Operant conditioning not reinforced every time they perform

the desired behavior.

Organisms learn to associate a behavior and
its consequence. A pleasant consequence Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules
makes that behavior more likely to be
 Fixed Interval: Behavior is rewarded
repeated.
after a set amount of time.
Shaping: A process of reinforcing  Variable Interval: Reinforcement is
approximations of the targeted behavior based on varying, unpredictable amounts
until the organism performs the desired of time.
action.  Fixed Ratio: A set number of responses
must occur before the behavior is
Reinforcement: The process of
rewarded.
strengthening behavior through reinforcers.
 Variable Ratio: The number of
Types of Reinforcement responses needed for a reward varies.
 Phenomenon: The presentation uses
 Positive Reinforcement: Introducing a
various images to illustrate the concepts
pleasant stimulus (reward) to increase
and examples of operant conditioning.
the repetition of a behavior.
 Negative Reinforcement: Removing an Cognitive Development
unpleasant stimulus to increase the
Piaget viewed cognitive development as a
likelihood of repeating a behavior.
gradual reorganization of mental processes
 Punishment: The process of decreasing
influenced by maturation and environmental
the likelihood of repeating a previous
experiences.
behavior.
Stages of Development
Types of Punishment
1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years old):
 Positive Punishment: Introducing an
Infants “think” through their senses and
aversive stimulus (unpleasant stimulus)
motor actions.
to decrease the behavior.
2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years old):
 Negative Punishment: Withdrawing or
Children develop symbolic
removing something desirable to
representation but lack logical
decrease undesirable behavior.
organization.
Reinforcement Schedules 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years
old): Children can reason logically about
 Continuous Reinforcement: The
tangible objects and events.
quickest way to teach a behavior,
4. Formal Operational Stage (12 years old
especially effective in training a new
and beyond): Children develop the
behavior.
ability to reason about abstract and
 Partial Reinforcement (Intermittent
hypothetical concepts.
Reinforcement): The person or animal is
Key Concepts of Cognitive Development
Schema: Mental and physical actions Carl Rogers (1902-1987): Self Theory or
involved in understanding and knowing. Person-Centered Theory
Assimilation: Incorporating new Person-Centered Theory
information into existing schemas.
Evolution of the Term: Rogers’s approach
Accommodation: Modifying existing was initially known as “nondirective”
schemas to accommodate new information. therapy, later evolving to “client-centered,”
“person-centered,” “student-centered,”
Equilibration: Balancing assimilation and
“group-centered,” and “person to person.”
accommodation to achieve cognitive
The presentation uses “client-centered” to
harmony.
refer to his therapy and “person-centered”
Theory of Moral Development by for his broader personality theory.
Lawrence Kohlberg
o Client-Centered Therapy: Rogers
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development: developed a non-directive therapy
approach where clients take the lead in
Level 1: Pre-Conventional Morality
exploring their concerns and solutions.
 Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment This method aims to remove obstacles
Orientation: Individuals follow rules to and facilitate personal growth and
avoid punishment. development.
 Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange: o Focus on the Individual: Rogers
Individuals act in their own self-interest, believed that individuals possess the
seeking rewards. inherent capacity for growth and self-
actualization. He emphasized the
Level 2: Conventional Morality
importance of understanding the client’s
 Stage 3: Good Interpersonal subjective experience and creating a
Relationships: Individuals value social therapeutic environment of empathy,
approval and maintain good acceptance, and genuineness.
relationships.
Basic Assumptions
 Stage 4: Maintaining the Social Order:
Individuals uphold laws and respect Formative Tendency: Rogers believed in a
