for a traditional dia­
results in 5 % reduction in volumetric efficiency [21]. Therefore, the
phragm compressor.
design of high-performance diaphragm compressors is based on pre­
cisely calculating the change in hydraulic oil volume during the working
process. pressure decreases with the gas pressure to the suction pressure. From θ0
Fig. 4 illustrates the variation of oil volume with pressure. For a to θ process, the volume increase value of oil can be calculated by:
( ∫ pθ dp )
hydraulic oil of volume V, the volume of the oil increases by dV as the oil
(3)
−
pressure decreases by dp and the modulus of elasticity of the oil β can be ΔVθ = e p0 β − 1 V0
expressed as Eq. (1).
In diaphragm compressor design, more attention is paid to the po­
β= −
dp
V (1) sition of the diaphragm at the end of the suction process. It is an
dV important parameter that determines the displacement of the
compressor, determined by the volume of the oil at this time. The end
β varies with the oil pressure and temperature. Integrating Eq. (1) from
position of the suction process is represented by the point θ2 in Fig. 5.
point A to point B in Fig. 4, the expansion volume of the hydraulic oil for
The total volume of oil at this point can be expressed as:
this process can be obtained by Eq. (2).
( ∫ p2 dp )
( ∫B )
(4)
−
dp V2 = V0 + e p0 β − 1 V0 − Vl + Vr
(2)
−
ΔV = e A β − 1 VA

Fig. 5 shows the theoretical dynamic oil pressure of a traditional where Vl and Vr represent volume of the leakage oil through the piston,
diaphragm compressor [43]. The point θ0 corresponds to the position and the refilled oil volume through the refilling pump.
that the piston is at TDC, the diaphragm fully fits with the gas cavity, and High-precision calculations are frequently not reached in engineer­
the extra oil has entirely overflowed from the oil pressure limiter. The oil ing applications because the elastic modulus of hydraulic oil will be
pressure at this moment is the preset pressure of the oil pressure limiter, altered by several factors and the actual exact value cannot be deter­
and the oil volume is a certain value which can be determined from the mined. For the convenience of applications, the equivalent modulus of
structure dimensions. During the subsequent downstroke, the oil elasticity is used to describe the compressibility of hydraulic oil. The
equivalent modulus of elasticity β′ is expressed by Eq. (5).
Δp
β′ = V (5)
ΔV
Leakage and refilled oil typically account for less than one-
thousandth of the total oil, making them two factors that are
frequently disregarded. Therefore, the expansion volume of the oil
during the process θ0 -θ2 can be calculated by Eq. (6).
po − p2
ΔV2 = V0 (6)
β′
The total volume of oil at the end position of the suction process can
be expressed as:
po − p2
V2 = V 0 + V0 (7)
β′

3.2. Calculation of volumetric efficiency

The diaphragm compressor is a type of reciprocating compressor. In

the classic diaphragm compressor design theory, its volumetric effi­
ciency ηVh is still defined as the ratio of the suction volume of one stroke
Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of hydraulic oil compressibility. to the oil piston stroke volume, which is called piston volumetric effi

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S. Ren et al. Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109397

