STRUCTURAL GEOMORPHO

lo
LOQ~

Th e influe nc e of tec ton

ic mo vem ent s and mo ve me nts , are inc lud ed
res ult an t str uct ura l fea tur . in bro ad er tenn of
es on lan dfo rm s is of so lCS .
pa ram ount im po rta nce tha tecton.
t several ter mi no log ies
sig nif yin g tec ton ics -la nd Em ph asi sin g the sig nif ica
for ms , str uct ure -la nd for ms . nt role of stru
rel ati on ships ha ve be en fea tur es m the de ve lop me ' .
flo ate d e.g. 'ge ological nt of erosional landfCtura]
ge om or ph olo gy ' (R.J. Ch A. L.B loo m h asm am . . dh
orley, et. al, 1985), 'struc- tam e ta t, 'Itc ou ldb ear gonns
tu ra l geomorphology ' (J. tha t no sub ae na · 1re 1· f d
Tri car t, 1974), 'tectonic 1e can oc cu r until crustal ue
lan df or ms ' (A .B loo has rai sed lan d ab ov e sea upli ft
m , 19 78 ), tec ton ic -le ve l and that therefore all
ge om or ph olo gy ' etc. Th sub aer ial lan dsc ap es are
e geological co ntrols of "te cto nic " unless they are
lan dfo rm de ve lop me nt hav co ns tru cte d by de po
e bee n dis cus sed in chap- sit ion al (volcanic or
ter 2 (co nc ept 2) bri efl y bu sed im en tat ion al) pro ces ses
t the se will be ela bo rat ed . Ho we ver , it is conven-
in thi s cha pte r. ien t to res tric t the ter m
to tho se landforms that are
Be for e de scrib~ng the ass suffic iently un dis sec ted
ociations bet ween by ero sio n so that the shape
tec ton ics an d lan dfo rm s and of the fra ctu red or de for 1
structure and landfo rm s me d surface can be dis-
it is nec ess ary to exp lai n cerned. All de gre es of tra
a few terms related to this nsi tio n are found between
asp ect of geo mo rph olo gy purel y tec ton ic and total Iy
. Ac cor din g to C .D. Ol lie ero sio nal landform s' (A.L.
(19 81 ) 'te ctonics is co nce r Blo om , 1978). Bu t her e
rned with the form, pat- we are not concerned with
ter n an d ev olutio n of the eit her pure tec ton ic lan dfo
glo be's major features suc rm s (which may not be
as mo un tain ran ges, pla tea h old er than Qu ate rna ry as
us, fol d belts and island mo st of the tectonic fea-
arc s . Str uc tur al geolog tur es of the pa st ha ve
y co nce rns sm all er stru c- bee n greatly modified by
tures such as anticlines, fau den ud ati on al pro ces ses )
lts and joints. Tectogenesis or pu re denudational (ero-
me ans the stu dy of def orm sional c,r dep osi tio n al) lan
ati on .' J. Tri car t (1974) dfo rm s rather we are co~-
div ide d tec ton ics into tw o cerne d with geo m orp hic
catego ries e.g. tectostatic expressions of tectonic
an d de cto dy na mi c typ es. mo vem ent s and res ult ant
'Tectostasy ref ers to the struc tural featureS, say
act ual dis po sition of exi stin di sposition of roc ks (su ch
g str ata (tabu lar, faulted as tabular or horizon~ ,
or fol ded ) and tectodynam uniclinal fau lte d do ma l
ism to the deformations folded etc . structures) 10
. tha t the roc ks un de rw ent respo nse ' to den ud' ati onal'
at the giv en tim e per iod ' (J. pro cesses. Mode 0 .f ~en-_
Tri car t). Th us, bo th dis po es1.s, nat ure and ch ara cte ris .
sition of act ual strata and
. tic s o f pure tectonichieave
subsequent de for ma tio ns tures res ulting . •
by ear th' s end og ene tic from dia str oph1c mov ements a
bee n des cribed in the pre
ced ing chapter <9)-
 w
171
RAL GEOMORPHOLOGY
rRlJCTV s. Thu s,
T ·cart (1974) has remarked. that , 'the .proc - strea ms deve lop on lhc less resis tant rock
s fl ng stee per
J. n m u- line s of asymmetrica l cues ta featu res havi
f d.1ssection , whatever the ch mat e, are gent ler seaward
0 s, and landward facing scarp slopes and
esses b tlte nature and disposition off the rock the coast
ced Y ·
n re- facing di p slopes are fo rmed para llel to
~ny the gene ral tecto~ic ev~luti.on o an~ give lines (fig. 2. 10). Trib utari es join the mas
ter conse-
subo rdm ate to re-
. M rphoclimatic erosion 1s • quent or strik e streams almost at right angl
e. The
°
g.ion · duced by structure, and tl11 s subor mat1 tsd' ·on ·
'd called dip
)lef pro . b strea ms flowi ng down the dipslopes are
of scale .... In general , 1t m'ay e sat
1 a matter n an area streams while the streams fl owing in anti -dip direc-
part ytructural infl uences predomin ate whe h . . ). It may
t11at s 11mat1c ti on are called anti-dip streams (fig. 10.1
. ·evwed on a small scale, and morp oc , on resistant
JS Vl
scal e (J. be pointed out that dip streams drain
influence s when it is seen on a large r rock beds while anti- dip streams are deve
loped on
Tricart, 1974). leng ths of dip
less resistant (soft) rocks. The relative
of dipp ing
10.1 GEO MOR PHIC EXPR ESSION
S OF a~d anti -dip streams depend on the angle
1e, the
ONICLINAL STRU CTU RE strata. If the d_ip angles are relatively gent
e strea ms
,,,,,... Omclmal or humoclmaf stru ctures are
those slope lengths become longer and henc
of long er
which represent inclined rock strata (of sedi
men- draining on dip slope (dip streams) are
opposite
tary) at uniform dip angle caused by general
regional lengths than the tributaries draining in
i ty on
tilt. 'These structures are formed in two main
ways, di rec ti on (anti-dip streams). The drainage dcns
vari able as anti-
either by the uplift of a sequence of off-l
apping dip slope and anti -dip slop e is also
of a. dip side of the ridges is characterized by closely
coastal plain sediments or as part of one limb (higher
large dome or fold' (R.J. Chorley et. al,
1985). spaced streams of relatively shorter leng ths
dens ity due to
According to R.J. Small (1970), 'Uniclina
l struc- density) while relatively low drainage
streams
tures (sometimes referred to as 'homoclin
al') are relatively oflonger length b_ut widely spaced
given
those in which a general regional tilt has been
to the cons titue nt rock s'.
by gentle earth movements stri kf St rum
tures involve both resis tant and soft rock s Di p Strea 111 Oi P Stru m
Such struc Anti
I
soft and
and some times there are alternate bands of
d to
resistant rocks and hence these are subjecte
resistant rock s are less
differential erosion wherein
eroded than soft rocks.
The differential erosion of dipping strata of
nage
varying resistanc e gives birth to trellis drai
res such
pattern and a few typical topographic featu
ack
as scarp and vale topography, cuesta and hogb controlled
rictges etc. - , Fig. JO.I : Development of structurally
streams on dipping strat a, after C.D. Ollier,
Rivers form their valleys along soft rock beds 1981
resistant
due to comparatively more erosion than the tural
rock beds giving birth to the formation of
strike on dip slope. It is, thus , evid ~nt that 'the struc
l asym me-
vales (fig . 2.10 , chapter 2) while resistant rock
beds control of tilted strata imposes a powerfu
ms are
are less eroded and hence become lines of
asym- try on drainage networks. Escarpment strea
slop e
metrical ridges or hills known as cuestas havi
ng one stee p, short and have high gradients. Dip
side • streams are likely to have more gentle gradient s,
side of steeper scarp slopes while opposite e sus-
represents gentle slope. Homoclinal structure
formed larger watersheds, more tributaries, and mor
1978 ). It may be poin ted out
due to general ti lti ng of sedimentary beds of
coastal tai ned flow' (A.B loom,
cont inue d eros ion the
plains and retreat of sea water pres ents idea
l condi- that due to differential but
een two cues tas (fig.
tion for the deve lopm ent of trelli s drainage
pattern mas ter streams developed betw
of dip
havin g consequent and subsequent strea ms. The l 0.2) migrate laterally following the direc tion
migrates
consequent streams drai n seaward across resis
tant slope. 'The entire ridg e and valley system
process
and weak rock beds alike but the lateral cons
equent laterally as well as dow nward with time in a
•
GEOMOR PHOLOG y
172
· ta . the most significant landfonn re-
termed homoclinal shifting (monoclinal shifting Cues 1s . . l/h . .
. -:-1'" ,
suiting = t·mu ederosionofun1clma ·om1c 1mat
1rom con
by G.K.Gilbert, 1877) (A.L. Bloom, 1978)'. ,
sedimentary struc tures alternated by resistant. and.
soft rock beds. 'As in the case of manyh sluf~m1ts idn
folded roe ks, cues ta landforms are a a -mverte
relief. In essence they develop i~ tabul~r, w_eakly
. . b d der the action of d1fferenttal d1ssec-
dippmg e sun h h. h .
tion which erodes the weak beds on t e ig pomts
of folds, the resistant beds at a lower structural level
persisting' (J.Tricart, 1974).
As regards the morphology of cues~,_they
vary greatly spatially depending on local ~ondtt1ons,
'but in their simplest form they comprise a steep
scarp face, often exceeding 300 in angle and some-
times displaying bare rock faces, and a long and
gentle dip-slope (occasionally referred to as a
'backslope' when the gradient of the surface does
Hom oc1 ina1 Shift not exactly concide with the angle of dip)' (R.J.
Small, 1970).
Fig. 10.2 : Development of asymmetric drainage on There is also variation in the dimension (scale)
and form (shape) ofcuestas. The continuity of cuestas