authority to maintain social order. universal tendency for matter to evolve from
simpler to more complex forms. He called
Level 3: Post-Conventional Morality
this the “formative tendency” and used
 Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual examples from nature, such as the formation
Rights: Individuals recognize the of galaxies, crystals, and organisms.
importance of individual rights and
Actualizing Tendency: This is the core
social contracts.
assumption of Rogers’s theory, stating that
 Stage 6: Universal Principles:
all humans have an innate drive to move
Individuals adhere to universal
towards self-actualization and fulfillment of
principles of justice and equality.
their potential. This tendency is the sole or “Me.” Parental influence plays a
motive for human behavior, encompassing significant role in shaping the self.
all aspects of the individual.
The Fully Functioning Person
Contributions to Psychology
Self-Actualization: Rogers believed that
Humanistic Perspective: Rogers embraced people have an actualizing tendency, a drive
Abraham Maslow’s humanistic ideas, to reach their full potential.
emphasizing the inherent goodness and
Characteristics of a Fully Functioning
potential of individuals.
Person
Client-Centered Therapy: He developed a
Openness to Experiences: Being receptive
revolutionary approach to therapy, shifting
to new ideas, perspectives, and sensations.
the focus from therapist-directed
interventions to client-led exploration and Existential Living: Living in the present
growth. moment, embracing uncertainty, and taking
responsibility for choices.
Importance of Environment: Rogers
believed that a supportive environment with Self-Trust: Believing in one’s abilities,
genuineness, acceptance, and empathy is instincts, and judgment.
crucial for personal growth and
Sense of Freedom: Feeling autonomous and
development.
self-determined, free from external
Self-Actualization: He emphasized the pressures.
concept of self-actualization, the process of
Creativity: Thinking outside the box,
becoming the best version of oneself, and
generating new ideas, and expressing
identified factors that contribute to its
oneself uniquely.
achievement.
The Self-Concept
Structures of Personality
Organismic Self: The innate, biological self,
The Organism: The total organism
the core of our being.
encompasses all potential experiences,
striving to actualize and maintain itself. Ideal Self: Our vision of who we would like
to be, our aspirations and goals.
The Phenomenological Field: This is the
individual’s perceived reality, shaped by Congruence: The alignment between our
their perceptual system. Understanding self-concept and experiences, leading to
behavior requires considering the harmony and authenticity.
individual’s internal frame of reference.
Incongruence: The discrepancy between
The Self: This differentiated part of the our self-concept and experiences, causing
phenomenological field consists of anxiety, vulnerability, and defensiveness.
conscious perceptions and values of the “I”
Levels of Awareness
1. Below the Threshold of Awareness: Anxiety: Incongruence disrupts our sense of
Experiences that are ignored or denied. wholeness and integration, leading to
2. Accurate Symbolization: Experiences anxiety and tension.
that are freely admitted to the self-
Threat: Incongruence challenges our sense
structure.
of identity and can lead to feelings of
3. Distorted Perception: Experiences that
insecurity and fear.
are reshaped or distorted to fit the
existing self-concept. Defensiveness and Disorganization
Denial of Positive Experiences To protect their self-concept, individuals
may employ defenses, such as denial or
Individuals may distort or deny positive
distortion of experiences, leading to
experiences, such as compliments, because
disorganization.
they don’t feel deserving or trust the giver.
Becoming a Person
Properties of the Self
Contact with Others: Essential for
becoming a person, leading to the Organismic Self: The innate, biological
development of a need for positive regard. self, striving for growth and actualization.
Positive Regard: The experience of being Self-Concept: Our conscious perception of
loved, liked, or accepted by others. ourselves, shaped by interactions with
others.