ciency, expressed as: stress on the diaphragm hitting the oil plate will be greater because of
/ the loss of cushioning from the hydraulic oil. Therefore, the cavity
η V h = Vs Vh (8)
volumes of a traditional diaphragm compressor are generally 15 %
larger than the oil piston stroke volume to absolutely prevent the dia­
where Vs is the suction volume of a stroke in the suction state, and Vh is
phragm from fitting the oil plate [44,45]. The cavity volume is deter­
the stroke volume of the oil piston.
mined by Eq. (14).
Compared to reciprocating piston compressors, the volumetric effi­
ciency of diaphragm compressors is also influenced by the compress­ Vc tra = (1 + 15%)Vh tra (14)
ibility of the hydraulic oil. The piston volumetric efficiency ηVh is
In actual operation, a relatively large volume will be maintained
determined by Eq. (9). between the diaphragm and the oil plate due to the volume expansion of
ηVh = λoil λV λp λT λl (9) hydraulic oil during the suction process, resulting in wasted cavity
volume and lower cavity volumetric efficiency. The cavity volumetric
where λoil is the oil expansion coefficient, λV is the dead volume efficiency with the traditional method is calculated by:
expansion coefficient, λp is the pressure coefficient, λT is the temperature
qV /n λoil λV λp λT λl
coefficient, and λl is the leakage coefficient. The seal of diaphragm η Vc = = (15)
tra
Vc tra 1 + 15%
compressors is a static seal with zero leakage, so the leakage coefficient
λl is one. The expansion volume of the hydraulic oil occupies part of the
3.3.2. Proposed design method with a free moving oil piston
suction volume, resulting in a reduction in suction volume. Then the oil
For the design method proposed in this study, the oil piston is
expansion coefficient λoil is expressed by Eq. (10).
separated from the piston rod. The characteristic of this structure is that
ΔV2 po − p2 V0 the oil piston is driven by the oil pressure during the downstroke. When
λoil = 1 − = 1− (10)
Vh β′ Vh the oil pressure decreases to the point where it is not enough to over­
come the friction of the oil piston, the piston stops moving so that no
The cavity structure and size are the primary design parameters of a vacuum is created in the oil chamber. And there is always oil as a
diaphragm compressor. Despite their best efforts, previous researchers cushion when the diaphragm fits the oil plate. Therefore, to effectively
were only able to slightly expand the cavity volume. Therefore, the utilize the cavity volumes, the design method suggested in this study
utilization rate of the cavity volume is also an important criterion for prefers that the diaphragm fits the oil plate each stroke. According to
evaluating the design level of the diaphragm compressor. The cavity this design method, the required cavity volume can be calculated first by
volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of the suction volume of one the cavity volume efficiency.
stroke to the cavity volume, expressed as:
qV /n
ηVc = Vs /Vc (11) Vc pro = (16)
η Vc pro

where Vc is the total cavity volume including the gas cavity and oil
η Vc = λV λp λT (17)
cavity. For the structure of this proposed design, the diaphragm will pro

completely fit the oil plate at the end of the suction process, and the The matching relationship between the cavity volume and the piston
volume of the gas cavity is equal to the total cavity volume of the stroke volume is then established by the compressor operating param­
compressor. Therefore, the cavity volumetric efficiency can be calcu­ eters in this design method. The schematic diagram of the theoretical
lated as: dynamic oil pressure and structural changes of the downstroke is shown
in Fig. 6. When the piston is at the TDC, the total oil volume is V0 pro , and
ηVc = λV λp λT (12)
when the piston moves to the BDC, the oil pressure drops to zero, and the
oil volume V2 pro can be calculated as:
3.3. Determination of the main geometry size of the compressor
po − 0
V2 = V0 + V0 (18)
3.3.1. Traditional design method
pro pro pro
β′
The traditional method for designing a diaphragm compressor is to
The piston stroke volume should provide enough space for the gas
first determine the piston stroke volume via piston volumetric efficiency
suction and oil expansion, so the following formula should be satisfied.
ηVh , then determine the cavity volume with the matching relationship
between the piston stroke volume and cavity volume, and finally design po − 0
Vh > Vc + V0 (19)
the structural size. A diaphragm compressor requires a volume flow rate
pro pro pro
β′
at suction conditions is qV , m3/min, and the oil piston stroke volume
To guarantee that the diaphragm can fit the oil pan and that the “zero
Vh tra is calculated by:
pressure” stage occurs, the stroke volume of oil piston can be designed as
qV /n follows:
Vh tra = (13)
η Vh ( )
tra
po − 0
Vh pro = (1 + 5%) Vc pro + ′
V0 pro (20)
where n is the rotation speed of the compressor in RPM, and subscript tra β
stands for ‘traditional’. The piston volumetric efficiency corresponding to the stroke volume
To ensure the healthy and smooth operation of the diaphragm is expressed as:
compressor, the sum of the gas cavity and oil cavity volumes Vc should
match the oil piston stroke volume Vh . In the traditional design method, η Vh = ( V
q /n
) (21)
the oil piston is linked to the piston rod, which will be driven to the BDC.
pro
(1 + 5%) Vc pro + poβ−′ 0V0 pro
When the excess oil leaks or the diaphragm moves irregularly, the piston
continues to move after the diaphragm fits the oil plate. Then, the vol­ The percentage reduction kc of the cavity volumes with the proposed
ume of the oil chamber increases rapidly, and the oil pressure decreases method compared to the traditional design method can be calculated by
rapidly, creating a vacuum that allows air to enter the oil chamber Eq. (22).
through the oil piston. A large amount of air mixed in the oil can cause a
rapid decrease in compressor efficiency. On the other hand, the impact

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S. Ren et al. Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109397

Fig. 6. The downstroke of the diaphragm compressor designed by proposed method.

