PCA R&D Serial No.

2604

Use of Fly Ash in Concrete: Normal and

High Volume Ranges
by Medgar L. Marceau, John Gajda, and Martha VanGeem

©Portland Cement Association 2002

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This information is copyright protected. PCA grants permission to electronically share this document with other
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 USE OF FLY ASH IN CONCRETE: NORMAL AND
HIGH VOLUME RANGES
by Medgar L. Marceau, John Gajda, and Martha VanGeem *

INTRODUCTION
The use of fly ash in concrete can reduce the environmental impact of concrete and can improve
certain properties of concrete. Cement is a manufactured product and its manufacturing process
is energy intensive. Fly ash is a by-product of burning coal and it is usually disposed of in land-
fills. When fly ash is used to replace some of the cement in concrete, less total energy is used to
make concrete † and less material is put into landfills.

CONCRETE
Concrete is a composite material made of aggregate (sand and gravel) and a binder.[1] The most
common binder is portland cement. Supplementary cementitious material such as fly ash, silica
fume, and blast furnace slag are increasingly being used to replace a portion of the binder.[2]
By volume, a concrete mix typically consists of 10 to 15 percent binder (cementitious ma-
terial), 60 to 75 percent aggregate, and 15 to 20 percent water. Air voids that are intentionally
entrapped in many concrete mixes may also take up another 5 to 8 percent. The constituents and
proportions of concrete mixes are varied to achieve specific requirements of individual projects.

PORTLAND CEMENT
Portland cement is manufactured to meet strict product standards.[3] To manufacture cement, raw
materials such as limestone (a source of calcium) as well as clay and sand (sources of silica,
alumina, and iron) are mined and transported to the manufacturing facility. The raw materials are
ground together and then heated in a rotating kiln at 1,500°C (2,700°F). At this temperature, the
raw materials partially melt and recombine chemically to produce an intermediate material called
clinker. Once cooled, the clinker is ground with a little gypsum into a very fine powder. This
very fine gray powder is portland cement.
An average of 4.8 gigajoules ‡ of fuel energy is required to produce enough clinker to make
one metric ton of portland cement (this is equivalent to 4.1 million Btu per ton of cement).[4] The
energy comes from burning coal, petroleum coke, natural gas, and/or post consumer wastes. This
generates waste gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2 ). Furthermore, one of the main chemical re-
actions in the kiln is the calcination of limestone—reducing limestone from CaCO3 to CaO plus
CO2 . So in total, for every metric ton of cement produced, about 900 kilograms of CO2 are re-
leased to the atmosphere (this is equivalent to 1,800 pounds of CO2 per ton of cement).

* Project Assistant, Senior Engineer, and Principal Engineer, respectively at Construction Technology Laboratories,
Inc. (CTL), 5420 Old Orchard Road, Skokie, IL 60077, Phone: 847-965-7500, www.CTLgroup.com
† Total energy associated with concrete, including manufacturing and transporting constituents of concrete.
‡ 1 gigajoule is equivalent to the heat produced from burning approximately 40 kilograms of coal, and 1 million Btu
is equivalent to the heat produced from burning approximately 90 pounds of coal.

April 26, 2002 -2- Construction Technology Laboratories, Inc.