4
humoclinal strata and homoclinal shifting of
ridge crests and valleys-after A.L. Bloom, is maintained when the anti-dip streams are not
1978). eroding actively but it is broken when these actively

Fig. 10.3: Development of double cuestas (escarpments)-after J. Tricart, 1974.

erode the cuestas (escarpments) resulting in the discontinu ous cues t?-s punctuated by freq uent
development of numerous embayments. Kaim ur hi II embayments.
ranges and margins ofBhander plateau (M.P.) hav- J. Tricart has described two distinctive types,
ing sandstone capping and alternate bands of vary- besides a general si mpl e type, of cuesrns e.g. twin
ing combinations of shales, sandstones and lime- cuestas and double cuestas. 'Twin cuestas appear
sron~s present fi ne examples of conti nuous and when, in order to reach the subjacent weaker sub-
 173
GEOMO RPHOLOGY
ucruR AL simply two s'Jperposed cuestas (fig. I 0.3), single
sfR am becomes fairly deeply incised
he sire slope being made up of two pairs of beds. The
ntuJTI, t 1 This produ.ces two parallel asym-
pe
slr" b ckses o · ·" of the same strata : ~he
·oto the a composed existence of a doubl e cuesta implie s differential
1
ctrical slop per and the slope of .the developing scarp retreat ' (J. Tricart, 1974 ). The progre ssive
111 f ce pro s must
carP a . h faces upslope .... Twm cuesta h' h dissection of twin cuestas results in the formation of
5 I
,,al IeY wh1cf sed with doub e cuestas w 1c are
be con u
no l

J. Tricart, 1974.
Fig. J0.4: Development of butte due to dissection of cuesta (scarp)-after
isolated flat-topped (by resistant caprock) buttes development of 'concave profile of a cuesta , with a
(fig. 10.4) The escarpmen!s or ridges having sym- well marked escarpment_crest in the_ resistant ~d
metrical slopes on both sides are called hogback and long regular slopes with a parabolic curvature m
ridges or simply hogbacks. / · the weak bed' (fig. 10.4).
The heigh(aimerision', reliefs and cross-sec- (2) Dip angle of the resistant cap-rock con-
tional forms of cuesta are controlled by the follow- trols the height of cuestas. Gentle dip angles (less
ing factors - than 5°) of rock beds are associated with cuestas with
(I) Lithological factors- Two aspects of greater height while greater dip angles produce low
lithology viz. (a) relative thickness of rock beds in cuestas. It may be mentioned that the height of
general and of caprock in particular and (2) varia- cuestas is determined by the mode of dissection and
lions in the relative resistance of rock strata are downwasting which is controlled by dip angles.
important. The relative thickness of caprock and When the dip angles exceed 45°, the cuestas have
underlying beds determines the nature of cuesta symmetrical slopes on both sides and thus grade into
profile, and relative altitude. Thicker beds of caprock hogbacks. 'The dip of cues ta formation has also
generally produce bold and high cues ta. It is not only been shown to influence the morphometry of its dip
the thickness of the resista nt caprock but also the slope and on Clinch mountain, a cuesta of quartzite,
thickness of underlying weak rock strata which also sandstones and shales in the folded Applachians ,
control the height of cuesta because the thicker the stream length s, basi n areas and hypsometric inte-
underlying weak rock strata, the greater the dissec- grals bear significantly negative relatio nships to the
tion at the foo t of the scarp and hence higher will be dip which varies from less than 20° to more than 6(1J'
entirecuesta. The resistance or durability of caprock (R.J. Chorley et. al, 1985).'
determines the nature and magnitude of dissection. (3) The amount of scarp retreat (recession)
The relative resistance of rock strata (resista ntcaprock determi ned by the nature and rate of massmovement
and weak underlying beds) favours differential ero- on the cuesta slope, spring sapping, dissec tion by
sion wherein underlying weak rock beds are eroded stre_ams at the foot of the scarps, weathering at scarp-
more than the overlying caprock resulting in the foot etc. determines the development of scarp-vale
 174 GEO MORPtt
• •
topo grap hy m . 3
regi.on charncten·ze d by uniclina. l The tect om c exp res sion s (reliefs) of OLO(;y
faui .
structur .;';s. Besides, uniclinal shifting include diff eren t type s of fault sca
of strc~ms 1~ rps ling
dow n-d ip directio n results in the original or acti ve fault scar ps, (2)
undercutung 0 resi du\ g· U)
scar p bas e which accentuates cuesta scarps and (3) com pos ite fault scar
profile. ps. The\cfau1t
(4) Long continued erosion results repr esen ting the fault plan e of upth
in th e rown bl arpk_s
called original or act ive . fau l
bev elli ng of previously formed cue
stas in a scarp· t scarp. It moc is
and-vale top ogr aph y. R.J . Small has
observed that, Pointed out that the tect onic . reli efs or tecton~y be
'In an area of heterogeneous gently pressions of fa_ults are ~he d~rect resu IC el(.
dipping rocks lt of faultin
whi ch has recently bee n planed by eros activity invo lving rela tive disp lace
ion and then . .. men t of cru g
affe cted by lim ited stream incision rocks. 'By ?e.fm1t .
ton, a 11 acti ve fault scarps stat
, all the esc ~- are
men ts will display sum mit bevels and original , so 1t 1~ not nec essa ry to add
, irrespec tive the adjective
of rock thic kne ss, durability (resista 'act ive' (J. Tnc art, 1974). On the
nce) or angle of other hand
dip , will reach app roximately the sam residual fault scarp is that whi ch is form
e elevations. ed afterfua
Wit h the pas sing of time, howeve
fact ors will reassert themselves, and
r, these latter
diversification
formation of original or_a~tive faul
renewal of faulting act1v1ty afte r
t scarp and th:
a period of no
in the form and heig ht of the individu tectonic activity (per iod of qui esce nce 1
al cuesta will ). Some scien-
gradually occ ur' (R.J. Small, 1970). tists mai ntain that residual scar ps are
denudational
as they are form ed afte r ero sion dur
10.2 TOP OGRAPHIC EXPRES ing period of
SIONS OF FAULT relative calm (qu iesc enc e). 'Du ring
STRUCTURE (FAULT GEOMORPH the active pe-
OLOGY) riod, the scarps may be the faul ts
A fault is a fracture in the crustal rock function as true
s wherein fault scarps, while dur ing the qui et
the roc ks are disp lace d along a plan periods erosion
e called as 'fault convert s these into residual sca rps' (J.
plan e ' (fig. 9.9). In othe r words, whe Tricart, 1974).
n the crustal If the tectonic activ ity is reac ti vated,
roc ks are disp lace d due to tensional fresh scarp is
forces caused by generated below residual fault scar
the end oge neti c mov eme nts along p due to upward
a plane, the re- movement of upth row n bloc k, thus
sult ant structur e is called a fault. In the resultant
fac t, 'fau lting entire scarp is cal led com pos ite fau
involv es diff eren tial mov eme nt of lt scarp. 'A
strata on either composite faul t scar p is thus a scar
side of faul t-pl ane (involving a single p due to a fault
plane of shear- that has been in termi ttently ac tive, so
ing ) or faul t-zo ne (involving a num that the forms
ber of closely of erosion have vari ed betw een thos
spa ced faul t-pl ane s) as a result of e associated
either compres-
sio nal or tens iona l forces in the eart with active faul t scar ps and thos e of
h's crus t. The residual fault
diff eren tial mov eme nt may be upwards scarps' (J. Tricart, 1974).
, downwards,
hor izontal , obli que or eve n rotatory Geo morph ic express ion s resulting
' (R.J. Small, from dif-
1970). ferential erosion of fault scar ps and
upthrown and
The stud y of fault geomorphology dow nthrown fault blocks incl ude diff
involves erent types of
3 asp ects of faul ting e.g. ( l) types of fault-line scarps e.g. ( I ) normal
displacement of or consequent
roc k bloc ks and thus reus ltant faul fault-li ne scarps, (2) reve rsed or obs
t types, (2) tec- eq uent or oppo-
toni c exp ress ion s of faulting and site fault-line scarps, (3) rese que nt faul
(3) geo morphic t-line scarps,
exp ress ions of fa ulti ng . (4) subdue d faul t-lin e scar ps, (5) exh
ume d fault-line
Bas ed on diff eren t types of moveme scarps, (6 ) exa ggerated fault-line scar
nts, as ps etc.
refe rred to above, diff eren t types of (I) Normal or original fault-li ne
scarp also
faults are cre-
ated in the cru stal rocks viz. normal known as conseq uen t fault scar p is
and reverse formed due to
faults, (fig. 9.10), lateral or stri ke-s erosion of weak rock s of dow nthr own
lip faults (fig. bloc ks. Such
9 .11, also kno wn as transve rse, tear fau lt-line scarps are orie nted tow ards
or transcurrent the direction
faul ts) divi ded into two sub type s-r of original fau lt scar ps (fig. 10.5( I
ight lateral or ) ). Thi s t~pe 0 ~
dex tral faul t and left lateral or sini fa ult- line scarps resu lts due to prolong
fau lts (fig . 9 .12) etc., the characteris
mo de of form ation of whi ch hav e bee
stral fault, step
tic fea tures and
n discussed in
less resi stan t bed s of dow nthr own
process of the format ion of fa ults
ed erosion °
block wh~n
has pracuc ~
::r
the pre ced ing cha pter (9). ceased and fault remain s inactive for
long period 0
time .

- -~-,•.....,._.......,.,,_ _ _ _ _ liii!'l!.i:i.IB~ t•mu.unmnun

11'

175
GEOMORPI IOLOG Y
.. rlJgAL
.~
•'fltUL

Normal original
fault sear p

OPPOSed

fault indicated
diffe rent type s of fa ult line sca rps -( 1) normal or original fault scarp, actual
Fig. 10.5 : Dev elopment of p; (2) dissection of original
derived through the erosion offault scar
by A-B is concealed under scree cover 1, s2, s3, s4 and thinning
lting in the segmentation of scarp faces-s
fault scarp due to prolong ed erosion resu loped on downthrown block,
marl cover on dow nthr own bloc k; (3) opposed or reversed fault-line scarp deve
of modified).
(buttes)-after J. Tricart (1974, slightly
and separation of original fault scarps
gh this is not
known opment than a consequent scarp, thou
(2) Oppose d fault-line scarps are also invariably the case ... the reversal of
the fault-line
dev elop in
as reversed or obsequent scarps whi ch ps scarp is possible only because a fall in
base-level has
t-lin e scar
opposite direction to the orig inal faul exposedtodenudationtheweakrockso
ntheupthrown
and ero sion of weaker
due to no further faulting side of the fault' (R.J . Small, 1970).
'Such opposed
faul ts. Suc h fault-
s_trata of upth rown blocks of the fault scarps are always due to litholog
ical control of
at rela tively
lme scarps are formed at much later date denudation and in the nature of things
they are fault-
ent t-lin e
faul
lowe r heig ht (fi g. 10.5 (3)) . 'An obsequ line scarps ' (J. Tricart, 1974). It may
be mentioned
e of devel-
scarp will normally represe nt a later stag
 ~
\76 GEOMORPHOL()Gy