Vc − Vc 3.4. Movement model of the free moving oil piston

(22)
tra pro
kc =
Vc tra
The piston rod is connected to the crosshead which is driven by a
The commonly used generatrix to shape the cavity profile of a dia­
typical crankshaft and connecting rod mechanism, as shown in Fig. 7.
phragm compressor is a function of a single exponential polynomial
The motion equation of the piston rod can be expressed by Eq. (27). The
expressed as Eq. (23) [44].
displacement, velocity, and acceleration of the piston rod during a
[ ( ) ]
1 r Z+1 ( r )2 stroke are shown in Fig. 8.
H(r) = H0 2 − (Z + 1) + (Z − 1) (23)
Z− 1 R R ⎧ [ ]
⎪ λ
⎪
⎪ xrod = r (1 − cosθ) + (1 − cos2θ)
⎪
where H0 is the deflection at the center of the cavity, R is the cavity ⎪
⎪
⎨
4
( )
radius, and Z is the generatrix exponent. The volume closed by the λ (27)
⎪ vrod = rω sinθ + sin2θ
generatrix can be calculated by Eq. (24). ⎪
⎪
⎪ 2
⎪
⎪
∫R ⎩
π Z+1 arod = rω2 (cosθ + λcos2θ)
Vc = 2πrH(r)dr = R2 H0 (24)
0 2 Z+3
To ensure the same curvature of the cavity, the cavity deflection H0
varies approximately in proportion to the radius R when varying R. Then
the cavity volume Vc is proportional to the third power of the cavity
radius R when the generatrix exponent Z is constant. Further, the per­
centage reduction kR of the cavity radius can be calculated approxi­
mately by Eq. (25).
√̅̅̅̅
kR = 3 kc (25)
The cylinder head size and weight of a diaphragm compressor are
directly related to the cavity radius. To ensure that the cylinder head has
sufficient stiffness, the cylinder thickness is approximately proportional
to the cavity radius. The weight of the cylinder head is approximately
proportional to the third power of the cavity radius. Then, the per­
centage reduction kG of the cylinder head weight can be calculated by
Eq. (26). The percentage reduction kG of the cylinder head weight is
equal to the percentage reduction kc of the cavity volumes.

kG = kR 3 = kc (26)
Fig. 8. Motion property of the piston rod.

Fig. 7. Movement model of the oil piston.

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S. Ren et al. Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109397