Positive Self-Regard: Prizing and valuing
oneself, becoming independent of external Ideal Self: Our vision of who we would like
approval. to be.
Conditions of Worth Congruence: Alignment between self-
concept and experiences.
When positive regard is conditional,
individuals develop conditions of worth, Self-Actualization: The innate tendency
believing they are valued only if they meet towards growth and fulfillment.
certain expectations. These conditions can
Need for Positive Regard: The need for
lead to a distorted self-concept and a
acceptance, love, and respect from others.
disconnect from the organismic self.
Need for Unconditional Positive Self-
Incongruence and Its Consequences
Regard: The ability to accept and love
Vulnerability: A mismatch between our ourselves unconditionally.
self-concept and experiences creates
Social Cognitive Theory
vulnerability, a fear of being seen for who
we truly are. An interpersonal level theory developed by
Albert Bandura that emphasizes the dynamic
interaction between people (personal
factors), their behavior, and their Person- Cognitive factors, including beliefs,
environments. That humans are quite values, and self-efficacy.
flexible and capable of learning a multitude
Bandura means largely, but not exclusively,
of attitudes, skills, and behaviors and that a
such cognitive factors as memory,
good bit of those learnings are a result of
anticipation, planning, and judging.
vicarious experiences.
Self-Efficacy- refers to an individual’s
Observational Learning
belief in their ability to perform actions that
Learning occurs through observation, will produce desired outcomes. Self-efficacy
particularly by observing others’ plays a crucial role in shaping behavior,
behaviors, their consequences, and their motivation, and resilience.
reactions. Observation allows people to
According to Bandura, “people’s beliefs in
learn without performing any behavior.
their personal efficacy influence what
Modeling courses of action they choose to pursue,
how much effort they will invest in
Learning through modeling involves adding
activities, how long they will persevere in
and subtracting from the observed behavior
the face of obstacles and failure
and generalizing from one observation to
experiences, and their resiliency following
another.
setbacks”
Attention- Paying attention to the model’s
Sources of Self-Efficacy
behavior.
Mastery Experiences- Past successes and
Memory(representation)- Remembering
accomplishments.
the observed behavior.
Social Modeling- Observing others succeed
Imitation (Reproduction)- Replicating the
in similar situations.
behavior.
Social Persuasion- Encouragement and
Motivation-Having the desire to perform
support from others.
the behavior.
Physiological and Emotional States-
Triadic Reciprocal Causation
Physical and emotional well-being.
This system assumes that human action is a
Human Agency
result of an interaction among three
variables—environment, behavior, and Refers to individuals’ capacity to exercise
person. Continuous interaction between control over their lives.
behavior, environment, and personal factors.
Core Features of Human Agency
Behavior- Actions and responses.
Intentionality- Acting with purpose and
Environment- Social and physical making conscious choices.
surroundings.
Forethought- Planning, setting goals, and when those precepts are converted to
anticipating outcomes. action. In other words, self-regulator
influences are not automatic but operate
Self-Reactiveness- Monitoring and
only if they are activated, a concept
regulating one’s actions based on self-set
Bandura calls selective activation.
standards.
Redefining the Behavior
Self-Reflectiveness- Evaluating one’s
motivations, goals, and the adequacy of Moral Justification- People rationalize
one’s thinking. their actions by appealing to a higher moral
purpose, making them seem defensible or
Self-Regulation
even noble.
Involves the process of controlling one’s
Palliative Comparison- Individuals
behavior through both external and internal
compare their actions to more egregious
factors.
acts, making them seem less severe.
External Factors- Environmental standards
Euphemistic Labeling- Using neutral
and reinforcement systems.
language or euphemisms to downplay the
Internal Factors- Personal factors severity of the action.

