PHYSICS NOTES

FORM 3 SIMPLIFIED VERSION

QUICK REVISION NOTES

An Updated Well-Organized Detailed Revision Notes for the
Current Form 3 Syllabus.

SERIES 1

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Chapter One 𝐋𝐈𝐍𝐄𝐀𝐑 𝐌𝐎𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍

Specific objectives Content

1. Distance, displacement, speed,
velocity, acceleration (experimental
By the end of this topic the leaner should treatment required)
be able to: 2. Acceleration due to gravity
 free fall,
 Simple pendulum method
3. Motion- time graphs
a) Define distance, displacement,
 Displacement-time graphs
speed, velocity and acceleration
 Velocity- time graphs
b) Describe experiments to determine
4. Equations of uniformly accelerated
velocity and acceleration
motion
c) Determine acceleration due to
5. Problems on uniformly accelerated
gravity
motion
d) Plot and explain motion- time
graphs
e) Apply the equation of uniformly
accelerated motion
f) Solve numerical questions.

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Introduction iii. Speed

 This topic deals with study motion of bodies in a This is the rate of change of distance covered by a moving
straight line. body with time. Speed is a scalar quantity.
Terms Associated with Linear Motion 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏

i. Distance For a body moving with a non-uniform

 Distance is the actual length covered by a moving
speed,
body. It has no specific direction and it is therefore a
scalar quantity. The SI unit of distance is meter (m) 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅
𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
ii.Displacement, s
 This is the distance covered by a moving body in a  Instantaneous speed refers to the rate of change of
specified direction. Displacement is therefore a distance of a moving body at a point (an instant). The
vector quantity. The SI unit of displacement is metre SI unit of speed is the metre per second (ms-1)
(m)
Illustrating distance and displacement iv. Velocity
Consider the diagram below showing motion of a body  This is the rate of change of displacement with time.
starting from point A and moving in the direction It can also be defined as the speed in a specified
shown. direction. Velocity is therefore a vector quantity.
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏

For a body moving with a varying velocity,

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = .
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏

a) At point B, distance covered is AB while the  The SI unit of velocity is the metre per second (ms-1).
displacement of the body is AB in the direction AB
b) At point C, distance covered is AB + BC while the v) Acceleration
displacement is AC in the direction AC  This is the change of velocity per unit time. It is a
c) When back at starting point A, distance covered is vector quantity.
AB + BC + CA while the displacement is zero. 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏

𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 − 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
=
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏

Solution

𝒂=
𝒗−𝒖
, where, 𝒗 is the final velocity, 𝒖 is the initial 𝑢 = 2.0 × 105 𝑘𝑚ℎ−1 = 5.55556 × 104 𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑣
𝒕
= 0 𝑚𝑠 −1
velocity and 𝒕 is the time taken.
𝑣−𝑢 (0 − 5.55556 × 104 ) 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑎= ;𝑎 =
Instantaneous acceleration is the acceleration of a body at 𝑡 2.0 × 10−2 𝑠
a point. Deceleration or retardation is the negative = −2.777778 × 106 𝑚𝑠 −2
acceleration in which a body moves with a decreasing 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 − (−2.777778 × 106 𝑚𝑠 −2 )
= 2.777778 × 106 𝑚𝑠 −2

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velocity with time. The SI unit of acceleration is metre per Exercise

square second (ms-2).
1) A van on a straight road moves with a speed of 180 kmh-1 f0r
45 minutes, and then climbs an escarpment with a speed of
Examples 72 kmh-1 for 30 minutes. Calculate:
I. The average speed of the van
1. A body moves 30 m due east in 4 seconds, then 40 II. The average acceleration produced
m due north in 8 seconds. Determine: 2) A girl runs 40 m due south in 40 seconds and then 20 m due
a) The total distance moved by the body. north in 10 seconds. Calculate:
b) The displacement of the body. I. her average speed
c) The average speed of the body. II. her average velocity
d) The average velocity of the body. III. her change in velocity for the whole journey
Solution IV. The acceleration produced by the girl.

Measuring Speed, Velocity and Acceleration Using Ticker Timer

 A ticker timer has an arm which vibrates regularly due to

changing current in the mains supply (alternating current). As
the arm vibrates, it makes dots on the paper tape which is
moving under the arm. Successive dots are marked at the
a) 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 same interval of time
30 𝑚 + 40 𝑚 = 70 𝑚  Most ticker timer operates at a frequency of 50 hertz (50Hz)
i.e. 50 cycles per second i.e. they make 50 dots per second.
1
b) 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 (√302 + 402 ) 𝑚 The time interval between two consecutive dots is:50 =
√2500 𝑚 = 50 𝑚 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 36.87𝑜 0.02𝑠for a 50Hz ticker timer. This time interval is called a tick.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
c) 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
70 Sample sections of tapes are as shown below. The arrow shows
= = 5.833 𝑚𝑠 −1
12 the direction in which the tape is pulled.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
d) 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
50
= = 4.167 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 36.87𝑜
12

2. The speed of a of body rolling on an inclined plane is

10 ms-1 when time is 0 s at time t = 10 s the speed of
the body is found to be 25 ms-1. If the body is moving
in the same direction throughout, calculate the
average acceleration of the body

Solution

𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
(25 − 10)𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑎=
(10 − 0) 𝑠

15 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑎= = 1.5 𝑚𝑠 −2
10 𝑠

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3. A particle moving with a velocity of 2.0 X 105

kmh-1 is brought to rest in 2.0 X 10-2 s. calculate
the acceleration of the body, hence the
retardation.
Examples I. Calculate the average velocity for the motion
II. What does the area under the straight line
1. A tape is pulled through a ticker timer which makes represent?
one dot every second. If it makes three dots and the III. What is the difference between successive sections
distance between the first and the third dot is 16cm, of tape?
find the velocity of the tape. IV. Calculate the acceleration of the trolley in ms-1
Solution

Motion Graphs

 Graphs can be used to represent variation of distance,

𝑓 = 1 𝐻𝑧 speed, velocity or acceleration of a moving body with
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 1 𝑠, time. When used this way they are called motion graphs
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 1 𝑠 𝑋 2 = 2 𝑠
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 1𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑠 =
16𝑐𝑚 = 0.16 𝑚 Displacement – Time Graphs

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 0.16 𝑚

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 2𝑠
= 0.08 𝑚𝑠 −1 1. Stationary body
 Displacement does not change with time, since
3. The tape in the figure below was produced by a ticker displacement is a vector quantity the position of the
timer with a frequency of 100Hz. Find the acceleration body may be negative or positive relative to be observer.
of the trolley that was pulling the tape. Solution

Solution

1
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑡𝑠 = = 0.01𝑠
100
0.005 𝑚
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣 = = 0.5 𝑚𝑠 −1
0.01 𝑠
0.025 𝑚
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 2.5 𝑚𝑠 −1
0.01 𝑠
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 = 4 × 0.01 = 0.04𝑠
2. A body moving with uniform velocity
𝑣 − 𝑢 (2.5 − 0.5)𝑚𝑠 −1 200
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = =  For a body moving with uniform velocity, displacement
𝑡 0.04 𝑠 0.04
changes uniformly over equal time intervals. The graph
= 50 𝑚𝑠 −2
of displacement against time is a straight line whose
slope or gradient represents the velocity of the body
which is constant.