The free moving oil piston design by the proposed method is sub­ calculated, and further, the volumetric efficiency can be obtained,
jected to the combined force of oil pressure, friction and the support including the cavity volumetric efficiency and the piston volumetric
force of the piston rod. The acceleration equation of the piston can be efficiency.
expressed by Eq. (28).
5. Simulation of hydraulic system
1( )
apiston = Foil + FN + Ff (28)
m
The hydraulic system for a diaphragm compressor is simulated and
where m is the mass of the piston, FN is the propulsive force applied to analyzed with an integrated simulation model built on the AMEsim
the piston by the piston rod, Foil is the compression force on the piston platform. The software AMEsim can consider the compressibility of
exerted by the hydraulic oil, and Ff is the frictional force on the piston. hydraulic oil. The integrated simulation model is proven to have a pretty
The piston rod can only apply pressure to the piston, not pull. The piston high degree of precision and a comparatively low cost of computation
receives a thrust when the piston rod comes into contact with it, [46]. The driving force driving the diaphragm deformation is very weak
maintaining the same displacement and acceleration as the piston rod. in comparison to the diaphragm compressor operating pressure, and it
When the contact force between the piston and piston rod is zero, the can be assumed that the oil pressure and gas pressure on either side of
two separate. Therefore, the piston acceleration can also be calculated the diaphragm remain constant. The deformation of the diaphragm is
by: represented by an ideal model that only conveys changes in pressure and
⎧ volume. Consequently, two chambers with linked pressure and volume
⎪ 1( )
can be used to represent the gas cavity and oil cavity. The displacement
⎪
⎨ arod , Foil + Ff > arod
apiston =
m
(29) constraint is applied to the piston rod by an equation. The piston rod
⎪ ( ) ( )
⎩ 1 Foil + Ff , 1 Foil + Ff ≤ arod
⎪ transfers force to the free piston through a certain volume of rigid liquid,
m m simulating the motion and force characteristics of the free piston. The
plunger pump of the refilling oil system is also constrained by the
4. Experimental investigation displacement of the plunger through the equation. Accumulators, spill
valves and check valves are standard hydraulic components of the
Two sets of 90 MPa and 200 MPa diaphragm compressors, respec­ AMEsim platform. The suction and discharge valves are modelled based
tively, were designed with the traditional method and the proposed on the actual passage area, lift, valve disc weight, spring stiffness and
method covered in the previous section. The main design parameters of spring precompression. The simulation model of the diaphragm
the diaphragm compressors designed by the two methods are shown in compressor with a free moving oil piston is shown in Fig. 10. The
Table 1. Through the theoretical analysis, it can be seen that the new simulation model of the diaphragm compressor designed by the tradi­
design method proposed in this study enables the compressor to have tional method is similar to this, only the rigid liquid transmission part is
higher volumetric efficiency. So the compressor designed by the pro­ removed, and the piston rod and the oil piston are rigidly connected.
posed new method requires smaller stroke volume and cavity volume to The 90 MPa and 200 MPa compressors designed by the two methods
achieve the same displacement. described in the previous section were modelled and analyzed, respec­
To verify the feasibility of the proposed design method proposed in tively. The simulation model cavity characteristics and piston diameter
this paper and its superiority compared with the traditional design were set by the diaphragm compressor design parameters. In all models,
method, the 90 MPa compressor and the 200 MPa compressor were the plunger pumps are designed with a diameter of 10 mm, a stroke of 8
manufactured. For each compressor, two sets of cavities designed with mm, and a phase difference of 180 degrees from the oil piston.
two methods were manufactured. The test rig is shown in Fig. 9. The free
moving piston, traditional piston, and oil refilling system with accu­ 6. Results and discussions
mulator and oil pressure protection are also shown in Fig. 9. The pres­
sures and temperatures in the suction and discharge pipes were 6.1. Validation of the design method
measured by piezoresistive pressure sensors with an accuracy of ±0.25
% and PT100 temperature sensors with an accuracy of ±0.35 ◦ C. The Fig. 11 depicts the measured and simulated oil pressure curves of the
dynamic oil pressure in the oil cavity was measured by a dynamic 90 MPa diaphragm compressor with the proposed design method. The
pressure sensor, set in the oil cylinder. Its response frequency was up to blue curve was the oil pressure curve measured in the experiment. There
10 kHz, much higher than the frequency of the compressor. The dynamic were large fluctuations in the suction process because the suction gas
oil pressure was transmitted to the computer via the data acquisition pressure fluctuates relatively large in a diaphragm compressor, and the
system, which was built with an NI 9223 module plugged into a oil pressure and gas pressure maintained an accompanying relationship.
cDAQ9174 chassis and software. To measure the actual flow of the two Due to the compressor actual cooling impact, the compression process
compressors, an RHEONIK Coriolis mass flow meter was installed on the index of the measured oil pressure curve deviated somewhat from the
suction pipe of the 200 MPa unit and the discharge pipe of the 90 MPa simulation results. However, overall, the simulated results and the
unit, whose accuracy was ±0.5 %. The gas density of the suction states actual oil pressure curve agreed pretty well. This demonstrated the
could be calculated by the physical property query software. Then, the correctness of the simulation model, which may be used to investigate
volumetric flow rate of the suction state of the compressor could be and assess the suitability of the diaphragm compressor design.
Additionally, a “zero pressure process” was seen at the end of the
suction process in both the measured and simulation results. Fig. 12
Table 1
Design parameters of the diaphragm compressors. depicts the simulated oil pressure curve, piston displacement and air
cavity volume of the newly designed 90 MPa diaphragm compressor,
Method Traditional Traditional Proposed Proposed
explaining the occurrence of the ‘zero pressure’ stage. The oil pressure
Suction pressure (MPa) 30 67 30 67 drives the oil piston to move to the BDC during the suction process. At
Discharge pressure (MPa) 90 200 90 200
the same time, the gas cavity volume increases, and fresh gas is sucked
Flow rate (Nm3/h) 500 200 500 200
Speed (rpm) 420 420 420 420 into the gas cavity. The piston has not yet reached the BDC position
Stroke (mm) 180 180 180 180 when the diaphragm makes contact with the oil plate since the cavity
Oil piston Diameter (mm) 38 24 37 21 volume is specially designed to take oil compressibility into consider­
Stroke volume (mm3) 204,037 81,389 193,440 62,313 ation and is smaller than the piston stroke volume. The gas cavity vol­
Cavity volume (mm3) 234,643 93,597 133,715 30,360
ume stays constant while the piston keeps moving. Then the oil volume

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S. Ren et al. Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109397

Fig. 9. Test rig for diaphragm compressor performance.