FLY ASH AND ITS USE
Fly ash is a by-product of burning coal to generate electricity. It is a fine powder that is filtered
out from emissions that otherwise would have gone out the exhaust stack and into the atmos-
phere.
Fly ash is generally available throughout the United States; however, it is more widely
available east of the Mississippi River. About 60 million metric tons (66 million tons) of fly ash
were generated in 1999, of which, approximately 67% was landfilled.[5]
Fly ash varies in composition and carbon content. Regulations from the United States En-
vironmental Protection Agency to reduce air pollutants (such as nitrogen oxides and sulfur dio x-
ide) have resulted in an increase in the unburned carbon content of fly ash. With the continued
implementation of these regulations, carbon contents of many fly ashes have increased dramati-
cally and some fly ashes may become contaminated with ammonia.[6]
Fly ash can be used directly in concrete as an additive in a blended cement or as a raw ma-
terial in cement manufacture. In all cases, the fly ash must have specific chemical and physical
properties.[7]
When fly ash is used in concrete, it commonly replaces a portion of the portland cement.
The two types of fly ash used in concrete are Class F and Class C. Class F fly ash is a by-product
of burning bituminous coal, which is generally found in the eastern portion of the United States.
Class F fly ash is high in iron, silica, and alumina, but low in calcium. It is a glassy material that
needs to be activated by either cement or lime.
Class C fly ash is a by-product of burning sub-bituminous coal and lignite. It is higher in
calcium content than Class F fly ash. Concrete with Class C fly ash generally develops strength
much faster than concrete with Class F fly ash. For this reason, many ready- mix concrete suppli-
ers prefer Class C fly ash to Class F fly ash.
Fly ash for use in concrete that will be subject to freezing and thawing should have low
levels of unburned carbon in order to achieve an adequate air content. Specifications typically
limit the unburned carbon content to a maximum of 6%; however, market forces currently limit
this to less tha n 1%.
Fly ash can also be interground or blended with portland cement to make a blended ce-
[8, 9]
ment. According to ASTM C595, the maximum fly ash content of a blended cement is
40%.[8] If additional fly ash or other supplementary cementitious materials are to be added to
concrete containing blended cements, pre-testing should be performed to ensure that the engi-
neering properties and durability of the concrete is not compromised. However, most blended
cements today are designed to be used with additional fly ash added at the concrete plant.
Fly ash that is not suitable for direct use in concrete is sometimes used as a raw material for
portland cement manufacture.[6] When used in this regard, the fly ash is allowed to have a high
unburned carbon content, but it must be chemically compatible with the needs of the cement
plant and it must be economically viable. The most important factor determining economic vi-
ability is the cost of transporting the fly ash from a coal power plant to the cement manufacturing
plant.

April 26, 2002 -3- Construction Technology Laboratories, Inc.

FLY ASH IN CONCRETE
Fly ash is commonly used as a partial replacement for portland cement—or as an addition to
portland cement—because it can enhance the placement, engineering properties, and durability
of concrete.
Typical amounts of fly ash in conc rete range from 15 to 25% by weight of the total ceme n-
titious materials, that is, the total of cement, fly ash, and other supplementary cementitious mate-
rials. Higher amounts of fly ash have been successfully used for specific applications on limited
projects.
The amount of fly ash should be tailored to the specific constraints and requirements of in-
dividual applications. Some agencies limit the maximum fly ash content to 15% for all con-
crete.[10] For concrete exposed to deicing chemicals, the maximum fly ash content is limited to
25%§ . [11] Special provisions for a particular project may increase the fly ash content of concrete
for specific applications and needs.
Concrete has been successfully placed with up to 50% fly ash. [12] In some rare cases, con-
crete has been successfully placed with up to 80% fly ash. These mixes may use specific fly
ashes that may not be readily available. Strength development is generally slower so construction
schedules must accommodate the extra time required before forms and sho ring are removed. De-
icer scaling resistance has been noted to be poor.[13] Special precautions may also be needed in
cold weather to ensure adequate strength development. Because this type of concrete is typically
outside current specifications, the amount of pretesting that must be done to ensure durable con-
crete and satisfy building codes makes this concrete more expensive.[14] Caution is recommended
for applications using concrete with high fly ash concentrations.
Incorporating fly ash in concrete can enhance the properties of concrete. Reported im-
provements to the properties of fresh concrete during placement include enhanced workability,
reduced bleed water, and reduced slump loss. For hardened concrete fly ash can also increase the
long-term strength, decrease the permeability, increase the durability, reduce the potential for
sulfate attack, reduce the heat of hydration, reduce the potential for alkali-silica reactivity, and
reduce shrinkage cracking. These positive aspects of incorporating fly ash in concrete are gene r-
alized; adding the wrong type or amount of fly ash can be detrimental to concrete.
Since fly ash properties vary, the project contractor and the concrete producer and should
exercise sufficient judgment, testing, and control procedures to ensure good concrete perform-
ance.