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Exercise

1. The figure below shows a piece of tape pulled through

a ticker timer by a trolley down an inclined plane. The
frequency of the ticker timer is 50Hz
I. What type of electric current is used to operate
the ticker timer?
II. Calculate the average velocity for the trolley
between A and B
2. The figure below shows a tape chart from the paper
tape obtained (frequency of ticker timer 50 Hz)

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3. A body moving with variable velocity

 a. For a body moving with a velocity
increasing uniformly with time, the
displacement-time graph is a curve of
increasing slope since the distance the body
covers increases for equal time intervals. The
slope of the graph at any given point gives
instantaneous velocity of the body i.e.
∆𝑠
𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = ∆𝑡
2. A body moving with its velocity changing
uniformly
 The gradient of this graph is a straight line;
meaning that velocity changes uniformly over
equal time intervals. This gradient graph gives
∆𝑽
constant acceleration i.e. 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = ∆𝒕

 b. For a body moving with a velocity

decreasing uniformly with time, the
displacement-time graph is curve of
decreasing slope since the distance the body 3. A body moving with its velocity changing non-
covers decreases for equal time intervals as uniformly
shown below.  a) For a body moving with an increasing
acceleration, meaning that its velocity is increasing
at an increasing rate, the velocity-time graph is
curve of increasing slope as shown alongside. The
slope of the graph at any point gives the
instantaneous acceleration of the body at that
point.

Velocity – Time Graphs

1. Body moving with uniform velocity

 The slope/gradient of the graph is zero and
therefore acceleration of the body moving
with uniform velocity is zero.

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 b. For a body moving with a decreasing

acceleration, meaning that its velocity is
increasing at a decreasing rate, the velocity-time Solution
graph is curve of decreasing slope as shown below.
 ab- the velocity of the car increases uniformly from
rest ( i.e. it accelerates uniformly)
 bc- the velocity of the car decreases uniformly to rest
( i.e. it decelerates uniformly)
 cd- velocity of the car increases uniformly but in
opposite direction (accelerates uniformly in opposite
direction)
 de- velocity of the car decreases uniformly but still in
same opposite direction (decelerates uniformly in
opposite direction)
2, A car starting from rest accelerates uniformly for 5
minutes to reach 30 ms-1. It continues at this speed for the
next 20 minutes and then decelerates uniformly to come to
stop in 10 minutes. On the axes provided, sketch the graph
Area under velocity – time graph
of velocity against time for the motion of the car and hence,
 Consider a body starting from rest moving with find the total distance covered by the car. Solution
constant acceleration for time, t. The velocity-time
graph for the body is as shown alongside.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ

1
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (35 + 20)60
2
× 30 (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑢𝑚)

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 49500 𝑚

Exercise
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅
= 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 × 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 1. The figure below shows the displacement time graph of
motion of a particle.
𝑶+𝑽 𝟏
=( ) × 𝒕 = 𝒗𝒕
𝟐 𝟐

 Therefore, area A under the velocity – time graph

represents the distance covered by the body after
time t seconds.
Examples

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1. Interpret the graph below representing motion of a car from
point a to e.

State the nature of the motion between: (i) A and B (ii) B and
C (iii) C and D

2. The figure below shows a velocity time graph for the

motion of a certain body. Describe the motion of the
body in the region: (i) OA (ii) AB (iii) BC.

3. The figure below shows the acceleration time graph for

a certain motion. On the axes provided, sketch the
displacement-time graph for the same motion.

Therefore, for a body moving with uniform acceleration, any

of these three equations may be used.

𝟏. 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕

𝟏 𝟐
𝟐. 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕
𝟐

𝟑. 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔

Examples

1. A car starts from rest with uniform acceleration of 5ms -

2
. How long does it take to cover a distance of 400m?
Solution

𝒂 = 𝟓𝒎𝒔 − 𝟐

𝑺 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎

𝒕 =?
Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion
𝑼 = 𝟎𝒎𝒔 − 𝟏
 Consider a body moving in a straight line with
uniform acceleration𝒂, so that its velocity 𝟏
𝑩𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒔; 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐

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increases from an initial value 𝒖 to a final value 𝒗 𝟒𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎 × 𝒕 + 𝟏 × 𝟓 × 𝒕𝟐

in time𝒕 and it is displaced by 𝒔; 𝟐

𝟓 𝟐
𝟒𝟎𝟎 = 𝒕
𝟐
Derivation of the 1st equation
𝟒𝟎𝟎×𝟐
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 ∆𝒗 𝒕=√ = 12.65 seconds.
𝟓
𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒂 = =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 ∆𝒕
𝒗−𝒖
𝒂=
𝒕 2. A body is uniformly accelerated from rest to a final velocity of 100ms-
1 in 10seconds. Calculate the distance covered.

𝒂𝒕 = 𝒗 − 𝒖 Solution

𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 𝑢=0

𝑣 = 100𝑚𝑠 −1

𝑡 = 10𝑠
Derivation of 2nd equation
𝑠 =?
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕, 𝒔 = 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 × 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
𝒖+𝒗
𝒔=( )×𝒕 1002 = 02 + 2𝑎𝑠
𝟐
𝑣−𝑢
𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟏, 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑎 =
𝑡
𝒖 + 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 100 − 0
𝒔=( )𝒕 = 10 𝑚𝑠 −2
𝟐 10

𝟏 10000𝑚2 𝑠 −2
(𝟐𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 ) 𝑠=
2 × 10
= 500 𝑚
𝟐
𝟏 3. A body whose initial velocity is 30ms -1 moves with a constant
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 retardation of 3ms-2.Calculate the time taken for the body to come to
𝟐 rest.
Solution

𝑢 = 30 𝑚𝑠 −1
Derivation of 3rd equation
𝑎 = −3 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 × 𝒕
𝑡 =?
𝒖+𝒗
𝒔=( )×𝒕 𝑣 = 0𝑚𝑠 −1
𝟐

𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝟏, 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡

𝒗−𝒖 0 = 30 − 3𝑡
𝒕=
𝒂
−30 = −3𝑡

𝑡 = 10𝑠

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𝒗+𝒖 𝒗−𝒖 4. A body moving with a uniform acceleration of 10ms -2
𝒔=( )×( )
𝟐 𝒂 covers a distance of 320m. If its initial velocity was 60ms-
1
, calculate its final velocity.
𝒗𝟐 − 𝒖𝒗 + 𝒖𝒗 − 𝒖𝟐 𝑎 = 10𝑚𝑠 −2
𝒔=
𝟐𝒂
𝑠 = 320𝑚
𝟐𝒂𝒔 = 𝒗𝟐 − 𝒖𝟐
𝑢 = 60𝑚𝑠 −1
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔
𝑣 =?

𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 (𝒃) 𝑹𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔

𝑣 2 = 602 + 2 × 10 × 320 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑔𝑠

𝑣 = √3600 + 6400 202 = 02 + 2 × 10 × 𝑠

400
= √10000 𝑠= = 20𝑚
20

= 100 𝑚𝑠 −1

Motion under Gravity 2. A bullet shot vertically upwards rises to a maximum height of
1000m. Determine:
a) The initial velocity of the bullet
Acceleration (In Free Fall) and Deceleration (In
b) The time of flight of the bullet
Vertical Projection) Due To Gravity Solution

 When a body is projected vertically upwards, it (a) 𝐴𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
decelerates uniformly (negative acceleration)
due gravitational pull. When this body falls from 𝑣 = 0 𝑚𝑠 −1

maximum height, it accelerates uniformly 𝑢 =? 𝑚𝑠 −1

downwards and this is called free fall.
 Consider a ball thrown vertically upwards from 𝑔 = −10𝑚𝑠 −1
the ground. The graph below shows how the
𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠
velocity of the ball changes with time from when
it leaves the ground until it hits the ground again. 𝑠 = 1000𝑚
Air resistance is assumed to be negligible.
Downward velocity is taken to be positive. The 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑔𝑠
gradient of this graph is a constant whose value is
0 = 𝑢2 + 2 × (−10) × 1000
gravitational acceleration, g.
0 = 𝑢2 − 20000

𝑢 = √20000 = 141.42 𝑚𝑠 −1

(b) 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟

1
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2 ,
2

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𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 0 𝑚

1
0 = 141.42 × 𝑡 + (−10)𝑡2
2

141.42 = 5𝑡

141.42
𝑡= = 28.28 𝑠
5

 Equations of uniformly accelerated bodies also

apply in motion under gravity.
𝟏. 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒈𝒕

𝟏
𝟐. 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐

𝟑. 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒔
Exercise

1. A stone is released from a cliff of 180m high calculate

a) The time it takes to hit the ground
b) The velocity with which it hits the water (𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒈 =
𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )
2. A body is projected vertically upward with an initial
velocity u. it returns to the same point of projection after
8s. Plot:
a) The speed time graph
b) The velocity time graph for the body
Examples
3. A body is thrown vertically upwards with an initial
1. A stone is released vertically downwards from a high cliff. velocity of u. show that:
𝒖
Determine I. Time taken to reach maximum height is 𝒕 =
a) its velocity after two seconds 𝒈
b) How far it has travelled after two seconds. II. Time flight (time taken for the body(projectile) to
Solution 𝟐𝒖
fall back to point of projection) is 𝒕 =
𝒈
(𝑎) 𝑢 = 0 𝒖𝟐
III. Maximum height reached is 𝑯𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟐𝒈
𝑡 = 2𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 IV. Velocity of return is equal in magnitude to
velocity of projection
𝑔 = 10𝑚𝑠 −1 4. A stone is projected vertically upward with a velocity of
30ms-1 from the ground. Calculate:
𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠
I. The time it takes to reach maximum height.
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑔𝑡 II. The time of flight.
III. The maximum height reached.
𝑣 = 0 + 10 × 2 IV. The velocity with reach it lands the ground.
𝑣 = 20𝑚𝑠 −1

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Horizontal projection Example

Some examples of horizontal projection include: 1. An arrow is shot horizontally from the top of the
building and it lands 200 m from the foot of the building
1. A jet from a water pipe held horizontally after 10s. Assuming that the air resistance is negligible,
2. A bullet from a gun held horizontally calculate:
3. A tennis ball when it rolls from the tennis table. a. The initial velocity of the arrow.
4. A stone thrown horizontally. b. the height of the building
5. An arrow released horizontally from bow. Solution
 Consider a body projected horizontally with an initial 𝒂. 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑢 =?
horizontal velocity 𝒖. The body maintains that initial
horizontal velocity but since it also experiences free 𝑅 = 200𝑚
fall due to gravity, it describes a curved path as
shown below. 𝑡 = 10𝑠

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅 = 𝑢𝑡;

200𝑚 = 𝑢 × 10

200
𝑢= = 20𝑚𝑠 −1
10
1
𝑏. 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛; ℎ = 𝑔𝑡 2
2

 The path followed the body projected horizontally 1

ℎ= × 10 × 102
(projectile) is called trajectory. The maximum 2
horizontal distance covered by the body projected
= 5 × 100 = 500𝑚
horizontally is called the range. The vertical
acceleration is due to gravity while the horizontal
acceleration is zero since the body maintains its
initial horizontal velocity throughout the motion. Exercise
 The displacement of the projectile at any given time
𝟏
t is given by 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 1. A ball is thrown from the top of a cliff 20m high with
𝟐
a horizontal velocity of 10ms-1 , calculate:
a. The time taken by the ball to strike the ground
Horizontal displacement, R b. The distance from the foot of the cliff to where
the ball lands.
 Since horizontal acceleration, a, is zero, 𝑹 = 𝒖𝒕 c. The vertical velocity at the time it strikes the
ground.
2. A stone is thrown horizontally from the building that
The vertical displacement, h is 45m, high above a horizontal ground. It hits the
ground at a point which is 60m from the foot of the
 Initial velocity for vertical displacement is zero. This building. Calculate the initial velocity of the stone.
means that vertical displacement is; 3. A ball is thrown from the top of a cliff 20m high with
𝟏 a horizontal velocity of 10ms-1 , calculate:
𝒔 = 𝟎 × + 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐 I. The time taken by the ball to strike the ground
II. The distance from the foot of the cliff to where
𝟏 𝟐
𝒔= 𝒈𝒕 the ball lands.
𝟐 III. The vertical velocity at the time it strikes the
𝟏 𝟐 ground.
𝒉= 𝒈𝒕 4. A stone is thrown horizontally for the building that is
𝟐
45m, high above a horizontal ground. It hits the
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Note: The time for horizontal displacement is equal to ground at a point which is 60m from the foot of the
time for vertical displacement at any given point. building. Calculate the initial velocity of the building.

NB: REMEMBER THE SIMPLE PENDULUM

EXPERIMENT.

A pendulum is a small heavy body suspended by a light

inextensible string.

Revision Exercise

1. A body moving at an initial velocity u (ms -1) i. State the direction in which the parcel moved
accelerates at a (ms-2) for t seconds and immediately it was released.
attains a final velocity v (ms-1). Represent ii. Calculate the time taken by the parcel to
this motion on the velocity against time axes reach the ground from the maximum height.
shown below. iii. Calculate the velocity of the parcel when it
strikes the ground.
2. The data in the table below represents the iv. Calculate the maximum height above the
motion over a period of 7 seconds ground the parcel reached.
v. What was the height of the helicopter at the
Time 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 instant the parcel was dropped.
in
s 5. A stone is thrown horizontally from a building
that is 50 m high above a horizontal ground. The
D in 0 20 40 60 80 95 105 110
stone hits the ground at a point, which is 65m
m
from the foot of the building. Calculate the initial
a) Plot on graph paper a graph of of the stone.
displacement (y-axis) against time.
b) Describe the motion of the vehicle for the 6. The figure represents dots made by a ticker-
first 4 seconds. timer. The dots were made at a frequency of 50
c) Determine the velocities at 4.5s and 6.5 dots per second. (Diagram not drawn to scale)
s. Hence or otherwise determine the
average acceleration of the vehicle over
this time interval.
i. What is time interval between two
3. A ball-bearing X is dropped vertically consecutive dots?
downwards, from the edge of a table and it

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takes 0.5s to hit the floor below. Another ii. The first dot from the left was made at time t
bearing Y leaves the edge of the table = 0. Copy the diagram and indicate using
horizontally with a velocity of 5m/s. find: arrows pointing downwards the dots made at
i. The time taken for bearing Y to reach the t= 0.1s, 0.2s, 0.3s.
floor. iii. Determine the average velocities of the tape
ii. The horizontal distance traveled by Y over time intervals -0.02s to 0.02s, 0.08s to
before hitting the floor. 0.12s, 0.18s to 0.22s and 0.28s to 0.32s
iii. The height of the table-top above the iv. Draw a suitable graph and from it determine
floor level. the acceleration of the tape.