Fig. 10. Simulation model of the diaphragm compressor with a free moving oil piston.

increases rapidly and the oil pressure decreases rapidly. When the oil oil piston. According to the traditional design approach, a one-way valve
pressure drops to zero, the oil pressure can no longer drive the oil piston connected the plunger pump directly to the compressor oil cavity. The
to move, the oil piston is separated from the piston rod, and the ‘zero one-way valve was pulled back to replenish the oil in the oil cavity when
pressure’ stage occurs. After moving by itself to the BDC, the piston rod the oil pressure of the plunger pump was higher than the pressure in the
then moves to the TDC. It begins to drive the oil piston upward once it oil cavity. However, as depicted in Fig. 13(a) and (c), the high-pressure
reaches the piston stop position, compressing the gas in the gas cavity diaphragm compressor expansion process took up a sizable angle. The
and finishing a working cycle. The simulation results are consistent with plunger pump began pumping oil during the compressor expansion
the principle of the proposed design method suggested in this work, process, during which the oil pressure of the oil cavity decreased and the
proving the feasibility of this design method. oil pressure of the pump increased. When the pump pressure reached the
cavity pressure, the one-way valve opened to refill the oil. The oil
pressure of the plunger pump would rise to a higher pressure state,
6.2. Refilling oil characteristic of two methods
which was higher than the suction pressure. Then the oil pressure of the
pump was reduced to the suction pressure together with the oil pressure
Fig. 13 depicts the refilling plunger pump dynamic oil pressure and
of the oil cavity until the plunger reached its TDC, and the oil refilling
flow rate for the two design methods. To replenish oil as much as was completed. In the case of this study, the oil pressure of the refilling
possible during the suction process and lower the pump working pres­
plunger pump of the 90 MPa diaphragm compressor would increase to
sure, the pumps were designed to be 180 degrees out of phase with the

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S. Ren et al. Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109397

(a) 90 MPa compressor with the traditional method

Fig. 11. Measured and simulated oil pressure of the 90 MPa dia­
phragm compressor.

(b) 90 MPa compressor with the proposed method

Fig. 12. Measured oil pressure and piston displacement.

51 MPa, and to 99 MPa for the 200 MPa compressor, which was not good
for the plunger pump operation.
Using the proposed design method, the oil pumped by the plunger
pump was first stored in the accumulator and then refilled to the oil (c) 200 MPa compressor with the traditional method
cavity through the one-way valve. Oil in the accumulator was quickly
refilled to the oil cavity when the oil pressure in the compressor oil
cavity abruptly dropped to zero, as shown in Fig. 13(b) and (d). The
working pressure of the plunger pump was determined by the accu­
mulator, which was 1.3 MPa in this study. This demonstrated that the
working pressure of the plunger pump could be significantly lowered by
this design. In particular, for the 200 MPa diaphragm compressor, the
pump working pressure was decreased from 99 MPa to 1.3 MPa, which
was beneficial for the steady operation of the compressor.

6.3. Volumetric efficiency comparison of two design methods

Fig. 14 depicts the volumetric efficiency of 90 MPa and 250 MPa

diaphragm compressors designed by two methods. With the proposed
design method, both compressor cavity volumetric efficiency was (d) 200 MPa compressor with the proposed method
significantly increased compared to the traditional method. Fig. 15 de­
Fig. 13. Oil pressure and flow rate at the refilling plunger pump.
picts the dynamic change process of the compressor gas cavity volume.
In the traditional method, the cavity volume is intended to be suffi­
ciently large and the compressibility of the oil is not taken into account

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S. Ren et al. Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109397

increased from 0.19 to 0.64, a 2.37-time increase.