that it is not necessary that before the formation of

obsequent fault -line scarps the original or normal
fault scarps are levelled down due to continued
erosion. The only condition is that the fault has
become inactive and the weaker rocks have been
suffo;iently exposed due to sufficient recession of
original scarp so that streams may excavate their
valleys on the exposed weaker rocks (as is seen in
fig . \0.5 (3) where marl bed lying under limestone
cover has been sufficiently exposed as the original
scarps have receded too far and new stream has
eroded the marl outcrop at the edge of original fault
scarp).
(3) Resequent fault-line scarps are formed
due to renewed downward erosi on caused by further
fall in base-level of erosion. In fact, resequent scarp
s
result from the reversal of obsequent scarps and are
oriented in the direction of the original or normal
(consequent) scarps but are much older than the
latter (fig. 2.8 (3).
(4) Composite fault -line scarps are those 3
which owe their origin partly due to faulting and
partly due to erosion. These represent two situations
viz. (i) upper portion of fault scarp due to faulting ~:·::::: ::::·:.
..········
... ::.:;:.·~:····
::::·..
and lower portion formed by erosion, and (ii) uppe
r
portion formed due to erosion and lo.wer portion of
fault origin . According to C.A. Cctton such fault-
line scraps are formed when fault activ ity becomes
inactive and downthrown block having greaterthick-
ness of relatively weaker formation is eroded down
to con·siderable depth , with the result origi nal fault
scarp is exten ded downward. Thus, the resultant
fault-line is characterized by upper faulted segment
and lower eroded segment. Alternatively, faul t scarp
is formed due to faulting (fig. l 0.6(1 )). After pro-
longed erosion original fault scarp disappears and
the faulted region is levelled (fig. 10.6(2)). Fall in
base level renews vigorous erosi on of downthrown
block and·thus is formed resequent fault -li ne scarp
(fig. 10.6(3). Fault again becomes active and the Fig. 10.6 : Stages of the forma tion of composite fault-
down thrown block is furth er thrown downward along line scarps-{ I) fonnation of original fault
the origi nal fa ult plane and thus the resultant fau lt- scarp, (2) oblite ration of fault scarp due to
line scarp becomes composite the upper part of erosion, (3) formation of resequent fault-
which is erosional while the lower part is faulte line scarp due to renewed erosion, and (4)
d
(fi g. 10.6(4). forma tion offau lt scarp due to further fa ult-
ing- based on C.A . Cotton ).
 177
TURAL GEOMORPHOLOGY
srRUC
(5) Resurrected or cxhum.ed faul t~line
portion of the faul t sca rp is huried under thick cover
s- It may be pointed out that 1n some s1tua- of eroded materials (fi g. 10.7(2)). The renewed
erosion of deposited materi als uncovers the buried
s.ca:;the fault scarps , after the fa ult becomes inac -
fa ult scarp which is called as exhumed or resur-
t~o eroded down to such ex tent that the lower
uve, arc rected fa ult scarp (fi g. 10.7( 3)). 'Exhu med fault
scarps whi ch are but a vari ety of the faultline scarp,
are usuall y subd ued features of much smaller dimen-
1 sion than the throw of the fa ult' (J . Tricart, 1974).
J. Tricart has opi ned that, 'One important
factor control s the evolution of all fa ultl ine scarps,
and that is the relati on between the throw of the fault
and the thickness of the hard and soft strata ...
fau ltl ine scarps present one other differenc e from
original fault scarps. Since they are product of dif-
ferential erosion, they can only occur where the
rocks offer sharp contrasts in resistance, as on the
continental platform s' (J. Tricart, 1974). Prolonged
erosion of graben results in inversion of relief wherein

Fig. 10.7 : Stages of the formation of resurrected fault-

line scarp : I. formation of original fault
scarp, 2. fault scarp covered under eroded
materials, 3. reappearance offault scarp due
to removal of deposited materials through '
renewed erosion. Fig. 10.8 : Stages of inversion of relief in a graben.
 <
178 GEOMORPHOLOGY