4. A helicopter, which was ascending vertically

at a steady velocity of 20m/s, released a
parcel that took 20second to reach the
ground.

Chapter Two 𝐍𝐄𝐖𝐓𝐎𝐍’𝐒 𝐋𝐀𝐖𝐒 𝐎𝐅 𝐌𝐎𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍

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Specific Objectives Content

By the end of this topic, the leaner should be 1. Newton’s laws of motion (experimental
able to: treatment of inertia required)
2. Conservational of linear momentum:
a) State Newton’s laws of motion elastic collision, inelastic collisions,
b) Describe simple experiments to illustrate recoil velocity, impulse (oblique
inertia collisions not required)
c) State the law of conservation of linear 3. F=ma
momentum 4. Frictional force
d) Define elastic collision, inelastic collision  Advantages and disadvantages
and impulse  Viscosity
e) Derive the equation F=ma  Terminal velocity (qualitative
f) Describe the application of fractional treatment)
force 5. Problem on Newton’s law of
g) Define viscosity conservation of linear momentum
h) Explain terminal velocity (exclude problems on elastic collisions)
i) Solve numerical problems involving
Newton’s laws and the law of
conservation of linear momentum.

Introduction 2. The bottom wooden block can easily be pulled out of

the stack without disturbing others placed on it. The
 Effects of force on motion of a body are based on other blocks remain in a pile undisturbed except that
Newton’s three laws motion. In this topic, these laws their position is lowered because of downward pull
are looked into. of the gravitational force.

Newton’s First Law (The Law of Inertia)

 It states that “a body remains in its state of rest or of

uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by
an external force”. This law is also called the law of
inertia
3. When a moving train or a car stops suddenly,
passengers are thrown forward. The passenger in a
Definition of Inertia moving vehicle is also in a state of motion. Hence,
when the vehicle stops suddenly, the upper part of
 Is the tendency of a body to remain in its state of rest his body continues to move. This is why it is
if it was at rest or in its state of motion if it was in necessary to wear seat belt.
motion. 4. A cyclist on a level ground continues to move for
some time without pedaling.

Examples of Inertia (i.e. Examples of Newton’s First Law

Definition of Force as per Newton’s First Law of Motion
in Practice)
 Force is defined as that which produces motion in
1. When a card supporting a coin on a glass tumbler is
body at rest or which alters its existing state of
suddenly flicked, it is observed that the card flies off but
motion.
the coin falls in the tumbler. This is because the coin
tends to maintain its state of rest (it falls in glass

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because another force acts on it. Which is that other

force?)

Momentum ∆𝒑 = 𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖

 Momentum of a body is defined as the product of its 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎

mass and velocity. For a body of mass m in kg and 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎
= ;
velocity v in ms-1, 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔(𝒌𝒈) × 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝒎𝒔−𝟏 )
∆𝒑 𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖
=
𝑷 = 𝒎𝒗 𝒕 𝒕
𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖
 SI unit of momentum is the kilogram metre per second 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏’𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝒂𝒘, 𝑭∝
(kgms-1). Momentum is a vector quantity since it has 𝒕
both magnitude and direction. The direction of 𝒗−𝒖 𝒗−𝒖
momentum is same as that of the velocity of the body. 𝑭 ∝ 𝒎 ( 𝒕 ) ; 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒕 = 𝒂
Examples
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑭 ∝ 𝒎𝒂
1. What is the momentum of a racing car of mass 500kg
driven at 270km/h? 𝒔𝒐, 𝑭
Solution = 𝒌𝒎𝒂. 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒌 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚.

𝑣 = 270 𝑘𝑚ℎ−1 = 75 𝑚𝑠 −1 ; 𝑚 = 500 𝑘𝑔 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑭 = 𝑰𝑵, 𝒂 = 𝟏𝒎𝒔−𝟐 ,

𝒎 = 𝟏𝒌𝒈 , 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏. 𝒌 = 𝟏
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑘𝑔) × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝑚𝑠 −1 )
𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 ,
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 500 𝑘𝑔 × 75 𝑚𝑠 −1
= 37500 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏′ 𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝒂𝒘

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2. Find the momentum of :

a. An object of a mass 100g moving at 20ms-1
Definition of a newton as per Newton’s 2nd law of
Solution motion

𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑘𝑔) × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦(𝑚𝑠 −1 )  A newton is the force which produces an

acceleration of 1ms-2 when it acts on a body of mass
= 0.100 𝑘𝑔 × 20 𝑚𝑠 −1 1kg.
= 2 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1
Examples
b. An object of mass 2.0kg which falls from rest for
10s (Momentum after 10s). 1. What force is needed to stop a 500kg car moving at
180kmh-1 in 12.5m?
Solution

𝑢 = 0 𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑡 = 10 𝑠, 𝑔 = 10 𝑚𝑠 −2 , Solution
𝑣 =?
𝑚 = 500 𝑘𝑔, 𝑣 = 0 𝑚𝑠 −1,
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑔𝑡,
𝑢 = 180 𝑘𝑚ℎ−1 = 50 𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑠 = 12.5 𝑚, 𝐹 =?
𝑣 = 0 + 10 × 10
𝑣2 − 𝑢2
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠, 𝑎 =
= 100 𝑚𝑠 −1 2𝑠

mom=o.1x100=100 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1 02 − 502

𝑎= ,
2 × 12.5
Exercise
𝑎 = −100 𝑚𝑠 −2
1. What is the momentum of a racing car of mass 500kg
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 2𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑎𝑤, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎, 𝐹 = 500 × −100
driven at 270km/h?
2. An apple of mass 100g falls a distance of 2.5m to the 𝐹 = −50 000 𝑁.
ground from a branch of a tree.
a) Calculate the speed at which it hits the ground 𝑤ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛?
and the time taken for it to fall.(Ignore air
2. An external force applied to a ball of mass 160g
resistance).
b) Calculate the momentum of the apple just before increases its velocity from 2.5cms -1 to 275cms-1 in 10
hitting the ground seconds. Calculate the force applied.
Relationship between Force, Mass and Acceleration

Consider a force F acting on a body of mass m for a time t.

Solution
if its velocity changes from u to v, then;
𝑚 = 160 𝑔 = 0.160𝑘𝑔,
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎
= 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝑢 = 2.5 𝑐𝑚𝑠 −1 = 0.025 𝑚𝑠 −1 ,
− 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝑣 = 275 𝑐𝑚𝑠 −1 = 2.75 𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝐹 =? 𝑁
𝑣−𝑢
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎, 𝐹 = 𝑚( )
𝑡

Newton’s Second Law of Motion 2.75 − 0.025

𝐹 = 0.160 ( ) = 0.0436 𝑁
10
 It states that “the rate of change of momentum of a body is
directly proportional to the resultant external force producing
the change and takes place in the direction of the force”.