It was also noted that there was a slight increase in piston volumetric
efficiency when using the proposed method. It is clear from Eqs. (9) and
(10) that the total oil volume V0 has a negative effect on the piston
volumetric efficiency. By using the proposed design method, the cavity
volume is deceased, and the overall size of the cylinder head is reduced,
resulting in a reduction in total oil volume and an increase in piston
volumetric efficiency. Similarly, oil compressibility has a more signifi­
cant influence at higher operating pressures and increases piston volu­
metric efficiency by a larger percentage.

7. Conclusions

A new design method with a free moving oil piston is proposed in this
paper, to create high-performance high-pressure diaphragm compres­
sors. To further examine and verify the superiority of this method, a 90
MPa and a 200 MPa diaphragm compressor designed with this method
were produced and tested and the simulation study was conducted
simultaneously. The following conclusions can be made.
Fig. 14. Volumetric efficiency of two methods.
(1) This paper proposed a new design method for diaphragm com­
pressors. The oil piston of the newly designed compressor is in a
to ensure that the diaphragm does not collide with the oil plate. As a
state of free moving and is affected by the combined action of the
result, the gas cavity volume at the end of the suction is significantly less
piston rod and oil pressure. Through the new cavity design
than the total cavity volume, resulting in the cavity capacity not being
method considering oil compressibility, the oil piston and piston
effectively utilized under high-pressure conditions. In this investigation,
rod can be separated and a ‘zero pressure’ occurs at the end of the
the 90 MPa diaphragm compressor designed cavity volume was
suction process. The validity of the design method was confirmed
234,643 mm3, yet the gas cavity at the end of suction was only 135,409
by designing and producing two diaphragm compressors for
mm3, just 58 % of the cavity volume. The 200 MPa diaphragm
comparison, accompanied by a simulation study. The experi­
compressor designed cavity volume was 93,597 mm3, while the gas
mental results and simulated results were both consistent with
cavity at the end of suction was only 31,115 mm3, only 33 % of the
the principle of the proposed design method, demonstrating the
cavity volume. In the proposed method, the diaphragm is specifically
viability and accuracy of the proposed method.
made to fit the oil plate because of the unique free piston design. This
(2) This paper optimized the oil refilling system of the high-pressure
makes the gas cavity volume equal to the total cavity volume at the end
diaphragm compressor so that the refilling pump could refill oil
of suction, enabling efficient use of the cavity volume. With this pro­
into the oil cavity during the “zero pressure” stage. This method
posed design method, the compressibility of the hydraulic oil does not
could effectively reduce the working pressure of the refilling
affect the cavity volumetric efficiency, which is only impacted by the
pump. In this example, the working pressures of the refilling
clearance volume, suction heating, and pressure loss. The 90 MPa dia­
pumps of the 90 MPa and 200 MPa diaphragm compressors were
phragm compressor had a 78 % increase in cavity volume efficiency,
reduced from 51 MPa and 99 MPa to 1.3 MPa, respectively.
going from 0.37 to 0.66. The compressibility was more significant and
(3) This design method optimized the cavity volume design with
this proposed method was more effective at a higher working pressure of
consideration of the oil compressibility, which considerably
the compressor. The 250 MPa compressor cavity volumetric efficiency
enhanced the cavity volume efficiency, and improved compressor

Fig. 15. Gas cavity volume change process.

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S. Ren et al. Journal of Energy Storage 74 (2023) 109397

economy. In the case of this study, it improved the cavity volu­ Europe on hydrogen refuelling station (70 MPa) according to ISO 14687 and EN
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Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft. Xiaohan Jia: [21] S. Ren, X. Jia, J. Jiang, S. Zhang, B. Zhao, X. Peng, Effect of hydraulic oil
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[22] H. Zhou, P. Dong, S. Zhao, M. Geng, Y. Guo, Y. Wang, Interrupted plate porous
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Declaration of competing interest [23] H. Zhou, P. Dong, S. Zhu, S. Li, S. Zhao, Y. Wang, Design and theoretical analysis of
a liquid piston hydrogen compressor, J. Energy Storage 41 (2021), 102861.
[24] Y. Jin, Y. Guo, S. Zhang, J. Jiang, X. Peng, Study on the dynamic characteristics of
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial the free piston in the ionic liquid compressor for hydrogen refuelling stations by
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the fluid-structure interaction modelling, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 48 (2023)
25410–25422.
the work reported in this paper.
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Development Program of Shandong [grant number 2021CXGC010203]. MPa hydrogen thermally driven compressor based on cyclic adsorption-desorption
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