primary horsts are eroded down while original rift folded structure is the development of inversion of
valley is less eroded and hence the valley rises above reliefs i.e. inverted relief characterized by anticli-
the eroded horsts thus inversion of relief is the result nal vaUeys and synclinal ridges.
(fig. 10.8).
Inversion of Relief
10.3 TOPOGRAPHIC EXPRESSIONS OF FOLDED Inversion of relief in folded structure is an
STRUCTURf(FOLD -G-EOMORPHOi6GY) important but unique phenon:ienon which causes
- Setlim-en-mryrock 6eclsaresquee-zed and buck- reverse sequence of topographic features. Inversion
led and folded into anticlines and synclines due to of relief occurs in the folded structure having sym-
lateral compressive forces. The folded structure metrical folds having alternate sequence of anti-
ranges from simple folds (figs. 9.2 and 9.3) to clines and synclines and simple fonnation (fig.
complex folds (i.e. recumbent folds) depending on 10.9). With the initiation oftluvial erosion under the
intensity of compressive forces . Simple folded struc- process of cycle of erosion after the folding of
ture is charac.terized by sequence of anticlines and sedimentary rocks longitudinal master consequent
synclines (fig. 9.2). streams (strike streams) and tributary consequent
The geometry of folded structure includes streams following slope direction are originated in
an~icline, syncline, limbs, axis of fold or axial plane, the synclines and dip slopes of the anticlines respec-
axis of synclines, dip, strike etc. The upfolded rock tively. The master consequent flows in the syncline
strata in arch-like form are called anticlines while from higher slope towards lesser gradient. The
the downfolded structure formi ng trough-like fea- streams originating on the flanks of the anticlines
ture is called syncline (fig. 9.3). The two sides of the (dip slopes) join the master consequents as tributary
f~ld are called limbs of the fold. The plane which streams. These tributaries are called as transverse
bisects the angle between the two limbs of the consequents or lateral consequents which develop
anticline or the middle limb of the syncline is called their valleys through headward erosion of the anti-
the axis of fold or axial plane (fig. 9.2). On the basis clines. With march of time the crests of anticlines
of anticline and syncline these axial planes are called are breached and subsequent streams develop along
~s axis of anticline and axis of syncline respec- the axes of anticlines. These subsequent streams
t.Ively. The inclination of rock beds with respect to continue to deepen their valleys due to maximum
horizontal plane is termed as dip (fig. 9.4) while 'the vertical erosion of anticlinal crests because of maxi-
strike of an inclined bed is the direction of any mum tension on crests with the result synclinal
horizontal line along a bedding plane' (A. Holmes master consequent streams are eliminated and anti-
and D.L. Holmes). Anticlinorium refers to those clinal streams become master streams. This process
folded structures in the regions of folded mountains results m the formation of valleys in the place of
where there are a series of minor anticlines and anticlines and ridges in the place of synclines. Thus,
synclines within one extensive anticline (fig. 9.5) the previous topographic featu re (fig. I0. 9 ( 1 and 2))
while synclinorium represents such a folded struc- of original anticlines and synclines are reversed by
ture which includes an extensive syncline having the formatio n of synclinal ridges (in place of
numerous minor anticlines and synclines. Folds are original anticlines) and anticlinal valleys (in the
of differen t types viz. symmetrical folds, asym- place of original anticlines, fig . 10.9 (5)) due to
metrical folds , monoclinal folds, isocl inal folds, prolonged denudation and the process of inversion
recumbent folds, overturned folds, plunge folds, fan of relief is completed.
folds , open fo lds, closed fo lds etc . which have al-
ready been discussed in the preceding chapter (for Fluvial Cycle of Erosion on Folded Structure
details see chapter 9, figs. 9.6, 9.7 and 9.8). Initial Stage-The folded structure here
implies normal stni~ture characterized by ;egul~
Fold geomorphology includes the develop-
arrangement of alternate anticlines and synclines. In
ment of drainage pattern and topographic feat ures
other words, folded mountain is considered to have
due to denudational processes on folded structure. been formed due to folding of sedimentary rocks by
One of the resultant features of prolonged erosion of compress ive force. Such structure is simple and is ·
 1
• A()I{ Pl·IOLO<.i y
179
Al, ac01v1
c,·U~''
, ~()
s

· · of relief
Fig · 10·9 ·· S1 ages oif mverswn
character ·izedb y open folds and absence of recum- streams begins with the upliftment and folding of
be nt foldi rocks. It is hypothesised that the region after folding
ng, overthrust folds, nappes and thrusts.
There .ts reg l . . remains stable for long geological period and thus .
sy . u ar arrangement of anticlines and
nc1ineswh· h d · of complexity. The folded the cycle of erosion passes through successive stages
strat . ic are evo1d
a include bd · of y_outh, mature and old resulting in the sequential
Fluvial . e _s of resistan t and weak rocks.
. erosion With the initiation of consequent changes in landform s through time.
180 GEOMORP!io
LO()\'

Fig. JO.JO: Inversion of relief- after J. Tricart, 1974

'¥ outhful Stage-Consequent streams origi- of the anticlines (dip slopes). Lateral consequents
nate on the folds including both anticlines and extend their courses upslop e through headward ero-
synclines. Master consequent streams originate in sion and establish their valleys on anticlinal axes and
the synclinal troughs. These are called synclinal or form gorges . Later on, streams also develop on the
longitudinal consequents, the channel gradient of anticlinal axes, which are called as ~ubsequent streams.
which is determined by the slope of synclines. Con- The headward erosion at the anticlinal crests results
sequent streams also originate on the dip slopes of in river capture with the result several small streams
the anticlines and join the masterconsequentsynclinal developed on anticlinal crests are integrated and
streams as tributaries, which are also called as trans- anticli nal axial stream s following the strike direc-
verse or lateral consequent streams. Al these tion develop at the anticlinal crests (A stream on fold
streams flow down the slope of the structure and thus 3 in fig. 10.11 ). The process of river capture contin-
fall under the category of sequent streams. In fig. ues and all the transverse (lateral) streams are cap-
10.11 A stream denotes master consequent while B tured and the second master streams develop at the
and C represent lateral or transeverse consequent anticlinal axes and flow parallel to the original.master
tributary streams. The newly established streams synclinal streams. These streams are called as subse-
start to erode their valleys. Lateral consequent streams quent streams (S stream on fold 4 in fig. I0.11 ), which
(B and C) erode at faster rate than the master conse-
deepen their valleys at the anticlinal crests and try to
quent (A) because of the steeper slopes of the flanks adjust them with the underlying formations.