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𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 ∝ 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎

Exercise

1. What is the mass of an object which is accelerated at 5 ms -

1
by a force of 200 N?
2. A gun fires a bullet of mass 10.0g horizontal at 50 ms-1 at a
fixed target of soft wood. The bullet penetrates 50 cm into
a target. Calculate
a) Time taken by the bullet to come to rest in the
wood
b) The average retarding force exerted by the
wood on the bullet.
3. A trolley of mass 1.5kg is pulled along by an elastic cord
 Note: Impulse occurs when bodies collide and the
given an acceleration of 2ms-2. Find the frictional force
impulsive force is the one which causes destruction during
acting on the trolley if the tension in the cord is 5N.
collision. The time for which this impulsive force acts
4. State Newton’s second law of motion. Hence, show that F
determines the extent of damage caused. If time of
= ma.
impact is long, damage is less than when time of impact
5. Define the newton (unit of force)
is short. The following are some examples of designs
6. A car of mass 1500kg is brought to rest from a velocity of
made to prolong time of impact and therefore reduce
25ms-1 by a constant force of 3000N. Determine the change
damage by impulsive force.
in momentum produced by the force and the time that it
1. Eggs are packed in spongy crates
takes to come to rest.
2. Smart phones are put in soft holders
7. A hammer of mass 800 g produces a force of 400 N when it
3. vehicles are fitted with safety airbags
strikes the head of a nail. Describe how it is possible for the
4. some vehicles have collapsible bumpers and
hammer to drives the nail into a piece of wood, yet a
steering
weight of 400 N resting on the head of the nail would not
5. High jumpers usually land on soft ground
8. A resultant force F acts on a body of mass m causing an
etc
acceleration a1 on the body. When the same force acts on
a body of mass 2m, it causes an acceleration a2. Express a2
in terms of a1.
Impulse

 Impulse is defined as the product of force acting on a body Examples

and the time in which the force acts. Impulsive force refers
to the force which acts on a body for a very short time during 1. Determine the change in momentum produced when a
a collision. force of 4000 N acts on a body which is at rest for 0.003
 If a force 𝑭 acts on a body of mass 𝒎 for time, 𝒕, then the minutes
impulse of the force is given by: Solution
𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝐹 = 4000 𝑁, 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑡 = 0.003 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 = 0.18 𝑠
𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 = 𝑭𝒕 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝐹𝑡
(𝑺𝑰 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 (𝑵𝒔))
𝑩𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏’𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝒂𝒘 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝑭 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 4000 × 0.18
𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖 = 720 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑜𝑟 720 𝑁𝑠
=
𝒕
𝑭𝒕 = 𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖, 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝑭𝒕 = 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒗 − 𝒎𝒖 2. A car of mass 400 kg starts from rest on a horizontal track. Find
𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 the speed 4 s after starting if the tractive force by the engine is
500 N.
 This implies that the impulse of force acting on a body
during some time interval is equal to the change in
Solution
momentum produced in that body in that time.
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚, 𝐹𝑡 = 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢)
 The area under the plot of force F against time (t)
500 × 4 = 400(𝑣 − 0)
represents impulse or change in momentum during a
collision. 500×4
𝑣= = 5 𝑚𝑠 −1
400

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Exercise

1. An apple of mass 100g falls a distance of 2.5m to the

ground from a branch of a tree.
I.Calculate the speed at which it hits the ground and
the time taken for it to fall. (Ignore air
resistance).
II. Assuming the apple takes 100 milliseconds to come to C. Lift moving downwards with acceleration
rest Calculate the average force experienced by the
apple.  The downward acceleration is negative and this is
2. The table below shows the values of the resultant force, F, why the one feels lighter when lift is accelerating
and the time t for a bullet traveling inside the gun barrel
downwards. Therefore reading on the machine
after the trigger is pulled.
(apparent weight of the body in lift) is:
Force, F (N) 36 34 30 240 17 11
0 0 0 0 0 𝑷’
= 𝒎𝒈 − 𝒎𝒂
Time, (t) 3 4 8 1 17 22
(millisecond 2 Notes:
s)
I. Plot a graph of Force, F, against time t. I. If the lift moves with constant velocity, the machine
II. Determine from the graph: will read weight of the body since acceleration will
a) The time required for the bullet to travel the be zero.
length of the barrel assuming that the force II. If a = g(free fall) the body will experience
becomes zero just at the end of the barrel. weightlessness since the reaction from the lift on
b) The impulse of the force. the body will be zero.
c) Given that the bullet emerges from the muzzle of
Exercise
the gun with a velocity of 200 m/s, calculate the
mass of the bullet.
3. A body of mass 5 kg is ejected vertically from the ground 1. A lady of mass 80 kg stands on weighing machine
when a force of 600N acts on it for 0.1s. Calculate the in a lift. Determine the reading on the weighing
velocity with which the body leaves the ground. machine when the lift moves:
4. A high jumper usually lands on a thick soft mattress. a) downwards at a constant velocity of 2.0 ms-1
Explain how the mattress helps in reducing the force of b) downwards with an acceleration of 3 ms-2
impact. c) upwards with an acceleration of 3 ms-2
2. A man of mass 80 kg stands on a lift which is
accelerating upwards at 0.5 ms-2. if 𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝑵/𝒌𝒈
Newton’s Third Law of Motion determine the reaction on the man by the floor of
the lift.
It states that “for every action, there is an equal but opposite
reaction force”. This means that if a body P exerts a force on
another body Q, Q exerts an equal and opposite force on P. It is The Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum
clear that it is due to action (force exerted by foot on ground) and
reaction (force exerted by earth on foot) that we are able to walk  This law states that, “for a system of colliding bodies,
forward. their total linear momentum is a constant, provided no
external forces are acting”.
 If a body A of mass mA initially moving with a velocity of
uA collides lineally with a body B of mass m B initially
moving with a velocity uB and their velocities after
collision are vA and vB respectively, then:
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒕

= 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

Weight in a lift
𝒎𝑨 𝒖𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒖𝑩 = 𝒎𝑨 𝒗𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒗𝑩

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a. Lift at rest 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆: 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒔 𝒂 𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒃𝒆
 Lift machine reads the weight of the body in lift since action
and reaction are equal and opposite i.e. R = mg. 𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
b. Lift moving upwards with acceleration a
The resultant upward force F produces the acceleration (F
=ma)𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒖𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑭 = Types of Collisions
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒖𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑷 −
𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 (𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕) 𝑾 I. Elastic Collision
 This is a collision in which both kinetic energy and
𝑭 = 𝑷 − 𝑾 ⇒ 𝑷 = 𝑭 + 𝒘 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ∴ momentum are conserved. If the bodies A and B above
collide elastically;
𝑷 = 𝒎𝒈 + 𝒎𝒂 𝒎𝑨 𝒖𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒖𝑩 = 𝒎𝑨 𝒗𝑨 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒗𝑩

 This is what the lift machine will read (the reaction of the lift 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒎 𝒖 𝟐 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒖𝑩 𝟐 = 𝒎𝑨 𝒗𝑨𝟐 + 𝒎𝑩 𝒗𝑩𝟐
on the body). 𝟐 𝑨 𝑨 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

 Note: In this collision, bodies separate and move in same

or different directions after collision.

II. Inelastic Collision I. 𝑚𝑏 𝑢𝑏 + 𝑚𝑤 𝑢𝑤 = (𝑚𝑏 + 𝑚𝑤 )𝑣

 This is a collision in which momentum is 0. 020 × 50 + 1.980 × 0 = (0.020 + 1.980)𝑣
1
conserved but kinetic energy is not. In this 𝑣 = = 0.5 𝑚𝑠 −1
collision, colliding bodies fuse and move 2
II. 𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐾. 𝐸 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑃. 𝐸
together in one direction with a common 1
velocity. 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ, 𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡
2
 If the collision of bodies A and B above collide 1
× 0.52 = 10 × ℎ
inelastically, then; 2
0.125
𝒎 𝑨 𝒖 𝑨 + 𝒎 𝑩 𝒖 𝑩 = 𝒎 𝑨 𝒗 𝑨 + 𝒎 𝑩 𝒗𝑩 ℎ= = 0.0125 𝑚
𝟏 𝟏 10
𝒎 𝒖 𝟐 + 𝒎 𝑩 𝒖𝑩 𝟐 Exercise
𝟐 𝑨 𝑨 𝟐 1. A lorry of mass 3000 kg travelling at a constant
𝟏 𝟏
≠ 𝒎 𝑨 𝒗 𝑨 𝟐 + 𝒎 𝑩 𝒗𝑩 𝟐 velocity of 72 kmh-1 collides with a stationary car of
𝟐 𝟐 mass 600 kg. The impact takes 1.5 seconds before the
 Note: the total kinetic energy after the impact is
two move together at a constant velocity for 15
always less than the total kinetic energy before
seconds. Calculate:
the impact and the loss is due to: i. The common velocity
I. Energy used in deformation of bodies ii. The distance moved after the impact
II. Energy transformed to heat, sound and iii. The impulsive force
even light iv. The change in kinetic energy
Examples 2. A bullet of mass 15 g is short from a gun 15 kg with a
1. Two trolleys of masses 2 kg and 1.5 kg are muzzle velocity of 200 ms-1. If the bullet is 20 cm long,
traveling towards each other at 0.25m/s and calculate:
0.40 m/s respectively. The trolleys combine on I. the acceleration of the bullet
II. the recoil velocity of the gun
collision.
3. Explain how:
I. Calculate the velocity of the combined
i. Rocket propulsion takes place
trolleys. ii. Garden sprinkler works

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II. In what direction do the trolleys move

after collision? Frictional Force
Solution  Frictional force refers to the force that opposes or
tends to oppose relative motion between two surfaces
in contact. Frictional force acts in the direction
opposite to that of the pulling force.
Types of Frictional Force
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 I. Static/ Limiting Frictional Force
= 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛  This is the force required to just start the body sliding.
𝑚𝐴 𝑢𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 𝑢𝐵 = (𝑚𝐴 + 𝑚𝐵 )𝑣. The force is directly proportional to the reaction force
⇒ 2.5 × 0.25 + 1.5 × (−0.40) on the body by the surface.𝑭𝑺 = µ𝒔 𝑹 ,
= (2.5 + 1.5)𝑣 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 µ𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒐𝒓 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈
0.25 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
𝑣= = 0.00625 𝑚𝑠 −1
4.0
II. Kinetic/ Sliding Frictional Force
III. They move in the direction to which trolley
 This is the force required to keep the body
of mass 2.5 kg was moving to before
collision sliding or moving at a constant speed. It
2. A bullet 0f mass 20 g travelling horizontally at a speed of 50 ms - opposes motion between two surfaces that
1 embeds itself in a block of wood of mass 1980 g suspended

from a light inextensible string. Find:

are in relative motion. Sliding friction is
I. The velocity of the bullet and block immediately after directly proportional reaction force.
collision
II. The height through which the block rises
𝑭𝑲 = µ𝒌 𝑹 ,
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 µ𝒌 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒐𝒓
Solution
𝒔𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

Exercise

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Note: Consider a block of wood being pulled using a 1. A bullet of mass 10g traveling horizontally with a
rubber band on a horizontal surface as shown below. velocity of 300m/s strikes a block of wood of mass
290gwhich rests on rough horizontal floor. After
impact they move together and come to rest after
traveling a distance of 15m.
I. Calculate the common velocity of the bullet and
the block.
II. Calculate the acceleration of the bullet and the
block.
III. Calculate the coefficient of sliding friction
between the block and the floor.
2. Under a driving force of 4000N, a car of mass 1250 kg
has an acceleration of 2.5 m/s2. Find the frictional
force acting on the car.
3. A bullet of mass 22g travelling with a horizontal
velocity of 300ms-1 strikes a block of wood of mass
378g which rests on a rough horizontal surface. After
the impact, the bullet and the block move together
and come to rest when the block has travelled a
distance of 5m. Calculate the coefficient of sliding
 The rubber band stretches for some time before the
friction between the block and the floor.
block starts moving (stretch is due to limiting
4. A block of a metal A having a mass of 40kg requires a
frictional). The stretching increases to a point when
horizontal force of 100N drag it with uniform velocity
the block starts sliding steadily (sliding frictional
a long horizontal surface.
force limits motion at this point).µ𝒔 > µ𝒌
I. Calculate the coefficient of friction
 Frictional force is useful/ advantageous in walking,
II. Determine the force required to drag a similar
moving vehicles, braking, writing, lighting a match
block having a mass of 30kg along the same
stick etc.
horizontal surface, calculate.
 Frictional force can be disadvantageous as it causes
wear and tear in moving parts of machine and leads
to generation of unnecessary noise.
III. If the two blocks A and B are connected with a
two bar and a force of 200N is applied to pull the
two long the same surface, calculate.
a) The tension in the tow bar
b) The acceleration
IV. If the tow bar is removed and the 40kg blocks of
metal moves around a smooth path of radius 10m
at a constant speed of 24ms-1 calculate the
centripetal force.
V. At the end of the circular path, the 40kg mass
drops vertically in a trench 10m high and falls
freely determine the time it takes to land at the
bottom of the trench.`

Factors Affecting Frictional Force between Two

Surfaces in Contact
Example

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A smooth wooden block is placed on a smooth wooden I. Normal reaction– frictional force is directly
table. A force of 14N should be exerted on the4kg proportional to normal reaction.
wooden block to keep the block moving with a II. Nature of the surfaces- the more rough a
constant velocity. surface is, the larger the frictional force.
a) What is the coefficient of kinetic friction,µ𝒌
Methods of minimizing friction
a) Using rollers- The rollers are laid down on the
Solution
𝐹𝐾 = µ𝑘 𝑅, 𝐹𝐾 = µ𝑘 𝑚𝑔 surface and the object pushed over them
14 = µ𝑘 × 4 × 10 b) Lubrication -Application of oil or grease to the
14 moving parts
µ𝑘 = = 0.35
40

b) If a 20N brick is placed on the block, what force

will be required to keep the block and brick
moving with required constant speed?