SUMMARY
The use of fly ash in concrete can reduce the environmental impact of concrete and can actually
improve the quality of the concrete. Fly ash is commonly used in concrete in proportions of 15 to
25% of the cementitious materials. It is used for economic reasons and to enhance the properties
of concrete. Fly ash must conform to certain chemical and physical standards to be suitable for
use in concrete. Since fly ash properties vary, the project contractor and the concrete producer
and should exercise sufficient judgment, testing, and control procedures to ensure good concrete

§ This is the general limit. The fly ash content can be increased if resistance to deicer chemicals is demonstrated in
laboratory or field tests. However, a 25% content may be too high for some fly ashes, aggravating scaling. In any
case, the maximum water to cementitious materials ratio should not exceed 0.45.

April 26, 2002 -4- Construction Technology Laboratories, Inc.

performance. Due to EPA pollution control regulations, less fly ash may be available in the fu-
ture that is suitable for use in concrete.
If it is intended to encourage the use of fly ash in a particular project, the project specifica-
tions should carefully explain the concrete quality required and the limits on amounts of fly ash.
Limits are placed based on experience and concrete performance in the field or laboratory. Con-
tact your local ready- mix concrete supplier to determine what fly ash is available and to verify its
performance in quality concrete.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research reported in this paper was conducted by Construction Technology Laboratories,
Inc, with the sponsorship of the Portland Cement Association (PCA R&D Serial No. 2604). The
contents of this paper reflect the views of the authors, who are responsible for the facts and accu-
racy of the data presented. The contents do not necessarily reflect the views of the Portland Ce-
ment Association.

REFERENCES
1. Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures – 14th Edition, Portland Cement Association,
Skokie, IL, 2002.
2. Survey of Mineral Admixtures and Blended Cements in Ready Mixed Concrete, Portland Ce-
ment Association, Skokie, IL, 2000.
3. ASTM C150-00, “Standard Specification for Portland Cement,” American Society for Test-
ing and Materials (ASTM), West Conshohocken, PA, 2001.
4. Nisbet, Michael A., VanGeem, Martha G., Gajda, John, and Marceau, Medgar L., “Environ-
mental Life Cycle Inventory of Portland Cement Concrete,” PCA R&D No. 2137, Portland
Cement Association, Skokie, IL, June 2000.
5. “1999 Coal Combustion Product (CCP) Production and Use (Short Tons),” American Coal
Ash Association, 6940 South Kings Highway, Suite 207, Alexandria, VA.
6. CTL’s ongoing fly ash in cement manufacture projects for the Illinois Clean Coal Institute,
ICCI Project Nos. 01-1/3.1B-1, 00-1/3.1A-1, 99-1/2.1A-1, and 98-1/3.1C-2, Illinois Clean
Coal Institute, Carterville, IL, 1998-2002.
7. ASTM C 618-00, “Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural
Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Concrete,” American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM), West Conshohocken, PA, 2001.
8. ASTM C 595-00, “Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements,” American Soci-
ety for Testing and Materials (ASTM), West Conshohocken, PA, 2001.
9. ASTM C1157-00, “Standard Performance Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cement,”
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), West Conshohocken, PA, 2001.
10. Standard Specifications – State of California Business, Transportation, and Housing Agency,
California Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA 1999.

April 26, 2002 -5- Construction Technology Laboratories, Inc.

11. ACI 318-99, “Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete,” American Concrete In-
stitute (ACI), Farmington Hills, MI, 2000.
12. Proctor, D., “How Much Fly Ash,” Concrete Construction, Vol. 46, No. 12, December 2001,
pp 59-63.
13. Malhotra, V. M., and Ramezanianpour, A. A., Fly ash in Concrete – 2nd Edition, Publication
No. MSL 94-45(IR), CANMET, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 1994.
14. Personal communication between Al Kaufman of RMC Pacific Materials and John Gajda of
CTL, September 20, 2001.

April 26, 2002 -6- Construction Technology Laboratories, Inc.