Fig. J0.11 : Develop~rtent offlu vial cycle of erosion on folded

structure (after Von Enge/n).
 181
N.AL GEO MORPHOLOGY
.,.~ucrU
s
.
nal stream (A) developed in the original sync
line but
l\fot ur~ Stng c-:-T he on.sc l of matu re s~ag c ts the
rate of valle y deep enin g by it flow s at much lower elevation and is older than
,Jhy accc krat cd called
hL'r.3Id l:, developed on anltc • 1·ma I cres ts. The subse- · original cons equent stream. Thi s stream is
. 1· 1 ). Rese quen t sirn,.
,1rt:::in1. . .
0.11 ) or antic ~na reseque nt stream (R in fig. I0.11
· ut: nl streams (Son fold 5 m fig. l
linal ply means new consequent.
~ , 11 s erode their valleys more than mas ter sync. 1 of
,tr,:u (1) t 1e Old Stage is hera lded by the cessation
. sequent streams (A in fig . 10.11) because most of
. . o: clinal streams are relat. ively al higher height and activ e eros ion ano rel iefs are subdued and
1 · I d denu dation.
ms them are obliterated due to prolonge
have steeper channel grad1 en l than sync ma strea
.lll
fea-
and (i i) soft rock beds under resistant cap-rock
of The entire folded mountain ous regi on beco mes
sted to
anticlines are relatively at high er height than
in the tureless plain-peneplain. Streams are not adju
featu res are cov-
lines structure as the original structural
syncline. Thus , the soft rock beds of the antic
are eroded much before the soft rock beds
of the ered under thick deposits of alluvia.
synclines. Consequently , anticlinal streams deep
en If the peneplained folded mo~ ntain ous region
erosion
the anticlines due to vigo rous downcutting and
thus is again uplifted the second cycl e of flu vial
er ms and paral-
the valleys developed on anticlines become deep may be initiated with rej•Jvenated strea
her,
than the valleys deve loped in the synclines. Furt lel ridges and valleys are fonned .
the sync linal
the anticlinal streams also capture There is controversy regarding the origin of
ms (A) and henc e the prev i- erosion
master conseque nt strea
em- resequent streams in terms of flu vial cycle of
folde d struc ture is dism ists in-
ous master stream of the
rsal of over folded structure. Some geomorpholog
bered (fig. 10.11). This resu lts in the reve (1960)
are erod ed cluding S.W . Wooldridge and R.S . Morgan
previous topographic features as antic Iines lop
sync linal val- are of the opinion that resequen t streams deve
down to form antic linal valle ys and whil e othe rs inclu d-
the antic linal during second cycle of erosion
high er in elev ation than thes e orig inate
leys, bein g
in fig. ing A.K. Lobeck ( 1939) believe that
valleys, become synclinal ridges (5 and 6 durin g the 1st cycle of erosion, even during
mature
calle d as inve rsion of relie f. It is rese quent
10.1 1). This is stage. It may be suggested that whether the
of relie f is the resu lt of diffe r- e of
evident that inversion
varie ty of facto rs viz. (a) streams will originate during first or second cycl
ential erosion caused by a beds
rock erosion depends on relative resistance of rock
elevation difference, (b) relative resistance of and local conditions .
an-
beds , and (c) gradient/slope difference between
(d) Topographic expressions of cycle of ero-
ticlinal and sync linal consequent streams and rted re-
maximum tensional force at the anticlinal
crests sion over folded structures include inve
ridg es, hom oclinal
which causes and accentuates cracks and thus
aug- liefs, anticlinal ridges, synclinal
ys, hom oclinal
ments weathering and erosional processes. ridges, synclinal valleys, anticlinal valle
valleys et~ fig. I 0. 12).
The vertical erosion and valley deepening by structural in
me less ~ Anticlinal ridges are, in fact,
subsequent streams (anticlinal streams) beco . These
significant when the underlying resistant rock
beds characte r and represent upfolded rock beds
ion of
gh are further accentuated because of more eros
are exposed due to removal of overlying beds throu linal ridg es of eros ional
ms are adjacent rock beds. The antic
prolpnged erosion. Thus, the subsequent strea fluv ial cycl e of
tant origin are developed at the end of
developed and established over a ridge of resis to atmo s-
the river s inste ad of erod ing the resist- erosion when resistant beds are exposed
rock s: Now , lina l
to unic lina l/ho moc lina l shift - pheric processes (7 in fig. l 0.11 represents antic
ant beds, are subj ected tural
s. ridge of erosional origin while 1 denotes struc
ing along the dip slope of relatively resistant riJge anticlinal ridge).
linal
Thus, the subsequent streams easily erode the sync in
rock ,Jh"Synclinal ridges are of erosional orig
ridge s bec"1 1se they are of weak lithology (soft linal
h the and are formed due to more erosion of antic
beds). Grad ually, the subsequent strea ms reac ridg es).
ulti- ridges (6 in fig . I0.11 represents sy nclinal
sync linal ridges through uniclinal shifting and
ridges A (J}H omoclinal ridges
are formed on the
mately fonn their valleys in the synclinal resistant
(orig inall y synclinal valleys). Now, this strea
m is uniclthal beds (uniformally inclined) of
similar to the original master consequent long
itudi- rocks having unifonn slopes on both sides.
 182 GEOMORPHOLQcy

superincumbent materi al is re~ oved due to Pro.

longed erosion and the under!y_mg _structure is ex.
posed to the surface and few d1smct1ve features like
>-
cuesta hogback and ridges are formed . Domes
., ~ >-
fonned due to upwarping are characterized by the
0
ICJI > .!! development of radial or centrifugal dra~nage pat.
'0 >- 0
Ill: .! 0 > tern having a set of sequent streams which follow
a 0
> ·=
u
o
C slope gradient e.g. consequent, subsequent, obsequent
:§ 0
e u and resequent stream s (fi g. 2.9).
i:"
0 C:
:z: .,,>-
-¥
u
Fluvlal Cycle of Erosion on Domed Structure
0
Most of the present day domes have passed
-
C