Internal Requirements of self-influence Dehumanize or Blame the Victims

Self-Observation- Monitoring one’s Dehumanization- Making victims seem less

performance and actions. deserving of respect or compassion.

Judgmental Processes- Evaluating one’s Attribution of Blame- Blaming victims for

actions based on personal standards and their own suffering.
comparing them to referential performances.
Displace or Diffuse Responsibility
Self-Reaction- Self-reinforcement or self-
Displacement- Placing responsibility on an
punishment based on the evaluation of one’s
outside source. Diffusion- Spreading
actions.
responsibility so thinly that no one person is
Self-Regulation Through Moral Agency accountable.

People also regulate their actions through Dysfunctional Behavior

moral standards of conduct. Bandura
Depression- High personal standards can
(1999a) sees moral agency as having two
lead to depression when individuals fail to
aspects.
meet them, often due to distorted self-
 doing no harm to people and observation, faulty judgments, and harsh
 proactively helping people. self-reactions.

Bandura (2002) insists that moral Phobias- Learned through direct contact,
precepts predict moral behavior only generalization, and observation, phobias are
maintained by avoiding the fear-producing fear. Systematic Desensitization- Gradually
object. exposing individuals to fear-producing
situations while in a relaxed state.
Aggression- Acquired through observation,
reinforcement, and beliefs, aggression is Classical Conditioning Ivan Petrovich
perpetuated by various factors, including Pavlov
enjoyment of inflicting harm, avoiding
Classical Conditioning- A simple form of
consequences, and observing others being
learning where an organism learns to
rewarded for aggression.
associate and anticipate events. A neutral
THE BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT stimulus comes to evoke a response that is
typically evoked by another stimulus
To investigate how children learn aggressive
through repeated pairings.
behavior.
Key Concepts
Group 1 Aggressive Model Group
Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus
These children watched an adult model
that naturally elicits a response without prior
behave aggressively towards a Bobo doll,
learning.
punching, kicking, and yelling at it.
Unconditioned Response (UR): The natural,
Group 2 Non-Aggressive Model Group
unlearned response to the unconditioned
These children observed an adult playing stimulus.
with the Bobo doll in a non-aggressive
Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that does
manner, ignoring any aggressive behavior.
not initially elicit the unconditioned
Group 3 Control Group response.

These children did not observe any model at Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously
all. neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairings
with the unconditioned stimulus, comes to
Therapy
elicit a conditioned response.
Social Cognitive Therapy- Aims to achieve
Conditioned Response (CR): The learned
self-regulation by inducing behavioral
response to the conditioned stimulus, often
changes, generalizing them to other
similar to the unconditioned response.
situations, and maintaining them to prevent
relapse. Process of Conditioning:

Treatment Approaches - Acquisition: The process of learning the

association between the conditioned
Modeling- Observing live or filmed models
stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus
performing threatening activities. Cognitive
through repeated pairings.
Modeling- Visualizing models performing
fearsome behaviors. Enactive Mastery- - Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens
Performing behaviors that previously caused or increases the probability of a response.
- Extinction: The gradual weakening and - Bell-and-Pad Treatment for Bedwetting:
disappearance of the conditioned response Children learn to wake up in response to
when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly bladder tension.
presented without the unconditioned
- Classical Conditioning of Fear:
stimulus.
Influences emotional responses such as
- Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance phobias, disgust, nausea, anger, and sexual
of the conditioned response after a period of arousal.
extinction.
- Conditioned Taste Aversions: An
- Generalization: The tendency for a avoidance of certain foods due to an
conditioned response to be elicited by association with illness.
stimuli that are similar to the conditioned
- Flooding: Exposure to a fear-evoking
stimulus.
stimulus until the fear response is
- Discrimination: The ability to distinguish extinguished.
between the conditioned stimulus and
- Systematic Desensitization: Gradual
similar stimuli that do not predict the
exposure to fear-evoking stimuli under
unconditioned stimulus.
relaxed conditions.
- Higher-Order Conditioning: A previously
- Counterconditioning: Replacing a fear
neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned
response with a pleasant response by pairing
stimulus by being paired with an already
a pleasant stimulus with a fear-evoking
established conditioned stimulus.
object.
- Semantic Conditioning: The use of words
Rescola-Wagner Model- A model of
as conditioned stimuli.
classical conditioning that suggests learning
occurs based on the discrepancy between
what is expected to happen and what
Types of Classical Conditioning:
actually happens.
- Delayed Conditioning: The conditioned
stimulus is presented before the
unconditioned stimulus and remains present
until the response occurs.
- Trace Conditioning: The conditioned
stimulus is presented and removed before
the unconditioned stimulus is presented.
- Simultaneous Conditioning: The
conditioned stimulus and unconditioned
stimulus are presented at the same time.
Applications of Classical Conditioning: