MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

WESTERN PROVINCE
KARONGI DISTRICT
RUBENGERA SECTOR
GS BUBAZI

S6 GENERAL STUDIES AND

COMMUNICATION SKILLS
NOTES

Updated in January, 2024 by Teacher IRUMVA EMMANUEL

For more Information : [email protected]/0784591180
TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT 1: GENOCIDE

UNIT 2: DEMOCRACY AND GOOD GOVERNANCE

UNIT 3: NATIONAL SERVICE AND SELF RELIANCE

UNIT 4: PLURALISM IN THE WORLD

UNIT 5: COMMUNICATION, INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND COOPERATION.

UNIT 6: HOW TO MANAGE MONEY

UNIT 7: TRANSPORT, EMPLOYMENT, UNEMPLOYMENT, AND THEIR IMPACT ON

THE ECONOMY.

UNIT 8: INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS COOPERATION AND

DEVELOPMENT.

UNIT 9: FINANCIAL SCAMS

UNIT 10: ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY FARMING FOR SUSTAINABLE FOOD

PRODUCTION.

UNIT 11: USES AND APPLICATIONS OF MATHEMATICS IN DAILY LIFE.

UNIT 12: GLOBAL MEDIA RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

UNIT 13: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TOURISM AND CULTURE

UNIT 14: GENDER AND SOCIETY

………………………………………………………………………
 UNIT 1: GENOCIDE
1.1 CONCEPT OF GENOCIDE

1.1. DEFINITION OF A GENOCIDE

 Genocide is the mass killing of innocent people based on their tribe, political position, race or
religion with the intention of completely wiping them out.
Examples: The 1994 genocide against the Tutsi. The Jews genocide or Holocaust (1938-
1945).

1.2. FEATURES/CHARACTERISTICS OF GENOCIDE

1. Involvement of the government that puts in place all necessary measures to destroy the targeted
group.
2. Intention of destroying or completely wiping out the targeted group
3. Selection of the group to kill therefore it differ from other mass crimes.
4. Innocent people are killed because they belong to the targeted group.
5. Cruel forms of killing are employed that involve torturing victims.
Examples: Raping girls and women ,torture, Throwing babies to wall, Pounding babies in mortars,
Confining (detaining) and starving victims to death, Burying victims alive, Wounding (maiming)
and shooting them to death
6. Large-scale killing of the targeted group
7. Attacks and killings resulting from genocide are always intentional not accidental

1.3. DEVELOPMENT OF GENOCIDE

Genocide never takes place suddenly. It is a culmination of a long process that usually takes place in
distinct steps or stages.

THE 10 STAGES OF GENOCIDE ACCORDING TO GREGORY H. STANTON

1. Classification: distinction between ‘us’ and “them” between members of our group and others
eg.Hutu and Tutsi.
2. Symbolization: Use of symbols to name and signify classification according to physical
characteristics for example: skin colour or shape of the nose
3. Discrimination: They use power and authority to deny the rights of the victim group.
4. Dehumanization: Treating the discriminated group as lesser human beings. In Rwanda, The Tutsi
were referred to as ‘cockroaches”
5. Organization: planning and killing methods organized by leaders.
6. Polarization: The systematic elimination of moderates who would slow the cycle. In Rwanda,
moderates from the killing group who opposed the extremists were killed.
7. Preparation: It includes identification. Lists of victims are drawn up . Houses are marked, tools
for use are made.
8. Persecution: The victims are taken to unsafe places such as concentration camps and deprived of
water and food in order to weaken them.
9. Extermination: Killing of all the members of the victim group begins at this stage.
10. Denial: Perpetrators go to great lengths to hide their acts and deny having committed any crime.
 1.4. THE GENOCIDE AGAINST THE TUTSI
1.4.1. Causes of Genocide against the Tutsi
The 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi was a long planned campaign of mass murder in Rwanda. It
occurred over a period of 100 days from 7th April-4th July 1994.

The causes of 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi are the following:

1. Division ideology: The Belgian colonisers changed the existing social class of Tutsi, Hutu and
Twa into ethnic basis and the First and Second republics used ethnic groups to hate the Tutsi which
resulted to 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi.

2. Bad leadership during the 1st and the 2nd Republics: Both the 1st and 2nd republic characterised
by indoctrination of parts of the population with extremist genocidal ideology, they maintained ethnic
identity cards and promoted hatred and disharmony between Hutu and Tutsi.

3. The culture of impunity: During the first and Second Republics, criminals who committed crimes
against were rewarded by being promoted to important administrative positions instead of being
punished.

4. The role of local Media: Different mass media like Radio, television and Newspapers played a key
role of call to murder all the Tutsi by spreading speeches of hate in the 1994 Genocide against the
Tutsi. Examples: RTLMC, The government owned Radio Rwanda, Kangura and Umurwanashyaka
magazines.

5. Greed for power by the members of Akazu: Members of Akazu wanted to keep on the rule over
the country, to achieve this; they took the responsibility of eliminating the Tutsi of whom they
considered as obstacles to their intentions.

6. Ethnism and regionalism: Both 1st and 2nd republics were based on divisionism and exclusion of
Rwandans based on ethnic groups and regions.

7. Weakness of international organisations: Both United Nations Organisation and African Union
(OUA) did nothing to rescue the Tutsi in the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi.

8. Jealous among Rwandans: Hutu extremists have jealous to the Tutsi properties which attracted
the Hutu to kill the Tutsi in order to took over their properties.

9. Training of militias of interahamwe and impuzamugambi: During Habyarimana’s regime

militias groups were trained and used to echo hatred, suspicion and division against the Tutsi.

10. Ignorance of some people: Some Hutu extremist were illiterate and involved in killing their Tutsi
neighborhood and family members without analyzing the consequences of the crimes of killing.

1.4.2. THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE 1994 GENOCIDE AGAINST THE TUTSI

The effects of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi are explained and classified as follows:

 Massive loss of lives; where more than one million innocent people were killed in 100 days.
 It led to massive destruction of infrastructures and equipment where schools, hospitals, houses,
roads and many others were destroyed.
 It led to a high level of trauma to the victims due to sexual abuse, torturing and loss of family
members.
 It led to excessive degradation of human dignity characterised by inhuman crimes like
cannibalism, rape, burial of a live people.
 Devastation of the environment where many forest were cut down, huge plantation damaged,
Etc.
 It led to increase of HIV/AIDS prevalence in the post Genocide period.
 There was decline of the country’s economy due to massive destructions and insecurity.
 There was an increase in number of widows, orphans and disabled people.
 It led increase of suspicion and mistrust between the Tutsi survivors and the Hutu whom they
considered as perpetrators of Genocide.
 Politically and diplomatically, Rwanda’s international image was tarnished.
 There was increase in number of Rwandan refugees in camps in neighbouring countries where
more than 2million migrated.

1.4.3. PLANNING AND EXECUTION OF GENOCIDE AGAINST THE TUTSI

Identification of the enemy: The enemy to be eliminated was any Tutsi within the country and
moderate Hutu who were seen as sympathizers.

Preparation and establishment of lists: Civilian and military authorities and militia prepared lists of
persons to be eliminated. This was done by establishing a list of the people to kill especially the Tutsis.

Creation of civilian militia: Militias comprised of organised groups, armed individuals and army
troops (Garde présidentielle, Interahamwe and impuzamugambi militias) were trained as the force of
army to eliminate all Tutsi across the country.

Setting up road blocks Day and night patrols were set up in different corners of the country to prevent
any attempt to escape.

1.4.4. ACTORS OF GENOCIDE AGAINST THE TUTSI

The Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda had different categories of actors: organizers, executors,
accomplices of killers and those who killed and observers.

 Government of Rwanda under Habyarimana: As the main organiser, the government of the
Second republic promoted the culture of impunity; it provided financial material and moral support
to the executors.
 Militias: Militia groups like Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi were used to echo hatred,
suspicion and division against the Tutsi as the Liberation War was on-going.
 Republican forces: They actively participated in the killings all over the country as from 19th
April 1994.
 Civil servants and the military: In prefecture and commune civil servants and commune police
organised militias and Hutu citizens to track and kill the victims hiding in many places including
hills and houses.
 Local actors: These included businessmen, MRND local representatives and local opinion leaders
worked hand in hand with local authorities to implement government directives and to execute the
genocide against the Tutsi.
 Citizens: They played the role of being observers, executors and accomplices to the killing of
innocent relatives, brothers, sisters, colleagues and friends.

1.4.5. THE HOLOCAUST OR SHOAH

The term Holocaust is derived from two Greek words holos (whole) and Kaustos (burnt). It thus
literally means ‘burning of the whole’. This term is used today to describe the Nazi extermination of
the Jews and other anti-Jewish activities. This was done between 1939 and 1945 during the Nazi
regime period in Germany under Adolf Hitler. 6 million were Jews.

The Holocaust took place in four distinct stages. They include:

a) Enactment of legislation against the Jews which was undertaken prior to the outbreak of the Second
World War.

b) Establishment of concentration camps where people were used as slave laborers until they died.

c) Mass killings of Jews and political opponents by specialized units called Einsatzgruppe C.

d) Transportation of victims in boxcars by freight train to extermination camps where they were killed
in gas chambers.

Hitler’s followers supported an anti-Semitic policy, that is, ‘the final solution to the Jewish problem’.
The Germans had been made to attribute all their sufferings to the Jews. The anti-Semitic policy was
pursued cautiously. However, the Nazi, under Adolf Hitler, took it to greater heights. Not all Germans
participated in the genocide against the Jews. Some Germans protected them by arranging for their
safe exit. Unfortunately, those caught by the Nazi suffered the same fate that befell the Jews. The
genocide was stopped when the allied troops managed to remove the German forces from the occupied
territories and later from Germany itself. It was during the Nuremberg trials that the scale of the
genocide perpetrated against the Jews and other targeted groups came to the limelight.

1.6. WAYS OF ADDRESSING THE CONSEQUENCES OF GENOCIDE WITH SPECIAL

APPLICATION TO RWANDA
The government alongside other partners and citizens has actively led in efforts aimed at addressing
the consequences of genocide. Various measures have been adopted to deal with the consequences of
genocide. Some of these measures include the following:

1. Gacaca courts

The Gacaca Courts were used to find out what happened during the Genocide against the Tutsi.
Rwandans came together to talk about what happened in 1994. This laid the foundation for peace and
reconciliation. A total of 1,958,634 genocide-related cases were tried through Gacaca Courts. They
helped speed up genocide trials and strengthened unity and reconciliation by finding out the truth about
genocide and putting an end to the culture of impunity.

2. Social reconstruction and reconciliation

Social reconstruction means rebuilding the social structures that were once destroyed. Reconciliation
refers to the process of making parties in a conflict mend and then go on improving relations with each
other.

Reconciliation is usually an interactive process which demands that parties involved move together
for its attainment. It takes place over time, requires trust and risk taking. Trudy Govier provides the
following 11-step process as being vital in the reconciliation process.

The steps include:

 Acknowledgement: The perpetrators should acknowledge wrongdoing and apologize to the

victim group. This creates room for dialogue, speeds up the reconciliation process and removes
fear and suspicion between the two groups.
 Apology: Apology is important towards attaining reconciliation and repairing broken
relationships. It serves to inspire forgiveness and reunion between the perpetrator and victim
group.
 Forgiveness: Forgiveness contributes to reconciliation. The wronged party should be able to
forgive. Forgiveness enables the wrongdoer and the wronged person to move on.
 Fairness: The victims and perpetrators should be treated fairly without bias. This improves the
relations between the two groups and eliminates mistrust.
 Mutuality: Mutuality between the two groups in conflict creates impartiality and prepares a way
for reconciliation.
 Justice: Victims should feel that justice has been served for the wrongs committed by the
perpetrators.
 Peace: Reconciliation demands the existence of peace for it to be meaningful after conflicts occur.
 Reintegration: Perpetrators should be reintegrated in the community with new roles which offer
socio-economic support. The victims should re-accept the perpetrators. This improves social trust
which is essential in the reconciliation process.
 Reparation: These are the resources given to the victims of conflict such as finances and
counseling. Such help is vital for reconciliation.
 Restitution: This means giving back what was wrongly taken away from the victims by the
perpetrators.
 Redress: The perpetrator group should do something to correct wrongs they had done to the
victim group.

3. Forgiveness

Forgiveness is the process of letting go feelings of anger and resentment towards an individual who
has done something bad or caused harm. Forgiveness benefits both parties to a conflict and is crucial
in helping to preserve and enhance relationships. Forgiveness usually takes time and demands patience
from the parties involved.

Forgiveness is usually voluntary and people should not be forced to forgive. After forgiveness is
achieved, reconciliation can now set in. Forgiveness enables victims and perpetrators of genocide to
achieve reconciliation and sustainable peace.
 4. Benevolence

It involves development of empathic/empathetic feelings, which leads an individual to take

responsibility for assisting victims. This involves having been helped by others or acting on other
peoples’ behalf at the time of suffering.

1.7. PREVENTION OF ANY FUTURE OCCURRENCE OF GENOCIDE IN RWANDA

Essential to the prevention of genocide in Rwanda is the promotion of humanistic and national values
such as the following:

a) Peace building

b) Resilience

c) Benevolence

d) Awareness and memory

e) Telling the truth

f) Repentance and forgiveness

g) Reconciliation

h) Dialogue and consensus building

i) Active listening

j) Inclusiveness

UNIT 2: DEMOCRACY AND GOOD GOVERNANCE

2.1 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

 State is a community formed by people and exercising permanent power within a specified territory.
State comprises of people, territory, government and sovereignty
 Government is the system by which a state or community is governed or controlled.
 Good governance is a term used to describe how public institutions conduct their affairs in the
management of their activities and resources.
 Democracy: is the system of government in which people exercise power directly or through elected
representatives.
Abraham Lincoln defined democracy as a government of the people, for the people and by the
people.

2.2. Duties of the state according to Thomas Hobbes

 To defend the nation against foreign enemies

 To preserve peace and internal security
 To allow subjects to enrich themselves
 To allow freedom that does not threaten security.

2.3. Types of democracy

 Direct democracy: is the system whereby all eligible citizens have direct participation in decision
making of the government
 Indirect democracy: is the system whereby citizens exercise their power through elected
representatives.
2.4. Characteristics of good governance
 Effective and efficient Responsive
 Equitable and inclusive
 Follows the rule of law
 Consensus oriented
 Transparent
 Participatory
 Accountable

2.5. Powers /organs of government.

a) Executive: this organ is composed of the cabinet; it is responsible for managing the affairs of the
country in accordance with law.
b) Legislature: this organ is composed of parliament and senate. it makes the laws that govern the
country.
c) Judiciary: this organ is made up of the judges of the Supreme Court. It is responsible for
interpreting laws passed by legislative organ. It has the authority to give appropriate punishment for
violation of law.

Advantages of having the three powers of government

 It makes coordination and administration easy.

 Facilitates division of labour and reduces concentration of power in a single arm.
 Reduces or eliminates the possibility of abuse of power.
 Enhances efficiency and smooth functioning of the government.
 Promotes the principle of checks and balances.
 Engenders transparency and accountability in the operations of government.
 Provides quality service to the people.
 Eliminates or reduces incidences of corruption in the management of public affairs.

2.6. THE ROLE OF DEMOCRACY IN PROMOTING INDIVIDUAL CITIZENSHIP

1. Enables individuals to exercise their rights and fundamental freedoms

2. Allows for individual participation in various activities

3. Creates a bond of unity

4. Enables peaceful coexistence

5. Respect for the rule of law

6. Free flow of information

7. Promotion of gender equity and equality

2.7. ROLE OF DEMOCRACY IN ENHANCING GOOD GOVERNANCE

Democracy is crucial in promoting good governance in a state.

The following are ways in which democracy promotes good governance:

1. Allows for checks and balances in administration of the state: The three powers of government
ensure there are checks and balances in their administrative duties. Through these measures, abuse of
power and misuse of public resources is minimal.

2. Promotes transparency and accountability: Democracy ensures that those entrusted with
responsibilities observe high levels of transparency and accountability.

3. Encourages efficiency in service delivery: Democracy ensures those entrusted with various
responsibilities do their best in service delivery.

4. Respect for the rule of law: Democracy is founded on the rule of law. No individual is above the
law. This promotes development in a country as members of the society obey the laws of a country.

5. Involvement of citizens in decision-making processes: Democracy ensures that people are

directly involved in decision-making on issues that affect them.

UNIT 3: NATIONAL SERVICE AND SELF-RELIANCE

3.1. Concept of national service
National service is a system where young people, upon completing a given level of education and
meeting certain conditions, offer their services to the state. During this period, they are expected to
provide free and voluntary services to the state. They are also expected to serve their nation with
dignity and pride.

National service is crucial in the socio-economic and political development of countries. It also fosters
social cohesion and patriotism among the youth in a country. The youth become self-reliant and cases
of unemployment and drug abuse are reduced.

3.1.1. Models of national service

Three models of national service have been adopted by world states. These are:

1. Compulsory service: this is where people of a given age, upon completing studies at a given level,
must offer services for a specific period to the state.

2. Voluntary service: this is where those providing their service to the state do so out of their own
will.

3. Blended service: this is a mixture between compulsory service and voluntary service.
 3.2. CONCEPT OF SELF-RELIANCE
Self-reliance is the state of being independent in all aspects; this could be social, political or
economic independence.
OR Self-reliance is defined as being independent, which means relying on one’s own resources to
satisfy ones’ needs.

3.3. PROVISION OF NATIONAL SERVICE IN RWANDA, AFRICA AND THE WORLD

Many countries in the world have established systems to promote national service. They include the
following:

3.3.1 NATIONAL SERVICE IN RWANDA

The Constitution of the Republic of Rwanda provides for national service in Article 47.

This section reads: All citizens have the duty to participate, through work, in the development of
the country; to safeguard peace, democracy, social justice and equality and to participate in the
defense of the motherland. The law shall organise national service, whether civil or military.

Plans for the implementation of Urugerero began towards the end of 2012. Actual Urugerero activities
started on 17/1/2013, but it was officially launched on 22/1/2013.

The Intore, a person who has received the teachings from Itorero, engages in activities such as

 Awareness campaigns in development projects for HIV and AIDS,

 Gender balance,
 Family planning,
 Adult literacy and community work (Umuganda)
 Environmental protection activities,
 Construction of shelter for vulnerable groups
 Support local leaders in implementation of government policies.

3.3.2. NATIONAL SERVICE IN SOUTH AFRICA

The National Youth Development Agency (NYDA) was established in 2008. Government
departments, civil society organisations and NYDA itself run the programmes. Some of the aims of
NYDA are:

 Inculcating a culture of service by supporting the youth to participate in constructive nation-

building activities.
 Enabling the youth to understand their role in the promotion of civic awareness and national
reconstruction.
 Developing skills, knowledge and ability of young people to enable them make a smooth transition
to adulthood.
 Improving youth employment.
 Harnessing the nation’s untapped human resources to provide a vehicle for enhancing the delivery
of the country’s development objectives.
 3.4. ACTIVITIES THROUGH WHICH NATIONAL SERVICE IS CARRIED OUT IN
RWANDA.
1.Urugerero

2.Itorero

3.Umuganda

4.Ubudehe

5. Ubukorerabushake (volunteering)

3.5. MEASURES PUT IN PLACE TO ACHIEVE SELF-RELIANCE IN RWANDA

The government of Rwanda put in place Several measures to achieve dignity and self-reliance. These
are the following:

1. Abunzi(Mediators): these are mediation committees created in 2006 to resolve conflicts through
community participation. They intervene in small disputes among citizens and harmonize the situation
before it involves the courts.
2. Girinka program: this program was launched on 12th April 2006; it was about one per poor
family.This program was aimed at: Fighting malnutrition, Poverty reduction though dairy farming,
Improving agricultural productivity through the use of manure.

3. Agaciro development fund: this is a solidarity fund which was started by his excellence the president
of the republic of Rwanda in August 2012.This fund was aimed at reducing foreign aid in order to
improve the level of financial autonomy of Rwanda.
4. Itorero: it is a civic education training that was established in 2007 to train different Rwandans of
different categories including teachers, students, politicians, church leaders, ex-soldiers, bankers,
journalists, musicians, etc.
In itorero people study the following:Government programs,History of Rwanda,Unity and
reconciliation,Rwandan values for a better future.
5. Ubudehe: it is a poverty eradication program launched officially in 2014. It is a culture of collective
action and solidarity to solve poverty by people themselves.
6. Kuremera: this is a program started by the government in order to solve problem of unemployment
especially among youth. By this, youth are given amount of money to start self-help projects.
7. One-dollar campaign: this was initiative of Rwandans living in Diaspora to raise some money (one
dollar per head) to build houses for students (orphans) who survived Tutsi genocide.
8. Umuganda (community work): this is a communal activity done every last Saturday of the month.
During umuganda the following are done: -Cleaning, Rehabilitation of the environment, helping needy
people of the community, building infrastructures like roads, bridges, schools, health centers, etc.
Meeting at the end to discuss the progress of the nation.
9. Gacaca: this is a communal justice adopted in 2001in order to resolve the 1994 Tutsi genocide cases
after realizing that formal court system could have taken long time. These courts (gacaca) worked at
village level.
10. Ndi umunyarwanda: this is a program put forward by the National Unity and Reconciliation
Commission (NURC). It was launched on the 15th November 2013, with aim of bringing a lasting
peace, unity and reconciliation among Rwandans after the 1994 Tutsi Genocide.

11. The campaign of “Made in Rwanda”

This campaign aims at finding a solution to the country’s socio-economic challenges by promoting
locally made products and services to boost domestic production and reduce the country’s heavy
import bill.

UNIT 4: PLURALISM IN THE WORLD

4.1. THE CONCEPT OF PLURALISM
Pluralism means a situation where people of different races, social classes, religion and culture live
together in a society.

The term also means the existence of many different groups of people in one society or the belief that
it is possible for different groups of people to live together in peace in one society.

4.2. FORMS OF PLURALISM

Two broad forms of pluralism are evident in the world.

a) Natural pluralism: This form of pluralism is God given and we have no control over it. In most
cases, we are born with it. Examples include race, ethnicity, culture, gender, height and native
language.

b) Chosen pluralism: This form of pluralism is based on choices that individuals make. One can
either choose to belong or not. Examples include political, religious, occupational or professional and
ideological views.

4.3. ROLE OF PLURALISM IN PROMOTING DEVELOPMENT

Pluralism is crucial in promoting development. It facilitates this through a variety of ways. The main
ones include the following:

1.Respect for diversity: This allows all people to make an effort for the wellbeing of the whole
community. By making a collective effort, despite their underlying differences, people are able to
contribute to the common socio-political and economic development.

2. Unity in diversity: Through pluralism, people should be united despite their differences. When
people are united, they are able to achieve their set objectives.

3. Promotion of peaceful coexistence: Peaceful coexistence requires tolerance, recognition of other

people’s rights and respect for differences.

4. Creation of harmony: Societies that develop always pursue harmonious relationships within and
without. Pluralism therefore, promotes harmonious living in the society.
5. Creation of healthy competition: Many forms of pluralism give rise to healthy competition among
many players in our society. Pluralism creates a level playing field where competition is possible.

6. Promotion of equality and equity: In a pluralistic society, all people are considered equal. In
situations where some sections of the society are disadvantaged, attempts are made to bring them at
par with the advantaged groups.

7. Enabling citizens to realize their rights and responsibilities: People are given an opportunity to
operate to their fullest potential in a pluralistic society. Attention is also paid to the observance of
Human Rights.

8. Fostering citizen participation: A pluralistic society involves equal participation of all citizens in
their sociopolitical and economic life.

4.4. CONSEQUENCES ARISING FROM PEOPLE’S MISUNDERSTANDING OF THE

IMPORTANCE OF PLURALISM

In the modern world, there are numerous examples of societies that have borne the consequences of
this misunderstanding. Some of the consequences that have arisen from the misunderstanding of
pluralism include the following:

 Inter-ethnic conflicts
 Religious conflicts
 Political conflicts and instability
 Domestic violence
 Gender inequality
 Genocide and mass killings
 Intolerance
 Underdevelopment

 Racial disharmony or discrimination

 Mistrust in the society
 Displacement of persons

UNIT 5: COMMUNICATION, INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND COOPERATION

5.1. Speech writing and delivery
A speech refers to an address or the spoken expression of ideas, opinions or facts delivered by someone
who is speaking to an audience.

Some speeches are spontaneously delivered without prior preparation while others are written before
delivery. A written speech could be based on sketched out notes to which the speaker adds more
information during presentation. Speech writing is a process. One has to ensure the content is both
meaningful and interesting to listen to. The speech needs to capture the attention of the audience and
express the speaker’s thoughts in a logical way. Therefore, one's speech should be well organised,
easy to understand and fit for the intended audience. It is important to analyse your audience according
to their age, gender, cultural background and profession, as well as the occasion and purpose of the
speech.
A good speech should not exceed 20 minutes. When faced with the task of writing a speech, one may
experience difficulties coming up with ideas. However, it is possible to make progress if one follows
some simple steps.

A good way to write and deliver a speech is to divide the process into the following stages.

Plan a speech: This involves preparing for a well organised speech in terms of the occasion, theme
and audience.

Structure of the speech: When writing a speech, consider having an introduction that will captivate
the audience. The body of the speech should be organised in a logical flow. Have a summary or
conclusion at the end of the speech to help the audience to remember the key message of the speech.

Create a speech outline: Develop an outline for the speech. This forms a skeleton upon which more
information can be added.

Draft your speech: Add more information to the skeleton of your speech. Changes can be made on
the draft.

Get feedback on your speech: Ask for feedback on your draft from other people. Accept relevant
criticism and make the necessary changes.

Delivering your speech: Deliver your speech with enthusiasm and confidence.

Prepare to make a speech: Read it several times and practice presenting it. Familiarisation will
ensure one is comfortable while delivering it. Ensure you are aware of your audience, venue and public
speaking tools beforehand.

5.2. Elements required for a public speech

1. Audience awareness

While delivering the speech, one needs to adjust the style depending on the audience. One has to select
appropriate words, use an appropriate tone and speak in a socially acceptable manner. One also needs
to consider the cultural diversity of the audience and take note of cultural differences in interpretation
of gestures. Once you have done some research about the topic and content, think of how to make it
appealing for the specific audience you will address.

2. Adequate preparation

The quality of your presentation is directly related to the quality of your preparation. Therefore, to
achieve a good speech delivery, adequate preparation is required. Develop an eagerness to share
knowledge with the audience. Source:

3. Establishing credibility

Credibility means being trustworthy or believable. It is important for a public speaker to establish
credibility by earning the trust and respect of the audience. Credibility usually comes from the
audience perception of the speaker’s competence and character. To achieve credibility, one needs to
present oneself as an authority on the topic by being knowledgeable on what one is speaking about.
Your credibility as a speaker will depend on your trustworthiness and competence.

The following are three types of credibility:

Initial credibility: is that which an individual has before delivering the speech, mostly based on the
reputation and credentials of the speaker.

Derived credibility: is acquired while delivering a speech if the quality of the speech and the
professionalism of the speaker are commendable.

Terminal credibility: is the credibility a speaker gains or losses after delivering a speech. It relates to
the lasting impression that the speech leaves with the audience.

4. Technology test

One should arrive early to test the public speaking tools and resolve any hitches. If one plans to use
audio-visual aids such as PowerPoint slides, test all equipment. Ensure there is a backup plan for
delivering the presentation if technology fails. Never assume that technology will always work.
Practice how to make any adjustments before the presentation.

5. Valid or relevant content

For one to achieve a successful speech, one needs to have solid content. The content should be
appropriate for the type of audience one is addressing. The speaker should use the content and develop
it into a fine story. However, do not give the audience too much information that is not relevant to
them. Familiarity with one's content and adequate preparation before speech delivery eliminates
nervousness. One needs to write a logically flowing speech, rehearse the speech several times and
answer anticipated questions. This will help build the confidence needed for successful delivery of a
speech.

5.3. Characteristics of a good speaker

We can learn how to improve our public speaking skills by understanding the characteristics of
effective public speakers. They possess characteristics that we should emulate to become influential
and effective in public speaking. They can also help us overcome the fear and nervousness that is
sometimes felt before one engages in public speaking.

1. Confidence: A speaker who exhibits confidence is deemed by the audience to be competent,

credible and well informed. Confidence in a person enables him or her to control their tone and this
reduces stammering while delivering a speech.

2. Enthusiasm: A good speaker should be interested in the topic he or she is discussing. If one is not
enthusiastic about the topic, it will be noticed in the speech. In order to be effective while delivering
a speech, you need to have enthusiasm about your subject. The audience needs to feel sincerity in your
emotions, for them to be moved by your presentation.

3. Humor: Great speakers’ find ways to make their audience laugh and become more receptive to the
speech. A good sense of humor makes the speaker look confident and brings him or her closer to the
 audience. Having a good sense of humor also entails having the ability to joke without off ending
anyone in the audience.

4. Sincerity: Good speakers care about and mean what they say. If the speaker acts differently on and
off the stage, people may doubt his or her sincerity and credibility.

5. Resourcefulness: Good speakers are creative in the way they use information to engage the
audience. They also know how to create a warm and trusting environment with their audience.

6. Knowledge: Good speakers yearn for knowledge. In addition, they are usually well informed about
the topic they are speaking about. Being knowledgeable about your content ensures that you are able
to successfully deliver a good speech.

7. Organisation: Good public speakers are well organised and prepare adequately before delivering
a speech. They also know how to organise their speech so that the presentation is flawless.

8. Being a good storyteller: A good speaker uses stories to connect with the audience. He or she
makes the stories relevant to the topic of presentation.

9. Having an effective voice: Besides being able to make a good speech, good speakers have a
powerful and clear voice that does not irritate the audience. They also speak in a natural voice.

10. Maintaining good eye contact: A good speaker will always strive to maintain good eye contact
with the audience. This is not continuously done with a single person, but with several people in the
audience. This builds trust between the speaker and the audience.

5.4. Impact of communication on international relations and cooperation

I. Communication has led to lots of development in our communities and the entire country. It has
also sped up and made certain processes easier.
II. The use of mobile phones, satellites and the Internet has led to developments in global
communication and technological advancements. Such developments and advancements have
reduced technological, economic, social, political and cultural boundaries.
III. Some of the problems that countries face such as terrorism, corruption, poverty, drug trafficking,
wars, global warming, human trafficking, fraud, money laundering and diseases have become
global in nature and call for communication and cooperation among nations.
IV. There is a need for us to be able to communicate effectively, especially when interacting with
people from other cultures and countries. This is because people from different cultures and
languages interpret things differently. Effective communication reduces the chances of
misunderstandings.
V. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has reduced geographical barriers caused by
different time zones in the world.
VI. The use of ICT has played a major role in the internationalisation and liberalisation of economic
activities.
VII. International financial institutions have been created to facilitate trade in the world.
VIII. A global market has now emerged where people communicate and transact commerce across the
globe with ease. This has also facilitated economic cooperation between states.
 IX. ICT has also enabled rapid and easy transfer of information and technological ideas from the
developed countries to the developing countries. This has led to increased cooperation in research
among states, as well as cooperation on development projects and programmes.
X. International conferences and conventions have provided opportunities for people from different
countries to interact and share their experiences.
XI. Representatives from different nations deliberate global issues such as environment and health and
negotiate for a common understanding.
XII. Communication carries the potential to enhance conflict resolution and peace building.
XIII. Through communication regional blocks like EAC, COMESA, among others built through the
mutual understanding and trust that is developed through effective communication.
XIV. Thanks to the development of global communication facilities, students are now able to secure
admission and study in different parts of the world.
XV. International communication increases our ability to challenge Human Rights violations that exist
in our societies. It is now easier to publicize such violations and obtain international support to
fight against them across the globe.
XVI. Developments in communication have also created global civil societies which have enhanced
international relations and diplomacy.

UNIT 6: HOW TO MANAGE MONEY

6.0. DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS:

• Saving refers to the process of putting aside part of an individual’s income for future anticipated
goals.
• Investment is the acquisition of additional productive assets capable of growing income. (wealth
creation).
These additional assets generate more income (wealth) to the investor in future.

THE CONCEPT OF SAVING

Savings are carried out on an incremental basis, for example, monthly. The individual’s
motivational drive to save is usually guided by his or her set goals. These goals are
categorized into time frame periods,
• Short-term goals (less than 1 year): These are goals which individuals or organisations attain,
achieve or accomplish in the near future.
• Medium-term goals (over one year but less than ten years): The goals are attained in a period
of over three years but less than ten years’ time span.
• Long-term goals (over ten years): These goals are to be accomplished in a period of over ten
years.

NOTE: These goals usually motivate people to save part of their income. The more the need to
accomplish the goals, the larger the amount of money will have to be kept aside as savings.

6.1. THE LINK BETWEEN SAVINGS AND INVESTMENT

• Saving is one avenue of raising enough capital for investment.
 • The amount saved is converted into investment in the form of purchasing or developing real
estate property, buying machinery, purchasing stocks and bonds, educating children or
developing agricultural land through agribusiness.
• There is a link between savings and investment. Saving is a source of money needed to
make investments.

6.2. PERSONAL REASONS FOR INVESTING RATHER THAN SAVING.

1. Savings in financial institutions have lower rates of return than investments, which
continuously yield higher returns.
2. The value of interest rates on long-term savings in financial institutions is eroded by high rates
of inflation.
3. The amount of money saved in financial institutions, over a long period, may buy fewer goods
and services in future.
4. It is safer to convert savings into physical assets to gain real value for money in an economy
characterised by high rates of inflation.
5. The value of physical assets investment appreciates over a long period. The rate of
appreciation of physical assets is higher than the country’s rate of inflation.

6. The rate of return on the amount saved in financial institutions is lower than the rate of return
on investments such as land, shares, stocks, bonds or starting a business.

6.3. IMPACT OF SAVING AND INVESTMENT ON WEALTH CREATION

• Personal wealth is a wide range of individually owned physical and financial assets.
• Personal wealth includes cash deposits, real estate property, bonds and stocks, retirement
benefits, life insurance and mutual funds. People strive to increase their personal wealth in
their lifetime.
a) Wealth creation provides financial security to people and
b) Improves their standards of living. As pointed out earlier,
c) savings and investments are critical to wealth creation.
d) Savings provide seed capital for investment.
e) Short-term savings should be invested to gain value for money and increase the stock of
personal wealth.
f) Long-term savings, cash deposits may lead inflation erodes the value of cash deposits held
in financial institutions over a long period.

6.4. THE RISKS AND REWARDS OF VARIOUS FORMS OF INVESTMENT

6.4.1. REAL ESTATE INVESTMENT

Real estate refers to physical assets that consist of land and buildings on it.

Real estate investments are of two categories which are the followings:

a) Commercial real estate has real income-generating properties. Investors in commercial real
estate draw a regular income from renting out their premises on a monthly or yearly basis.
b) Residential real estate consists of structurally designed house units for households. These are
usually designed to accommodate people according to their social and economic status.

Rewards of real estate investments

i) There are high rates of returns because of a high demand for residential and commercial real
estate in rapidly growing economies of developing countries.
ii) Real estate is not easily prone to inflation because it appreciates in value over a period.
iii) Real estate is easy to maintain and manage; therefore, it does not incur a lot of costs.
iv) Real estate is more risk free than other forms of investment.
v) Creditors readily accept real estate investment as collateral securities and therefore, one can
access funds from financial institutions to make other investments.

Risks associated with investing in real estate

i) Construction of real estate is time consuming.
ii) Some real estate properties may be disposed to to destruction due to political violence.
iii. Demographic changes, such as declining population, reduce the demand for occupation of
residential real estate.

iii) High rates of unemployment lead to loss of income from would-be investors in residential
real estate.

iv)Investors in real estate face liquidation challenges of the real estate developments. Owners of
such property, who need immediate cash, may not gain real value for their money because the
properties are sold at low market value.

6.4.2. CORPORATE BONDS INVESTMENT

Corporate bonds are loans advanced to corporations for a specified period by members of the public
or other corporations. These enable corporations to raise money and expand their financial
operations.

Corporate bonds are grouped into three categories. They include:

• Short-term bonds: the maturity period of this category is not more than five years.

• Mid-term bonds: the maturity period exceeds five years and up to a maximum of twelve years.

• Long-term bonds: the maturity period can last for more than 12 years. Investments in corporate
bonds are done through direct purchases during the initial public offering or purchased in the stock
market.

6.4.3. GOVERNMENT BONDS INVESTMENT

Governments raise revenue to bridge the national budgetary deficit from both internal and external
sources. Internal sources of raising revenue include issuing treasury bonds and treasury bills. These
are also called government securities.
  Treasury bills are short-term financial debt instruments that mature in a period of not more
than one year.
 Treasury bonds are long-term debt instruments that mature in a period of over one year
 A sovereign bond is a financial debt instrument in either local or international currency that
is sold to foreign investors.

6.5. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SAVINGS WITH A BANK AND OTHER FORMS OF

INVESTMENT
1. Savings with a bank are safer (no risks expected) because commercial banks are state insured
whereas other forms of investment such as mutual funds, stocks, bonds, starting a business or buying
property carry risks.

2. The real value of savings in a bank may be eroded in the future due to inflationary tendencies of
world economies while the present value of money invested elsewhere is likely to appreciate in value
over the general inflationary economic tendencies.

3. Savings with a bank attract low returns due to low bank interest rates on saving deposits whereas
other forms of investment yield higher returns on invested capital.

4. Savings with a bank are readily liquidated, that is, cash may be withdrawn at any time to meet
unexpected expenses while in other forms of investment, it is not easy to liquidate the cash invested.

5. Savings with a bank are usually done to meet short-term goals, whereas other forms of investment
are usually undertaken to meet long term goals.

6.6. BORROWING
Borrowing is receiving a valuable asset from an individual or organisation with an obligation
of paying back at a future date.

6.6.1. REASONS FOR BORROWING

There are reasons why individuals, business organisations and governments borrow resources. Some
of the major reasons are outlined below. They include:

a) To build or purchase a personal asset such as a house or a piece of land.

b) To educate children or for self-education.
c) To meet emergency obligations such as unexpected medical expenses or car accidents.
d) To acquire more investments to increase the flow of income.
e) To purchase essential personal items such as a car.
f) To finance government projects.
g) To expand a business.
h) Governments borrow money when the tax revenues collected are less than predicted.

6.6.2. SOURCES OF BORROWING

The major sources of borrowing are:

1. Internal sources - these include borrowing from friends, family members and social groups.
2. External sources - these include borrowing from financial institutions and international financial
institutions.

A. Advantages of borrowing

1. Borrowing enables one to finance large projects that are expensive.

2. Access to borrowed funds enables one to cushion oneself in case of an emergency.
3. Borrowing helps to build trust between a lender and a borrower.
4. Borrowing enables an individual or businesses to off set bills if there is no cash at hand.
5. Borrowing enables the acquisition of more investments to increase the flow of income.

B. Disadvantages of borrowing

1. A lot of documentation is required before advancement of credit from a financial institution.

This makes the process lengthy.
2. Most financial institutions require collateral security to recover credit advances in the
event that a borrower defaults.
3. Interest rates of financial institutions are comparatively high.
4. Credit may be recalled before the expiry of the agreed repayment period.
5. Defaulting on credit repayment may damage the creditworthiness of a borrower.
6. Borrowing always needs to provide satisfactory proof of the intended purpose of credit. This
may hinder some people from borrowing.

6.6.3. RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF A BORROWER

Creditors (lenders) and borrowers (debtors) have a bond of agreement which protects them. These
protections are clearly spelt out as lenders' rights and responsibilities and borrowers' rights and
responsibilities.

A) RIGHTS OF A BORROWER (DEBTOR)

1. A borrower should have access to information regarding the effect borrowing has on the
eligibility of other forms of financial aid.
2. Access to information regarding loan obligations such as,Penalty for late repayment 3. The
lender should provide a borrower with detailed information regarding the repayment schedule.
4. A borrower has the right to a grace period required before the commencement of loan repayment.
5. The lender must provide a promissory note or proof of cancellation of a loan upon completion of
loan repayment.

B) RESPONSIBILITIES OF A BORROWER

1. An express written commitment to the creditor to honor debt repayment in full.

2. Notifying the creditor of a change of physical location, e-mail address, residential area and new
mobile phone number.
3. Notifying the lender of changes such as the name of new employer, of job and address of the new
employer.
4. In case of stolen items, communication to the lender should include a police abstract.
6.7. DEBT AND DEBT MANAGEMENT
• Debt arises when credit is borrowed by individuals, organisations or the government.
• Debt management is the process of learning to manage debts wisely in order to improve the
credit worthiness of an individual or organization.

6.7.1. TYPES OF DEBT

1. Bank loan debt: this is money borrowed from financial institutions.

2. Student loan debt: this is money loaned to students by state corporations to finance higher
education and training.

3. The hire purchase debt: this is debt incurred by buying goods such as cars, machinery and
electronics by paying in installments.

4. Credit card debt: this is a short-term loan stored in an electronic device known as a credit card.
5. Salary advance: this is a short-term loan advanced to individuals in paid employment and is
repaid on pay day.

6. Loan shark debt: this loan is given by unlicensed moneylenders to desperate borrowers who
require money urgently. They offer loans at high interest rates.
7. Public debt: This is debt owed by a government to domestic and international lenders.

6.7.2. MANAGING PERSONAL DEBT

1. A debtor should communicate with the creditor frequently: This may be done by getting in
touch with the creditor to assess the progress of debt repayment.

2. Communication should be done in writing: All the correspondence sent and received by the
debtor should be kept safely.

3. Prioritization of debts: Bigger and secured debts should be given first priority.

4. Re-evaluate personal financial position from time to time: This should be done to ascertain the
ease of debt repayment and avoid unnecessary expenditures.

5. A debtor should be committed to repayment of debt at all times: When a debtor experiences
financial difficulties, he or she can repay the debt in smaller amounts.

6. A debtor should constantly look for extra financial resources like for example seeking jobs
with better salaries and remuneration strengthens a debtor’s ability to repay debts.

6.8. IMPACT OF TOO MUCH DEBT ON FAMILY MEMBERS, SOCIETY AND

NATIONAL ECONOMY.
1. If parents or guardians are in debt, it affects the provision of basic needs for their dependents.
2. Families that have debts face challenges, for example, frequent evictions from rented
accommodation.
3. Too much debt may strain marital relationships. It may lead to prolonged conflicts between
spouses resulting in separation or divorce.
 4. Families in too much debt may end up in a vicious circle of debt. This leads to incurring more
debts and it worsens their social, emotional and psychological wellbeing.
5. People in too much debt may resort to criminal activities which increases insecurity in society.
6. Individuals in a society may commit suicide due to huge debts which may affect children to be
orphans.
7. Individuals in a society who are deeply in debt may not become productive in their workplace.
8. Criminal activities are costly to the government.
9. Too much debt reduces savings among individuals and families.
10. Families and persons who have huge debts spend less on goods and services.
11. High taxes are raised to finance a public debt which worsens the economy.
12. National resources are channeled towards repaying public debts.
13. Too much public debt results in high rates of inflation in an economy.

UNIT 7: TRANSPORT, EMPLOYMENT, UNEMPLOYMENT AND THEIR IMPACT ON

THE ECONOMY

7.0. DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS:

• TRANSPORT means to carry or move people and goods from one place to another.
• TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE refers to the framework that supports transport, for
example, roads, railway lines, ports, canals, airports and pipelines.
• EMPLOYMENT refers to the engagement of human resources (labour) in the production
of goods and services in an economy.
• UNEMPLOYMENT is a situation where people who want to work and are actively
searching for jobs, are unable to find work.

7.1. CONTRIBUTION OF TRANSPORT TO ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

1. Transport lowers the average cost of a unit product.
2. Quality transportation results in quick delivery of products to the market.
3. Transport contributes to the general growth of industries through increased production of
different products.
4. Improved transport network systems increase competition among business enterprises
producing similar products or offering similar services.

5. Provision of modern transport infrastructure enables corporations to enjoy the economies of

large-scale production.
6. Improved transport infrastructure results in the agglomeration of businesses.
7. Good transport attracts direct foreign investment.

7.2.1.TYPES OF EMPLOYMENT LABOUR

a) Paid employment: This is the state where a person is employed and receives
regular income in the form of wages or a salary.
 b) Self-employment: This is the state where a person runs a business with the
intention of making a profit or a person who works for himself or herself.

7.2.2. IMPACT OF EMPLOYMENT ON THE ECONOMY LOCALLY, NATIONALLY AND

GLOBALLY
1. Reduction of poverty in the society and enhances sustainable development in a country.
2. Investments made by self-employed persons create job opportunities for people in the
society.
3. Employment increases expenditure on goods and services locally. This facilitates the
establishment of new industries through self-employment.
4. Employment reduces cases of social evils in a society.
5. Employment improves income distribution and reduces income inequality between the
rich and poor people in a society.
6. Employment promotes education of children and the youth because it is easy for
employed parents to get school fees.
7. Employment reduces family and marital conflicts.
8. Employment enables individuals in a nation to earn an income.
9. Employment improves income distribution and reduces income inequality in a country.
10. Employment increases productivity and accelerates the growth of wealth and overall
economic development of a nation.
11. Employment of labour boosts investment opportunities. This results in an increased
demand for goods and services in an economy.
12. Employment results in increased government revenues from taxation.
13. Employment reduces the undesirable effects of unemployment.
14. Employment boosts the world output of goods and services. This results in increased
exports, imports and provision of a variety of goods and services.

7.3.MAJOR CAUSES OF UNEMPLOYMENT IN MOST COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD

1. Rapidly growing population
2. The technological revolutions
3. High rate of inflation and economic decline
4. Rural-urban migration
5. Skills mismatch: There is no sufficient link between college and university training
curriculums and employers’ perceived employable skills
6. Unfavorable business environment
7. Insecurity
8. High tax rate

7.4. IMPACT OF UNEMPLOYMENT ON THE ECONOMY LOCALLY, NATIONALLY AND

GLOBALLY
1) Unemployment has created tension and conflicts among family members, relatives and
neighbors.
2) Unemployed persons may engage in social evils such as drug use and abuse, crime etc.
3) Unemployment creates social class tension between the rich and the poor
4) Unemployment may lead to pessimism among people who invest heavily on education.
5) Increase the levels of urban poverty.
6) Prolonged unemployment makes the unemployed graduates lose talents and the pre-service skills
that the national government needs.
7) Unemployed youths usually become a challenge to the national government. They may end up
causing riots, sabotaging development programmes or engaging in armed conflicts.
8) Unemployed persons reduce spending and this affects the national economy.
9) High levels of unemployment in a country may lead to an economic recession as witnessed in
the USA and Greece.
10) Unemployment reduces the amount of tax received in a country.
11) The GDP in a country reduces due to a high level of unemployment.
12) Slows down the growth of global economy.
13) Worsens the gap between the rich and poor countries of the world 14) Causes illegal immigration
of people

7.5. MEASURES TO REDUCE UNEMPLOYMENT

Some of the measures to reduce unemployment in an economy include the following:
1. Adopting family planning methods.

2. Diversification of agricultural activities in the economy can reduce unemployment in the

agricultural sector.

3. There is need to encourage small-scale industries to absorb the unemployed labour force through
self-employment.
4. Adopting appropriate education systems and training curriculum to produce graduates with
employable skills.

5. Industries should be decentralized in the rural countryside to reduce rural urban migration.
6. Governments should encourage innovation of new products and entrepreneurship.
7. A country should invest in labour intensive technology as opposed to capital intensive technology.

8. Governments should invest in infrastructure development in rural areas.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------end-----------

UNIT 8: INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS, COOPERATION

AND DEVELOPMENT

8.1. THE WORLD BANK

The World Bank is made up of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)
and the International Development Association (IDA). They work together to improve the socio-
economic and political conditions of world states. Over the years, the board of governors of the
World Bank has created four other international institutions which are now referred to as the World
Bank Group.
The World Bank Group comprises the following international financial institutions.

a) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which was created at the
end of 1944.
b) The International Development Association (IDA), which was created in 1960.
c) The International Financial Corporation (IFC) established in 1956.
d) The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) created in 1988.
e) The International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) created in 1966.

Today, World Bank has strategies in fostering and regulating social-economic and political
developments in all the world countries.

The strategies include the following:

• Post conflict management in fragile states

• Provision of global public goods and services
• Knowledge and learning
• Middle-income economies of the world v) Sustainable growth through the International
Development Association (IDA)
• Helping The Arab world

8.2. THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (IMF)

After the Second World War, global economic markets were fragile, international currency markets
were unstable and international trade faced serious problems of political restrictions. There was a
need to stabilize the world economies for the sake of peace and cordial relations among world states.
This led to the creation of the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

The main goals of the establishment of the IMF were as follows:

1. To facilitate, regulate, safeguard and maintain a stable international financial system through
facilitation of cooperation of member countries and appropriate monetary policies.
2. To make international trade more liberalized without the imposition of adverse trade restrictions
by member countries.
3. To stabilise the exchange rates of national currencies of member countries and avoid speculation
on world currencies.
4. To safeguard and offer surveillance of balance of payments accounts of member countries so
that international trade is not disrupted and relationships between trading countries are fostered
for the welfare of all.

5. To eliminate foreign exchange restrictions so that member countries freely trade with each other.
6. To control and safeguard member countries against major adverse crises in the balance of
payment which could result in lack of confidence in the national currencies of the member
countries.
 8.3. THE ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS
1) Accelerate the globalisation process: The IFIs have enhanced international trade and reduced
conflicts between nations.
2) Accelerate foreign direct investments. There is a rise of multinational corporations with enormous
investments in most nations with the support of IFIs.
3) IFIs have supported foreign direct investments in bilateral and multilateral partnered projects in
agriculture, communication, energy generation, water resources and environment conservation in
less developed countries.
4) Influence the stability of macro-economic variables in developing countries.
5) Stabilize foreign exchange rates of domestic currencies of world states.
6) Stabilize the banking sector.
7) Improve living conditions and reduce poverty.

8.4.THE IMPACT OF INTERNATIONAL AID AND INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION

ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
1. Has supported despotic regimes in a number of countries.
2. Some rich nations tend to safeguard their economic interests in the exploitation of economic
resources of their recipient countries without raising pertinent issues of good governance in
recipient countries.
3. International aid and international co-operation tends to overexploit (deplete) economic
resources of the recipient nations.
4. Foreign direct investments are motivated by profit motive. In such a case, foreign investors
tend to disregard the overriding goal of sustainable development in the countries of operation.
5. International aid and international co-operation tends to place their value judgement
system in the context of a donor country (foreign country).
6. Foreign technologies of donor nations may not be appropriate to the social-cultural and
economic context of some developing countries.
7. Donor funding, subsidies and grants to recipient nations at times end up in the donor
economy due to aid conditionality (tied aid).
8. Donor countries sometimes insist on purchase of development equipment and other
technologies from the donor country even when the same equipment is available in other
countries at cheaper prices.
………………………………………END……………………

UNIT 9: FINANCIAL SCAMS

9.1. CONCEPT OF FINANCIAL SCAMS

• Financial scams are deceptive schemes used by fraudsters to rob people and business
organisations off their money.

• Fraudsters are also called financial scammers.

9.2. TYPES OF FINANCIAL SCAMS IN THE WORLD TODAY
1. ADVANCE FEE SCAMS: Scammers communicate with their target victims informing them that
they have won prize money from a lottery, sweepstake or other competitions in which the target
victims did not participate. They inform their intended victims that they need to pay some advance
fees to a specified account before the prize money is released.

2. INVESTMENT SCAMS: Scammers use investment scams to con people who want to invest their
money in highly profitable ventures. Some of the investment scams that scammers use to con their
victims are:

a) Ponzi investment scams or pyramid schemes

Scammers establish fake companies to target wealthy investors. These companies trick their victims
by offering very high rates of return on investors’ money in the form of share capital. The victims
invest in buying shares in fake companies and become 'shareholders'. The scheme collapses when
money from new investors is not enough to pay the original initial investors. The new and initial
investors lose their money once the scheme collapses. Investors are also tricked into marketing
schemes that appear to be real, for example, marketing of products. Investors are promised large
profits based on the number of people they recruit in the marketing scheme.

b) Pump and dump stock scam

This is where the price of stocks in a specific company is promoted based on false and misleading
information. The stock prices rise to high levels on the stock exchange markets. This overvalues the
actual price of the stocks in the market. Promoters sell their stock at an overvalued price and stop
promoting the stock. The stock prices then fall to low levels. Investors end up losing the value of
their capital.

c) Off shore investment scams

Financial scammers promote non-existent off shore investments. These are investments made in
fake foreign companies and sold to investors. The scammers benefit from high rates of return and
avoid paying government taxes. These fake companies will then vanish making it impossible for
investors to trace or recover their money in the foreign company.

d) Foreign exchange (forex) scams

Scammers lure investors into trading in foreign currencies in a forex market. An unsuspecting
investor is lured into wiring money to an off shore account as a requirement before being accepted
to trade in foreign currencies. Financial scammers then disappear with the investor’s money.

e) Purchase of precious minerals scams

Financial scammers target victims promising them a sale of precious minerals, for example,
diamonds. They persuade their victims that the sale of precious minerals is a lifetime opportunity to
grow wealthy. The unsuspecting victims then buy these precious minerals only to realise later that
they are not worth the money invested. By this time, the financial scammers have vanished. f) Door-
to- door sale scams

Door-to-door sales scammers use this method to scam their target victims by selling them poor
quality products at high prices. Such scammers pretend to sell or promote goods of very high quality.
Financial scammers carry out a survey in advance to obtain personal details of their intended victims.
They use this information to scam their victims. They also con people out of their household goods.

3. DATING AND ROMANCE SCAMS

Many people, especially the young, use online dating websites and applications such as Facebook in
search of companions. Financial scammers take advantage of these online dating sites to scam
innocent people. Scammers use fictitious names to conceal their identities and target people. They
play with the emotions of the target victims by establishing close relationships. They also send the
victims gifts, personal photos and greeting cards. Scammers then ask for personal information which
may be used to scam a victim. After the victims have sent information or money, the scammers
vanish and block their communication channels.

4. BANKING AND ONLINE PAYMENT SCAMS

There are three main categories of banking and online payment scams. They include the following:

a) Phishing: Scammers email their victims pretending they are from the victims’ banks. They inform
the victim that they want to rectify a problem that has occurred in the victims’ accounts.

b) Vishing: scammers call the victims purporting to be working for a bank, police unit or fraud
investigation agency. They inform their intended victims that they need their bank account details
such as account name and number, passwords or debit/credit card details. They inform victims that
their accounts are at risk and that they are likely to lose their money.

c) Card skimming: Scammers steal information from credit cards and ATM cards during a
legitimate transaction. They use skimming devices to store information on a magnetic strip. This
information is used to access victims’ accounts and steal money from them.

d) Card fraud: Scammers use stolen credit or debit cards to make unauthorized transactions from
the victims' accounts. They can also use information from unsuspecting victims to make fake cards.
The fake cards are then used to make transactions and steal money from a victim.

5. ONLINE SHOPPING SCAMS

E-commerce involves buying and selling of goods and services online. Many online businesses are
legitimate. However, financial scammers use e-commerce to con unsuspecting shoppers.

They use the following financial scams:

a) Online-classified scams: Financial scammers create online-classified websites that

provide an opportunity for would-be sellers and buyers of online goods to transact business.
Scammers also use genuine websites pretending to be genuine sellers or buyers of goods to con
 unsuspecting members of the public. Thus, they create an opportunity to scam their victims, for
example, by giving out bouncing cheques.

b) Online auction scams: Financial scammers take advantage of websites that auction
products online. They send messages to their targets claiming that they are winners in an auction for
a specified product. They ask for advance payment as commitment to buy the product. The excited
victim promptly pays the advance payment. After receiving the advance payment, the financial
scammers vanish from the auction sites. The victims end up losing their money.

c) Fake retailer’s scams: Financial scammers create fake retailer websites. They ask unsuspecting
buyers to pay for items through online money transfers. Once the victims pay, the scammers vanish
and never communicate again.

6. JOB AND EMPLOYMENT SCAMS

With the high rates of unemployment, financial scammers promise unemployed persons job
placements with high salaries. This scam is promoted by advertisements on fake websites or the use
of the Short Message Service (SMS). The scammers lure their victims to pay a certain amount of
money to a specified account for processing of documentation and a commission fee. Once
unsuspecting victims have paid the money, the websites are closed and scammers cut off all
communication.

7. CHARITY SCAMS

Scammers create fake websites where they target victims of charity scams. They are most prevalent
when there are national disasters in certain countries. Victims are requested to make donations to
assist the people affected by the disaster. Once the victims deposit money in the scammers' account,
the scammers disappear and the websites are closed down.

9.3. IDENTITY FRAUD

• Identity fraud is the unauthorized use of another person’s identity to deceive or defraud
someone else.
• Identity fraudsters use other people's personal details to operate bank accounts, order goods
and services, take over bank accounts, use mobile phone contacts and obtain personal
identification documents to commit crimes.

The victims, whose identities are used, may receive loan statements, service bills, invoices or
statement of accounts for transactions they did not carry out. Identity fraud is a growing problem in
the world today. Most of the organised crimes witnessed such as illegal immigration, drug
trafficking, money laundering, terrorism and human trafficking are linked to identity fraud.

1. TYPES OF IDENTITY FRAUD

a) Identity theft: This is the fraudulent use of another person’s identity or information to commit
fraud without his or her knowledge. Imposters (identity fraudsters) create new accounts and obtain
new debit or credit cards using the personal details of the victims. The new card that carries similar
information to an original one is used to transact illegal transactions. The Internet is used to facilitate
fraudulent activities of identity thieves.

b) Phishing: Fraudsters create fake bank websites that look like genuine websites of known banks.
The fraudsters then send emails to bank customers and lure them to the fake bank websites where
they provide personal details. With such information, they access the customers' bank accounts to
withdraw money without their knowledge. This type of identity fraud usually affects customers who
use online banking.

c) Hacking: Fraudsters may hack into the website of a financial institution and access details of
customers’ e-banking transactions. They steal the password or PIN to access the bank’s computerized
software system. They may then lure the bank’s customers into fake websites that look similar to the
bank’s real websites. The fraudsters then use such information to steal money from the unsuspecting
customers’ accounts.

d) Identity documents fraud: Fraudsters use personal information stolen from innocent people to
process licenses, identity cards and passports to carry out fraudulent business transactions.

e) ATMs and credit cards skimming: The credit and ATM cards' information are captured or
copied using electronic means when customers are carrying out genuine transactions. Fraudsters can
steal vital information by looking over the shoulder of a customer when he or she is performing
business transactions.

9.4. IMPACT OF FINANCIAL SCAMS ON INDIVIDUALS AND FAMILIES

Some of the major impacts of financial scams on individuals and their families include the following:

1. Financial loss: Many people lose large sums of money to scammers.

2. Loss of employment: If individuals’ affected by financial scams are self-employed and

experience bankruptcy, their businesses may close down.

3. Mental health problems: Victims who are scammed by fraudsters become shocked, anxious,
embarrassed, worried, upset and angry.

4. Psychological, sociological and emotional problems Victims blame themselves for being
scammed.

9.5. STEPS TO TAKE WHEN YOU ARE A VICTIM OF FINANCIAL SCAMS

It is not easy for victims of financial scams and identity fraud to recover from the impact of such
fraudulent schemes. There are steps that one should take if scammed by fraudsters. The steps to be
taken include the following:

 The first step a victim should take to is report to the respective authorities. Detailed
information should be provided about how one has been scammed.
 Do not blame yourselves when you are scammed. Victims should accept the reality and stop
brooding over it.
 Care should be taken not to fall victim of financial scams.
  If you realise that you are being scammed, stop contact immediately with the scammers and
directly contact the relevant authorities.
 You should educate yourself comprehensively about financial literacy and knowledge of
financial scams and identify frauds.
 If the financial scam involves your banking transactions, report immediately to the bank.
Cancel all other pending transactions. Get new ATM and credit or debit cards and change
your PIN number.
 Be on the lookout for possible scams such as miracle cures, fake weight-loss pills, deceptive
lotteries, fake charities, gambling or sweepstake tickets and pyramid schemes.
 Never provide personal identification details or information to suspicious people, Etc.

9.6. METHODS OF PROTECTING ONESELF FROM FINANCIAL SCAMS AND

IDENTITY FRAUD
 One should remember that prize money is not won in a sweepstake, gambling or lottery that
one did not enter or participate in.
 You should not pay any fee to collect a prize or when applying for a job. Should scammers
insist on calling or texting you, do not call or text them back.
 Do not give your personal details such as your bank account and PIN number to anyone.
 You should do a thorough investigation of investment companies those offer huge returns on
invested capital.
 Do not rush to invest in shares or stocks of companies which unprecedentedly rise one day.
 If you operate an e-banking account and receive suspicious emails, you should not open them.
 Do not be lured into wiring money into an off shore account or assist a stranger to buy foreign
currencies. Always buy foreign currencies from a reputable foreign exchange dealer.
 Do not give your personal details or photographs to strangers you meet online. Neither should
you send money to them.
 Your personal identification documents should be kept secure. If such documents are stolen or
misplaced, report immediately to the relevant authorities.
 If you are withdrawing money from an ATM machine, be conscious of people around you.
 After making transactions, safely keep your personal identification documents.
 Do not buy goods online from unfamiliar websites. Always buy goods from genuine websites.
 When accessing social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter using public computers, ensure
you log out after you are through.
 Before doing anything online, stop, think and click.
……………………………………………………………………END…………………

UNIT 10: ENVIRONMENT FRIENDLY FARMING FOR SUSTAINABLE FOOD

PRODUCTION

10.0 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS:

 Food security refers to a situation where all the people, at all times, have access to sufficient,
safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and
healthy life.
  Household food security is the application of the food security concept at the family level.
 Environment friendly farming refers to farming practices which minimise environmental
degradation by replenishing soil fertility and conserving biodiversity.
 Sustainable farming refers to the process of producing adequate food under
environmentally friendly farming practices.
 Environmental planning is the process of carrying out an evaluation of social, economic
and political human activities and their impact on sustainable development.

10.1. IMPORTANCE AND CONTRIBUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING IN

SUSTAINABLE FARMING
1. It carries out an assessment of the existing farming practices which informs the action plan
for the attainment of sustainable farming.
2. It assesses the needs of farmers and threats to the environment.
3. It identifies new farming practices which help give solutions to environmental threats`

4. It brings together a planning team that includes the community, scientists and government
agencies to support sustainable farming practices.
5. Environmental planning develops a vision for the future.
6. It provides proper documentation which guides implementers in their plan of action shows
how to solve environmental challenges and gauges the extent of implementation of solution.
7. Environmental planning helps the process of implementation, how the plan is put into action,
the role of each stakeholder, and the evaluation mechanisms.

10.2. IMPACT OF FARMING ON ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT
Farming has intensified in recent years due to an increasing demand for food to feed the rapidly
growing population and enhance food security. This has led to harmful impacts on the environment
due to continuous over-exploitation of natural resources during farming. Environmentalists have
raised a number of issues concerning the sustainability of earth’s natural resources due to industrial
and agricultural activities. These two human activities are the main causes of environmental
degradation.

10.2.1. IMPACT OF LIVESTOCK FARMING ON ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL

RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
Livestock farming supports the livelihoods of many people globally and livestock farming has
intensified. However, these activities have impacted negatively on the environment in the following
ways:

a) Contribution to global warming

The digestive food system of ruminants causes enteric fermentation which releases greenhouse gases
such as methane (CH4), carbon (IV) oxide (CO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O). The trapped heat
increases temperatures on the earth’s surface causing global warming. Intensification of livestock
farming releases more greenhouse gases which continuously warms the earth.

b) Land degradation
Overstocking and overgrazing destroy vegetation cover. For instance, in sub-Saharan Africa, many
pastoralist communities keep livestock as a livelihood. The many animals trample on the land and
eat up the available vegetation cover leaving the land bare. Without vegetation cover, the soil is
exposed to soil erosion.

c) Loss of biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on earth, that is, plants, animals, micro-organisms and the
ecosystem in which they live, interact and which they depend for survival. Livestock farming leads
to loss of biodiversity when animals destroy the vegetation cover. A large variety of plant species
provide food for livestock.

10.2.2. IMPACT OF CROP FARMING ON THE ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL

RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
Crop farming provides humans and animals with food. However, crop farming has harmed the
environment in the following ways.

a) Destruction of biodiversity destroys a large number of plant species and threatens food
security.

b) Desertification: Clearing vegetation on the earth’s surface to grow crops is one of the
major causes of desertification.

10.3. IMPACT OF MINERAL FERTILISERS ON SOIL AND HARVEST

Fertilizers are substances containing nutrients necessary for plant growth, improvement of soil
fertility and boosting the crop yield which are made from manufactured substances.

The following are the harmful effects of mineral fertilisers on soil and harvest.

1. Continuous applications of mineral fertilisers deplete soil nutrients and minerals that are
naturally present in a fertile soil.
2. Excessive use of mineral fertilisers damages the soil quality causing soil acidity.
3. Intensive application of mineral fertilisers such as ammonium nitrate and potassium chloride
causes soil salinity (salt content in the soil).
4. Mineral fertilisers are high in nitrogen salts. When nitrogen is absorbed quickly by the soil, it
will dehydrate and dry up the plants.
5. Excessive application of mineral fertilisers may cause plant leaves to turn yellow or brown.
This leads to reduced crop yields as a result of damaged plants.

WAYS OF REMEDIATION FROM THE EFFECTS OF MINERAL FERTILISERS

There are a number of ways of restoring soil fertility to support sustainable agriculture and improved
crop productivity.

i) Use of organic fertilisers: Application of farm yard manure and mulching practices naturally
restores the soil quality. Decomposing animal and plant products maintain and improve soil
fertility.
ii) Inter-cropping farming practices: Leguminous crops may be inter-cropped with
nonleguminous crops. Leguminous crops are known for their nitrogen fixation in the soil.

iii) Crop rotation is also a very useful practice of maintaining soil fertility.

iv) Integrated nutrient management practice: This is the process of maintaining soil
fertility by the combined application of both organic and mineral (chemical) fertilisers.

v) Application of limestone: Application of limestone into acidic soil reduces soil acidity
and makes the soil more alkaline and conducive for the growing of crops.

10.4. ECO-FRIENDLY FARMING PRACTICES FOR PEST AND WEED CONTROL

 Eco-friendly (ecology friendly) farming: are those agricultural practices which are not harmful
to the natural environment. Eco-friendly farming practices conserve and protect the nature of
the ecosystem in an environment.

A. Eco-friendly farming practices for pest control

Some of the eco-friendly ways which have been adopted to control pests are as follows:

 Integrated pests management practices

 Natural pest elimination

 Introduction of parasitic pests

 Timely planting of crops
 Crop rotation

B. Eco-friendly farming practices for weed control

 Appropriate crop farming practices
 Weed management by use of allelopathy
 Revival of local and indigenous food crops
 Off -season preparation of farm lands before planting
 Use of mechanical weeders
 Soil solarisation

10.5. WASTE MINIMISATION IN FOOD PRODUCTION

To minimise waste in food production, the following ways are used:

1. Proper and correct storage of food products: There are various methods used to store food
products, for example, refrigeration, canning, sun drying, pickling, salting/curing, fermenting and
smoking. These methods are used to store food products such as meat, grains, spices, herbs,
vegetables, fruits, fats and oils.

2. Shopping for food wisely: There is need to assess the amount of food required for use. Proper
and effective planning should be adopted to save food and resources from being wasted.
3. Adequately measure the quantity of food to be cooked: There is need to work out what each
person consumes per day, per week and per month. This ensures that people do not cook more
than is required.

4. Re-using food leftovers: Leftover food should be stored properly for reuse later.

5. Need to grow one’s own food: This reduces the harmful effects of food transportation.

10.6. PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS FOR FOOD PROCESSING

 Food processing is the transformation of raw food products, by use of specific methods and
techniques, into finished food products fit for human consumption.

Food processing techniques comprise chopping, slicing, removal of the outer covering, mincing,
liquefaction, barbequing, fermentation, pasteurisation and cooking in the form of baking,
boiling, roasting, broiling, frying, poaching, simmering, steaming and grilling.

SOME OF THE BENEFITS OF FOOD PROCESSING INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING:

• Removal of toxic substances from food products.

• Preservation of food products.
• Some food products are sealed to prevent unhygienic contamination.
• Protection of food products from pathogenic microbes.
• Distribution of processed food products. Marketing of processed food products.

10.7. MODERN TRENDS IN FOOD PROCESSING

Some of the major trends and new developments in food processing include the following.

1. Fresh processed food products: Consumers now demand processed food products with a high
retention of freshness and with less artificial additives. These fresh food products are considered
healthier, safer and of high nutritional value when consumed.

2. Processing organic food products: Consumers now demand food products grown using organic
manure, as they are considered healthier.

3. Plant-based processed foods: Consumers are now conscious of animal processed food products.
The alternatives include sea food, fish and plant food which are high in protein.

4. Processing food products with less sugar, low fats and less salt

5. Demand for hygienically processed food products: Food products should be stored and
packaged safely under sterile conditions. This involves cleaning foods properly, cooking or
heating the foods at a specific temperature to kill harmful bacteria and preserving and covering
them in sterile conditions.

6. Adopting new technologies which are cost effective, sustainable and environment friendly:
A more efficient way of food processing lowers the unit cost of processing a product.
7. Adoption of packaging technologies which are environment friendly, healthier to the
consumer and secure in transportation and handling. Packaging should meet safety
requirements and be free from contamination. Good packaging of food products prevents wastage.

………………………………END………………….

UNIT 11: USES AND APPLICATION OF MATHEMATICS IN DAILY LIFE

11.0. TOPICS FROM WHICH MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS USED IN DAILY LIFE

ARE DRAWN
Mathematics is defined as a science subject which deals with logic, numbers, measurements,
quantities, operations, shapes, spaces and their relationships, operations and applications in solving
the day to day problems of humanity.

In the modern world, the knowledge of Mathematics is embedded in all daily activities of human
beings. People, consciously and subconsciously, use and apply Mathematics in their daily lives.
Animals too instinctively use and apply Mathematics in their day-to-day activities. Honey bees
accurately make six-sided (hexagonal) honey combs. This is an outstanding example of how animals
apply the knowledge of geometry.

Mathematics is increasingly being applied in a wide range of Physical Sciences, Social Sciences,
Biological Sciences, Management Sciences and Business Studies.

11.1. BRANCHES OF MATHEMATICS

1. Commercial Mathematics: Commercial Mathematics (Business Mathematics) is used and
applied in everyday business activities. This branch consists of topics such as discount, banking,
interest, profit and loss, percentage, ratios and proportion, dividends, taxes, stocks and shares and
commercial arithmetic.

2. Algebra: Algebra is a branch of Mathematics concerned with the study of operations, structure,
relationship, quantity, mathematical symbols and their applications in solving equations.

3. Probability and Statistics: Statistics is a branch of Mathematics concerned with the study of the
process of data collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data. Probability comprises
the prediction of the likelihood of an event or phenomenon occurring.

4. Calculus: Calculus is a branch of Mathematics concerned with the study of change.

5. Geometry: Geometry is a branch of Mathematics that deals with the study of shapes, sizes,
relative position of objects and properties of objects in space.

6. Graph Theory: This branch of Mathematics is concerned with the study of graphs and shows
paired relations between objects.

7. Number Theory: This is a branch of Mathematics concerned with the study of sets of numbers.
11.2. EXAMPLES OF AREAS WHERE MATHEMATICS IS USED IN DAILY LIFE
1. Science and Technology: Peoples’ daily life is increasingly dictated by modern science and
technology. In science, Mathematics is intensively used.

2. Home Economics: Arithmetic is used and applied during addition, subtraction, multiplication,
measurement and proportions.

3. Music, Art and Dance: Musicians use and apply mathematical knowledge in their body
movements which are rhythmically in harmony with the wavelength of the musical sound produced.
Sculptors estimate the length and thickness of wood required to produce a piece of art.

4. Building and Construction: People involved in the building and construction industry use and
apply Mathematics in their daily life.

5. Traveling, motoring, cycling and walking: Travelers, motorists and cyclists consciously and
unconsciously use Mathematics in their daily life. Pilots and motorists usually estimate the distance
and the quantity of fuel required to cover the distance to travel. Similarly, travellers need to know
their travelling schedules.

6. Business and Economics: The business world uses a wide range of Commercial Mathematics due
to a significant rise in commercial activities.

7. Medicine: Health professionals use and apply Mathematics on a daily basis when prescribing or
administering drugs. Doctors' prescriptions are based on quantity of dosage per day depending on
the weight of a patient and the length of time the medicine stays in the body of a patient.

8. Agriculture: Agriculturalists use and apply Mathematics to meet economic efficiency, food
sustainability and food security. Economies of scale come into play in any agricultural activity.

9. Computer Science: Computer programming applies algorithmic designs and processes which are
patterned on a set of logical rules to create software.

10. Sports and Games: Mathematics was used to draft rules and establish measurements of
various sporting arenas and games. Designing of all sporting facilities use and apply Mathematics.

11.3. IMPORTANCE OF MATHEMATICS

1. Promotion of reasoning: Reasoning means thinking about something in a logical way or
making sense of something in order to come to a conclusion.

2. Counting: Counting is the process of assigning numerical values to objects

3. Calculations/ Arithmetic: People have perfected counting and calculations, with or without
the use of calculating devices. Knowledge and skills of Mathematical concepts have
promoted calculation skills in daily life.
4. Measurement: Most activities that people carry out involve taking measurements, for
example, weighing ingredients before cooking.
5. Management of time: Time management is the process of organising tasks or activities in
accordance with the estimated time to accomplish them.
UNIT 12: GLOBAL MEDIA RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES
12.0 DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS :
 The right to know means that people have a right to know about their government’s actions
and gain access to public information.
 Freedom of speech is the right to express one’s opinions and ideas without fear of
repercussion or censorship from the government.

 Freedom of the Press: For a democratic nation to function effectively, citizens must have
access to information and be properly informed about the affairs of the government.

12.1. Responsibility of the global media

1. The global media provides an avenue for communication to take place using various forms
that reach and influence the world.
2. The global media plays an important role in shaping public opinion.
3. The global media act as a voice of the people against social injustices, oppression, misdeeds
and inequalities in our society.
4. It allows the people to voice their dissatisfaction, express their demands for accountability
and participate in public debates.
5. It gives the public current information on various issues all over the world.
6. The global media brings individuals of different economic backgrounds, religions, beliefs,
cultures, races, languages, traditions and ethnic groups together.
7. The global media has a responsibility to promote peace, tolerance and dialogue among people
of different cultures, religions and political groups.

12.2. CENSORSHIP
 Censorship refers to when the government, individuals, authorities, institutions, media,
religious leaders or politicians prohibit, suppress or control information from reaching the
public.

A) TYPES OF CENSORSHIP

1. Political censorship – this occurs when governments hold back information from the public.

2. Ethical and moral censorship – this involves removal of material regarded as immoral or
obscene from the public.

3. Religious censorship – this involves the removal of material objectionable to a certain religion.

4. Military censorship – this involves keeping military intelligence and tactics confidential and
away from enemies.

5. Corporate censorship – the media outlets disrupt publishing of information that portrays their
business or partners in a bad light.

6. Self-censorship of the media – this arises when media houses prohibit the release of information
to the public.
B. Citizen responsibility
The public has responsibilities in regard to global media. Global and local media increasingly rely
on members of the public to contribute content as they play a vital role in generating major news
stories. This raises concerns about ethics and responsibility.

Important responsibilities of the public include the following:

1. To contribute actively to global media content as well as participating in public debate and
analysis.
2. To promote helpful dialogue with the global media either as individuals or in groups.
3. To contribute to global media activities and create awareness about issues aff ecting the
global world.
4. To advocate for global media freedom and independence in every country, for global media
to function freely across the globe.
5. To actively support and demand diversity in global media, so that a few global media
enterprises do not monopolize the industry.
6. To avoid producing or circulating offensive content such as hate speech, pornography and
defamatory remarks.

12.3. THE INFLUENCE OF MEDIA ON CULTURE

12.3.1. The use of media in culture

1. The media plays an important role in representing different opinions or traditions within
a society. However, the powerful influence of the media, dominant social groups, religious
majorities and the elite can impose their values on others.
2. The media contributes to the transmission of cultural values, beliefs and behavior from
one region to another, leading to changes in culture.
3. Modern media technologies used by the global media have ensured there is flow of
information that connects people worldwide.
4. Through social media people around the world share information and exchange ideas.
5. Mass media is used to globalize a sporting culture worldwide through promotion of
international sports such as football, athletics, rugby, tennis and cycling.
6. Global media promotes cultural diplomacy, dialogue and understanding among different
cultures.
7. Through the media, people are exposed to different cultures and this enables them to respect
and appreciate these cultures.
8. The global media promotes music that provides entertainment and reflects culture,
lifestyle and traditions.
9. Music videos that are broadcasted by the global media are embedded with cultural messages
such as lifestyle, fashion, food and dressing.
10. The media can be used to protect and restore cultural heritage.

11. In addition, using newspaper advertisements, television and internet marketing, the media
acts as ‘tastemakers’ by shaping what we care about. ‘Media tastemakers’ are people or
institutions that shape the way people think, eat, listen, drink, dress and watch.
 12.3.2 The abuse of media in culture
Global media has abused the culture through the following ways:
1. Global media, if misused, can be detrimental to the peaceful coexistence of people. The
case of the media being used to provoke violence and inflame hatred among Rwandans
before and during the genocide against the Tutsi is an example.
2. The media can influence people to engage in immoral practices such as drug and substance
abuse especially when they are portrayed as ‘cool’ or ‘mature’. This misinforms and has
negative influence on young people.
3. The advertisers use global media to sell an attractive image, lifestyle and status of their
products while ignoring the negative consequences.
4. Global media may sensationalise an issue to attract a wider audience. When such
exaggerated concerns touch on a sensitive issue such as land or religion, they can result in
disastrous uprisings.
5. Global media sometimes promotes a culture of violence. Young audiences, who are easily
influenced by what they see on television or the Internet, may mimic such acts, with tragic
results.
6. The abuse of social media is a worrying trend in this digital era where people are abused,
bullied or victimised on social media networks.
7. The abusers take advantage of anonymity to insult, incite and malign others with
impunity. There also exists a lot of hate speech, racism, tribalism and offensive content that
can cause hatred, anguish and depression among people globally.
8. The use of social media and the Internet may sometimes be used by predators to lure
innocent children and young people to pornography.
9. Inappropriate images or films are easily accessible through the social media and the
Internet globally. Pornography remains a major challenge nowadays. It leads to moral decay
in our societies.

UNIT 13: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TOURISM AND CULTURE

13.1. CULTURAL HERITAGE

 Culture refers to the way of life of a specific group of people.
 Cultural heritage refers to expressions or indicators of the way of living developed by a
community. They are passed on from one generation to another. They include customs,
objects, practices, oral history, places, artwork and values.

Cultural heritage is preserved and valued by present generations. Cultural heritage is expressed as
tangible or intangible.

 Tangible heritage (material or physical) includes historic sites, monuments and artifacts that
are preserved for future generations. They are important because they tell the history of
people’s culture and traditions.
 Intangible heritage (immaterial) includes traditions inherited from our ancestors and passed
on to future generations. They include language, oral literature, performing arts, social
 practices, rituals, festivals, knowledge about nature and the universe or the knowledge and
skills to produce traditional crafts.

13.2. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TOURISM AND CULTURE

Tourism and culture have a close relationship and benefit from each other. The different forms in
which culture is expressed, act as tourist attractions. Culture, therefore, is a resource for tourism.
Culture provides entertainment and is a source of attraction for tourism and tourism adds value to
culture. This calls for a community or country to preserve and strengthen its local cultural identity.

A. The following are positive effects of tourism on culture.

1. Tourism leads to cultural exchange between the host (local community) and guest (tourists).
2. When people share their cultures, they learn to respect the opinions and lifestyles of
other people.
3. Tourism fosters pride in cultural traditions of a community. This enables the people to
appreciate and conserve their cultural heritage for future generations.
4. Tourism adds life to the culture of a community. Cultural events and festivals that target
tourists keep cultural practices alive.
5. Community ties are strengthened in the promotion of cultural tourism.
6. Tourism gives the community a chance to revive or revitalize their native cultures, traditions
or handicrafts that might have been lo

B. Negative effects of tourism on culture

1. Important religious rituals, traditional rites and cultural festivals may end up being performed
to meet tourists’ expectations. When this happens, respect for sacred sites and objects, rituals
and rites may be lost as people see them as goods to trade.
2. Tourism can lead to cultural changes among the people and this causes the local community
to lose their cultural identity.
3. Cultural expressions such as songs and dances may be changed to suit the tastes of tourists
thus losing their authenticity.
4. Where there is lack of sensitivity to local culture and values by tourists, cultural clashes can
occur as a result of differences in cultures, religious groups, values and lifestyles.
5. Cultural arrogance sometimes occurs when tourists ignore and disrespect the host’s cultural,
social, religious and moral values and this can often lead to conflict.
6. Tourists come with lifestyles and habits that are different from those of the locals. Some local
people who interact with these tourists may copy their behavior, leading to social misfits
within the local culture.
7. Tourism may lead to cultural deterioration or damage to cultural resources when tourists
vandalize or illegally remove cultural heritage items.
8. Tourism often leads to conflicts with regard to traditional land-uses. This often occurs in
highly exploited areas such as beaches and islands that are converted into tourist beaches and
hotels.
9. Tourism provides easy access to prostitution and sex tourism which are generally regarded
as immoral and culturally unacceptable in African cultures
13.3. PROMOTING TOURISM THROUGH CULTURE
The following are strategies can be used to promote tourism through culture:

1. Informing tourists about the various cultural heritage practices and items found in the
country. This can be done through advertisements and offering incentives to tourists when
they visit.
2. Raising awareness about the less known cultural events and attractions that are found in the
country.
3. Providing good infrastructure that enables tourists and service providers’ access to cultural
heritage sites and events in the country.
4. Training key stakeholders in the tourism sector about the importance of cultural heritage sites
and events.
5. Tour operators should be encouraged to include cultural heritage sites, galleries and
museums in their tour packages.
6. Sensitising host communities and service providers to welcome and offer hospitality to the
tourists.
7. Identifying and mapping all local cultural assets including food, handicrafts, music and dance
available for cultural tourism exploitation.
8. Making it easy and convenient for tourists to make bookings and reservations for cultural
tourism packages.

UNIT 14: GENDER AND SOCIETY

14.0.INTRODUCTION

Gender-Based Violence refers to violence that targets individuals or groups on the basis of their
gender or sex.

GBV takes many forms; it can be physical, such as when you slap or push or it can be psychological,
such as when you threaten or humiliate. It can be sexual, (when one engages in rape, marital rape or
touches another person sexually without his or her consent) or economic (when a person denies the
other the opportunity to work, inherit property or access education). While gender-based violence
can affect both men and women, women tend to be victims most of the time.

In an effort to prevent and fight GBV, the Government of Rwanda has implemented laws. The
Constitution of the Republic of Rwanda supports gender equality and guarantees equal rights for
women and men. Article 11 of the Constitution asserts that; ‘All Rwandans are born and
remain free and equal in rights and duties.

14.1. THE NATIONAL POLICY AGAINST GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE

This policy seeks to have a GBV-free society in Rwanda through effectively and efficiently
preventing and responding to GBV. The policy aims to eliminate gender based violence by focusing
on three main areas:

1. Prevention – creating an environment where gender-based violence is not tolerated and reducing
the vulnerability of people who are at most risk of experiencing GBV.
2. Response – providing a wide-range of services to victims of gender-based violence and
eliminating impunity for those who commit gender-based violence.

3. Coordination, monitoring and building evidence – building coordination and monitoring

systems and improving the data available on GBV. As expressed in the policy, the government
regards GBV as a violation of Human Rights and strongly supports gender equality and
empowerment of women.

The GBV policy places a responsibility on every individual to report GBV cases, to support victims
of GBV and not to tolerate GBV in the community. The policy also recognizes that boys and men
can also be victims. You might have heard some people argue that traditions in Rwanda do not allow
women to inherit property or that husbands have the right to discipline women by beating them.
Such cultural practices and beliefs have promoted GBV in most African societies.

Effort from several government ministries is required to effectively deal with GBV issues in the
country. The GBV policy, therefore, outlines the roles of various government ministries in policy
implementation.

THE ROLES OF SEVERAL OTHER IMPORTANT AGENCIES ARE ALSO OUTLINED

IN THE POLICY. THESE INCLUDE:

a) The National Women’s Council – raises public awareness on laws pertaining to GBV.

b) Gender Monitoring Office – acts as a ‘watch dog’, monitors and evaluates national performance
on gender. It also analyses and disseminates national data on GBV after conducting assessments.

c) Rwanda National Police (RNP) – has a Gender Desk to provide rapid and user friendly services
to respond to GBV. The RNP also promotes the understanding of the GBV Law and maintains
statistics of reported cases.

d) National Public Prosecution Authority (NPPA) – works to ensure prosecution of perpetrators

of crime. It has a GBV unit to help in preventing, prosecuting and punishing GBV-related
offences.

14.2. THE NATIONAL STRATEGIC PLAN FOR FIGHTING GENDER- BASED

VIOLENCE (2011-2017)
The National Strategic Plan for fighting gender-based violence outlines the various interventions for
prevention and response to gender-based violence in Rwanda. Plans and activities are organised
under three broad areas, GBV prevention, GBV response and coordination, monitoring and building
evidence.

1. GBV prevention

The strategic plan focuses on two objectives of GBV prevention. They include:

a) To foster a prevention-focused environment where gender-based violence is not tolerated

b) To identify and support those most at risk in order to prevent gender-based violence.
The National Strategic Plan for Fighting GBV outlines several activities designed to foster a
prevention-focused environment. They include the following:

i) Conducting workshops and advocacy campaigns on gender and GBV for local and religious
leaders, law enforcement agencies, families, schools and victims of GBV.

ii) Producing regular policy briefs on GBV and developing training for positive cultural values
related to gender and GBV for students, teachers and other educational staff.

iii) Sensitising local and religious leaders on positive gender attitudes so that they can pass these on
to community members.

iv) Training media representatives on gender and GBV reporting.

v) Establishing and strengthening ‘men and boys for change’ discussion groups at all levels in the
country. vi) Integrating anti-GBV programmes into all government administrative levels.

vii) Building the capacity of Community Based Organisations (CBOs) to promote positive cultural
values that can help to reduce GBV in the community.

2. GBV response interventions

The National Strategic Plan for Fighting GBV response intervention is guided by two broad
objectives.

a) Providing comprehensive services to victims of gender-based violence

b) Improving accountability and eliminating impunity for gender-based violence.

Interventions to provide GBV victims with comprehensive and victim-centered services

include the following:

i) Providing One Stop Centres (OSC) for victims of GBV at district hospitals.

ii) Providing free legal aid to all victims of GBV. iii) Providing GBV victim-centred services
or facilities in all police stations.

iv) Conducting training for professional service providers in the provision of comprehensive victim-
centred care for victims of GBV.

v) Conducting awareness campaigns about service provision and access to all service providers and
potential victims of GBV.

vi) Supporting victims of GBV financially, medically, legally and psychologically.

3. COORDINATION, MONITORING AND BUILDING EVIDENCE

This area of focus is intended to ensure all interventions outlined in the National Strategic Plan are
effectively coordinated and monitored to ensure success.

Under this area, the National Steering Committee (NSC) on GBV has been established.
Some of the major activities include:

a) collecting data on GBV in the country

b) Training community committees and other players in data collection and reporting.

14.3. Community structures for GBV

Community-based initiatives to address GBV are an important approach to prevent and respond to
issues relating to GBV. Anti-GBV and Child Protection Committees exist at the Umudugudu, Cell,
Sector and District levels. They are meant to raise awareness, gather information and coordinate
GBV response services for victims. They also identify vulnerable children and families and provide
support services. The committees address GBV issues and protect children’s rights Monthly
community gatherings are also used to discuss Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) and to make public
any such cases. Neighbours may report instances of violence on behalf of victims who are unable to
report. The police also participate in Umuganda community gatherings and work with Community
Policing Committees and Neighborhood Watch Programmes to address GBV related issues. In
addition, they conduct media and community based awareness campaigns about GBV.

14.4. One-Stop Centres

One-Stop Centres (OSC), launched in 2009, serve as referral centres for victims of GBV and child
abuse. This is where victims of GBV and child abuse receive several free services such as; medical
care, psychosocial and legal support, prosecution of GBV and police support in the form of collection
of forensic evidence where necessary. The centres operate a 24-hour phone hotline, as well as short
term emergency accommodation for victims who are afraid to return home or need intensive support
and time to heal psychologically.

14.5. Gender Desks

Gender Desks at the Rwanda Police stations have trained staff that sensitize the population about the
prevention, response and fight against gender-based violence. Victims or witnesses of sexual gender-
based violence (SGBV) may call the Gender Desk through a toll-free hotline to report cases or seek
help. The Gender Desks investigate gender based violence cases, counsel and assist victims to access
health, legal and psycho-social support services. The police stations in Rwanda work closely with
health institutions to facilitate access to medical services for victims of GBV.

14.6. ROLE OF POLICE AND COMMUNITY MEMBERS IN REPORTING RAPE,

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE AND ABUSE CASES
Generally, the police bear a heavy responsibility in fighting rape, domestic violence and abuse cases.

A.The police have the following duties:

1. Thoroughly conducting investigations on all alleged incidents of GBV against women.

2. Carrying out investigations in a manner that upholds the rights and needs of victims of abuse and
violence while ensuring that they do not add to the burden experienced by the victim.

3. Protecting all victims of crime.

4. Preventing crime as much as possible and enforcing laws.

  To take steps to ensure safety of the victims,
 To gather and preserve detailed evidence,
 To ensure that any children at the scene of the crime are given appropriate support/assistance
as required, including referrals to appropriate agencies,
 To conduct detailed interviews with all victims and witnesses,

 To interrogate the off ender or alleged off ender at the police station.
B. Role of the community

Where victims are unable to report violence to the police, regular public meetings and the
Community policing committees at Umudugudu level provide an avenue for neighbors to report
cases of GBV and child abuse.

The Anti-GBV and Child Protection Committees that exist at the grassroots level in all districts
similarly provide an avenue for gathering information and coordinating GBV response services for
victims at the community level.

END OF S6 GSCS PROGRAM

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