Solution
𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, µ𝑘 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝐾 =
µ𝑘 𝑅 ⇒ 𝐹𝐾 = 0.35 × (40 + 20)
= 20 𝑁
c) Use of ball bearing -This is applied on rotating axles. Factors Affecting Viscosity In Fluids
The bearing allows the movement of the surface I. Density - The higher the density of the fluid, the
over the other. greater the viscous drag and therefore the lower
d) Air cushioning - This is done by blowing air into the the terminal velocity.
space between surfaces. This prevents surfaces from
coming into contact since air is matter and occupies
space.
Viscosity
 This is the force that opposes relative motion
between layers of the fluid.
 Consider a small ball bearing introduced gently into
glycerine in a long cylindrical jar. The forces acting
on the ball are as shown below. II. Temperature - In liquids, viscous drug decreases
(terminal velocity increases) with temperature,
while in gases viscous drug increases (terminal
velocity decreases) with temperature.

This is a Property of Mwalimu Consultancy

 The resultant downward force (𝒎𝒈 − (𝒖 + 𝑭𝒓 ))
accelerates the ball downwards. Ltd. Contact Mr Isaboke
 The viscous drag increases with velocity until the
sum of upward forces equal the downward forces, 0746-222-000 for more Educational
𝒖 + 𝑭𝒓 = 𝒎𝒈 Materials.
 At this point the resultant force is zero and the ball
attains a constant velocity called terminal velocity.

Exercise

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1. The diagram shows a tall measuring cylinder

containing a viscous liquid. A very small steel ball
is released from rest at the surface of the liquid as
shown. Sketch the velocity- time graph for the
motion of the ball from the time it is released to
the time just before it reaches the bottom of the
cylinder.

 Terminal velocity is defined as the constant

velocity attained by a body falling in a fluid when
the sum of upward forces is equal to the weight
of the body. Graphically:

2. Two small spherical identical stones A and B are

released from the same height above the ground.
B falls through air while A falls through water.
Sketch the graphs of velocity against time (t) for
each stone. Label the graph appropriately.

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Chapter Three 𝐄𝐍𝐄𝐑𝐆𝐘, 𝐖𝐎𝐑𝐊 , 𝐏𝐎𝐖𝐄𝐑 𝐀𝐍𝐃 𝐌𝐀𝐂𝐇𝐈𝐍𝐄𝐒

Specific objectives Content

By the end of this topic, the leaner should 1. Forms of energy and energy
be able to: transformations
2. Sources of energy
a) Describe energy transformations  Renewable
b) State the law of conservation of  Non- renewable
energy 3. Law conservation of energy
c) Define work, energy, power and 4. Work ,energy and power (work done by
state their SI units resolved force not required)
d) Define mechanical advantage 5. Kinetic and potential energy
velocity ratio and efficiency of 6. Simple machines
machines 7. Problems on work, energy, power and
e) Solve numerical problems involving machines
work, energy, power and machines.

Energy  Note: potential energy is the energy possessed by a

body due to its relative position or state while kinetic
 Energy is the capacity to do work. The SI unit of energy is the one possessed by a body due to its
energy is the joule (J) after the physicist James motion.
Prescott Joule who was also a brewer. Conservation and Transformation of Energy
The Law of Conservation of Energy
Sources of Energy
 This law states that “Energy can neither be created nor
 They are classified into renewable and destroyed but can only be transformed from one form
nonrenewable sources. to another.”
i. Renewable sources Energy Transformation
 These are sources whose supply can be renewed  Any device that facilitates the transformation of energy
again and again for use. Examples are; water, solar, from one form to another is called a transducer. The
wind, geothermal etc. following are some examples:
ii. Non-renewable sources Initial form Final form Transducer
 These are sources of energy whose supply cannot be of energy of energy
renewed again and again for use. Examples are; Solar Heat Solar panel
fossils, firewood, nuclear source etc. Electrical Kinetic Motor
Kinetic Electrical Dynamo
Forms of Energy Solar Electrical Solar cell
Heat Electrical Thermocouple
 The various forms of energy include:
electrical Sound Loudspeaker
o Mechanical (potential and kinetic)
chemical Electrical Battery
o Chemical – stored in batteries and foods
 Note: Energy transformations are represented by
o Electrical
charts.
o Light
o Nuclear
o Wave

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Examples Examples

Describe the energy transformation that takes place in each 1. Calculate the amount of work done by:
of the following: a) A machine lifting a load of mass 50 kg
through a vertical distance of 2.4m
a) A car battery is used to light a bulb
Solution
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒, 𝑊 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
b) Coal is used to generate electricity 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚𝑔 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
= (50 × 10)𝑁 × 2.4 𝑚 = 1200 𝐽

c) A pendulum bob swing to and fro b) A laborer who carries a load of mass 42kg to
a height of 4.0m

d) Water at the top of a waterfall falls and its

Solution
temperature rises on reaching the bottom
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒, 𝑊 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚𝑔 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
= (42 × 10)𝑁 × 4.0 𝑚 = 1680 𝐽

2. A man of mass 70 kg walks up a track inclined at

an angle of 300 to the horizontal. If he walks 20
Work and Energy m, how much work does he do?

 Work is defined as the product of force and distance

moved in the direction of application of the force. Solution

𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆, 𝑾 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑭 × 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏

𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝒅
𝑾 =𝑭×𝒅
 Work is therefore said to be done when an applied force
makes the point of application of the force move in the
direction of the force. No work is done when a person 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒, 𝑊 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝐹 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
pushes a wall until he sweats or carrying a bag of cement 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚𝑔 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, ℎ
on his head for hours while standing. = (70 × 10)𝑁 × (20 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30)𝑚 = 7000 𝐽
 The SI unit of work is the joule (J).
𝟏 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆 (𝑱) = 𝟏 𝒏𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆 (𝑵𝒎) Exercise

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N/B: Joule is the work done when the point of application of 1. A girl of mass 40 kg walks up a flight 10 steps. If
a force of 1 newton moves through 1 metre in the direction each step is 40 cm high, calculate the work done
of the force. by the girl.
2. A body is acted upon by a varying force F over a
distance of 35 m as shown in the figure below.

Notes:

I. Work done is equivalent to energy converted while doing

work.
II. The area under force-distance graph represents work
done by the force or energy converted.

Calculate the total work done by force

3. Sometimes work is not done even if there is an

applied force. Describe some situations when
this can happen.

Gravitational Potential Energy Variation of K.E and P.E for A Body Projected
Upwards
 This is the energy possessed by a body due to its height above
some surface. Consider a block of mass m raised through the  Consider a body of mass m projected vertically
height 𝒉the ground. At that height the block has gravitational upwards. Gravitational force is the only force acting on
potential energy. it, assuming negligible air resistance. As it raises kinetic
energy decreases since the velocity decreases (the
body decelerates upwards). At the same time, the
potential energy of the body increases and becomes
maximum at the highest point, where K.E is zero. As
the body falls from the highest point, P.E decreases
𝑷𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚, 𝑷. 𝑬 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 while K.E increases. The curves for variation of K.E and
= 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝑷. 𝑬 P.E of the body with time are shown below.