C through several phases of tluvial cycJe of erosion

-...
0
and hence the relief feat ures developed on domes
due to denudational processes are polycyclic reliefs.
It, thus, becomes difficult to speJI out the initial form
of domed structure for the initiation of fluviaJ cycle
of erosion . It is assumed that firs t a dome is fonned
due to upwarping and it is composed of alternate
sequence of resistant and soft rock beds whereas the
core of the dome consists of crystalline igneous rock
of relatively high degree of resistance in relation to
Fig. 10.12: Development of morphological features on erosion. The rock beds are normally disposed with-
anticlines and synclines of folded structure out any fault or recumbent fold.
due to fluvial erosion. (1) Youthful stage is characterized by emer-
~nclinal valleys are of structural origin gence of streams with the formation (doming of
and represent structural valleys formed due to down overlying rocks due to endogenetic force) of dome.
folding of rock beds. The erosional synclinal valleys Streams develop on the slopes of the dome and drain
also called as resequent valleys are formed due to down the slope and thus these are consequent
erosion of synclinal ridges at the end of cycle of streams. Because of rounded shape of dome crest,
erosion or during late mature stage (valley of R in streams radiate in all directions. In other words,
fig. IO. I I)/ consequent streams afte r originating on dome crest
radiate in all directions and flow downs lope. The
·# A~ticlinal valleys are of erosional origin
resultant drainage pattern becomes radial or cen-
as they are formed due to active downcutting of
trifugal drainage pattern which is indicative of
anticlinal crests by subsequent streams . These indi-
young domes. Young consequent streams drain
cate inversi n of reliefs.
downslope on the flanks of the domes following dip
Homoclinal valley~re of erosional ori- angle of rock beds (fig. l 0.13 A). Very few tributary
gin nd develop between homoclinal ridges and streams are developed. Consequent streams are ac-
resistant beds of anti clines. In fact, the situation of tively engaged in valley deepening through vertical
relatively soft rock beds between two beds ofresist- eros ion .They extend (lengthen) their courses through
anl rocks leads to erosion of soft beds and hence the headward erosion and try to reach. the crest of the
development of such valleys) dome. Headward ernsion is assisted by weathering,
slumping and mass movement. Grad uall y and gradu-
10.4 TOPOGRAPH IC EXPRESSIONS OF DOMED ally consequent streams reach the dome crests, breach
STRUCTURE
them and fonn depress ions (fig. 10. 13 B) and basins
Domed structure results either due to upwarping which are of smaller dimen sion in the begi nn ing but
of crustal surface effected by diastrophic force or continuously they grow in size due to continued
due to intrusion of magma into surficial rocks. The erosion and weathering. It may be poi nted out that
 183
URAL GEOMORPHOLOGY
srRVCT
expos ing underlying soft rock beds (fig. 10.13 B).
The erode d and exposed parts of upper resistant rock
beds, overlooking the basins developed at the dome
crest, form scarps which are subjected to gradual
recession towards backslope becau se of contin ued
backwasting through weath ering and erosion. This
results in gradual increase in the size of the basin.
Active downcutting by the rivers results in the deep-
ening of the basin. The steepeness of scarps depends
on relative resistance of the rock beds as steep scarps
are associated with resistant beds while soft beds
give birth to scarps of gentle gradient. Downward
8 erosion of the basin developed at the dome crest
Cf+
continues till all the soft rock beds are not eroded and
C5 ~ resistant crystalline core is not exposed.
- - (2) Mature Stage--:-Valley deepening stops
with the begi nning of mature stage as by this stage all
the soft rock beds overlying resistant core of the
dome have been eroded and removed. Rivers extend
their courses on crystalline core. There is maximum
relief in the early mature stage. Numerous tributaries
C as subsequent streams develo p and join consequent
streams almost at right angle. Headward erosion by
these tributa ries results in several cases of river
capture. Consequently, annular drainage pattern
develops on the breached dome crest. Differential
erosion of altern ate beds of resistant and soft rocks
results in the formation of ridges of varying sizes and
shapes. The ridges, having steep slopes and uniform
gradient on both sides, are called hogbacks while
asymmetrical ridges with gentle slope are known as
D cuestas. Strike valley s are developed over soft rock
beds between homoclinal ridges and hogbacks. A
network of subsequent, obsequent and resequent
streams develop during late maturity. After the dis-
sectio n and removal of all the overlying soft rock
beds the well developed streams erode the resistant
crystalline rocks of the core of the dome. The fea-
tures of eroded core depen d on its size and lithological
characteri stics. The core havin g larger number of
resistant beds is less eroded and hence upper surface
becomes undula tin g and the eroded dome appears as
Fig. JO. I3 : Stages of development offluvia l cycle of ero-
sion on domed structure, A-initial, B-youth, a dissected platea u. On the other hand, the central
C-matu rity and D-old stages. part of the dome s becomes a broad basin ift he dome
the top rock cover of the dome has bee n shown to be is of small size and is composed of less resistant
of resista nt rock which is deeply cut by the streams beds.
-
''''4
184
GEOMORPHOL
3. Old Stage is characterized by °'arked re- homoc ma n ges. e entire dome is eroded Ocy
I . I "d Th .
duction in vertical erosion but phenomenal increase to featureless plain and ultimately the d do~n
0
in lateral erosion with the result there is gradual converted into a ·peneplain and thus one ~ ts
decrease in the reliefs developed during mature of flu vial cycle of erosion is completed pr p. ase
stage (fig. 10.13 C). The central part of crystalline . . OVtded
that the region remams stable for the d .
. (' h .
rocks is also eroded. Continuous lateral erosion length of ume 1or t e _completion of cycle ofes1red
er
causes disappearance of cuestas, hogbacks and sion). 0-