=
𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌 𝑿 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
𝑷. 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉

Elastic Potential Energy

 This is the energy stored in a stretched or compressed

spring. The energy is equal to work done in stretching or
compressing the spring.  Therefore, at any given
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 points;𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚, 𝑬 = 𝑷. 𝑬 + 𝑲. 𝑬 =
= 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕.
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 = 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
× 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈
(𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏) 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆
𝒐+𝑭
= × 𝒆;
𝟐

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𝑭 Examples
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 =
×𝒆,
𝟐
𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝑭 = 𝒌𝒆, 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒌 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 ∴ A stone of mass 2.5 kg is released from a height of
𝟏 5.0 m above the ground:
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 = ( 𝒌𝒆) 𝒆,
𝟐
𝟏
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 = 𝒌𝒆𝟐
𝟐 a) Calculate the velocity of the stone just before it
strikes the ground.
Kinetic Energy, K.E b) At what velocity will the stone hit the ground if
a constant air resistance force of 1.0 N acts on
 Consider a body of mass m being acted upon by a steady force F.
it as it falls?
the body accelerates uniformly from rest to final velocity v in
time t seconds. If it covers a distance s;
Solution
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝟏
= 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑲. 𝑬 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒂) 𝒎𝒈𝒉 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
= 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝑭 × 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆, 𝒔
Method 1
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝑭 × 𝒔 ; 𝟏
𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟓. 𝟎 = × 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝒗𝟐
𝟐
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒂 × (𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 × 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆)
𝒗−𝒖 𝒖+𝒗
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎 ( )×( × 𝒕)
𝒕 𝟐
𝒗−𝟎 𝟎+𝒗 𝒎𝒗 𝒗𝒕
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎 ( )×( × 𝒕) = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒕 𝟐 𝒕 𝟐 𝒗=√ = 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
𝟐
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝟐 𝒎𝒗
𝟏
Method2 𝒃) 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒉 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐 ;
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝑭 × 𝒔 ; 𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒂 × (𝒖𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝟐 ) (𝒎𝒈 − 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆)𝒉 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
𝒗−𝒖 𝟏 𝒗−𝒖
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎 ( ) × (𝟎 × 𝒕 + 𝟐 ( )𝒕𝟐 )
𝒕 𝒕
𝒗−𝟎 𝟏 𝒗−𝟎 𝒎𝒗 𝒗𝒕
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝒎 ( ) × ((𝟎 × 𝒕 + 𝟐 ( )𝒕𝟐 )) = × 𝟏
𝟏
𝒕 𝒕 𝒕 𝟐
(𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏. 𝟎) × 𝟓 = × 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝒗𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝟐 𝒎𝒗

𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝒗=√ = 𝟗. 𝟕𝟗𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏
𝟐.𝟓

1. A stone of mass 5 kg moves through a horizontal distance

10 m from rest. If the force acting on the stone is 8 N,
calculate:
a) the work done by the force
b) the kinetic energy gained by the stone
the velocity of the stone

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2. Calculate the amount of energy needed by a catapult to Power

throw a stone of mass 500g with a velocity of 10ms-1
3. A tennis ball is dropped from a height of 1.8m. it rebounds  Power is defined as the rate of doing work (i.e.
to a height of 1.25m. work done per unit time). Since work done is
a) Describe the energy changes which take place equivalent to energy used, and energy cannot be
b) With what velocity does the ball hit the ground? destroyed or created but converted from one
c) With what velocity does the ball leave the ground? form to another,
4. A ball rolls on a table in a straight line. A part from the  Power can also be defined as the rate of energy
transitional kinetic energy, state the other form of kinetic conversion OR the rate of transfer of energy.
energy possessed by the ball. 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
5. A body has 16 Joules of kinetic energy. What would be its 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
kinetic energy if its velocity was double? 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅
=
6. A force of 8N stretches a spring by 10cm. How much work 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
is done in stretching this spring by 13cm?  The SI unit of power is the watt; named after
7. A simple pendulum is released from rest and it swings the physicist James Watt. 𝟏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕(𝑾) =
towards its lowest position. If the speed at the lowest 𝟏𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 (𝑱𝒔−𝟏 )
position is 1.0m/s, calculate the vertical height of the bob Relationship between power and velocity
when it is released.
8. A metal ball suspended vertically with a wire is displaced 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = ;
through an angle 𝜽 as shown in the diagram below. The 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
ball is released from A and swing back to B.
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ×
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
Given that the maximum velocity at the lowest point B is 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
2.5ms-1. Find the height h from which the ball is released

9. A 30g bullet strikes a tree trunk of diameter 40cm at

200ms-1 and leaves it from the opposite side at 100ms-1. Examples
Find:
I. The kinetic energy of the bullet just before it strikes 1. An electric motor raises a 50 kg mass at a
the tree. constant velocity. Calculate the power of the
II. The kinetic energy of the bullet just before it leavees motor if it takes 30 seconds to raise the mass
from the tree. through a height of 15 m
III. The average force acting on the bullet as it passes Solution
through the tree.
10. The initial velocity of a body of mass 20kg is 4ms -1. How 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦; 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
long would a constant force of 5.0N act on the body in 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
= 𝑚𝑔 ×
order to double its kinetic energy? 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
11. A compressed spring with a load attached to one end and
fixed at the other and is released as shown below. 15 𝑚
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 50 𝑁 × = 25 𝑊
30 𝑠

2.A soldier climbs to the top of the watch tower in 15

Sketch on the same axis the variation of potential energy, minutes. If the work done by the soldier against
kinetic energy and total energy with time gravity is 60 kJ, what is his average power in
climbing?
12. The figure below shows how the potential energy (P.E) of
a ball thrown vertically upwards varies with height Solution

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𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
60 × 1000
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = = 66.67 𝑊
15 × 60

Exercise
On the same axes plot a graph of the kinetic energy of the ba
ll 1. A crane lifts a load of 200 kg through a vertical
distance of 3.0m in 6 seconds. Determine the;
I. Work done
II. Power developed by the crane
2. A load of 100N is raised 20m in 50s. Calculate;
I. The gain in potential energy
II. The power developed
3. Water falls through a height of 60m at a rate of
flow of 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 litres per minute. Assuming
that there are no energy losses, calculate the
amount of power generated at the base of the
water fall. (the mass of 1 liter of water is 1 kg)
4. If 50 litres of water is pumped through a height
of 15m in 30 seconds, what is its power rating of
the pump is 80% efficient? (the mass of 1 liter of
water is 1 kg)
5. A small wind pump develops an average power
of 50N. It raises water from a borehole to a point
12N above the water level. Determine the mass
of water delivered in one hour.
Simple Machines  N/B Efficiency, just like M.A of a machine depends on
friction between moving parts of a machine and
 A machine is a device that makes work easier OR Is any device weight of the parts that have to be lifted. These
by means of which a force applied at one point of it can be used reasons explain why the efficiency of a machine is
to overcome a force at some other point of it. always less than 100%.
Terms Associated with Machines Examples

1. Effort, E 1. A certain machine uses an effort of 400N to raise a

load of 600N. If the efficiency of the machine is 75%,
 This is the force applied to the machine. The SI unit of effort is determine its velocity ration.
the newton (N). Solution
2. Load, L 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑀. 𝐴 =
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
 This is the force exerted by the machine. The SI unit of load is the 600
newton (N). 𝑀. 𝐴 = = 1.5
400
3. Mechanical advantage, M.A 𝑀. 𝐴 1.5
𝜂= × 100% ⇒ 75 = × 100%
𝑉. 𝑅 𝑉. 𝑅
 This is the ratio of the load to the effort. It has no units since it is
a ratio of two forces. 1.5
𝑉. 𝑅 = × 100% = 2
75

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𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 2. A crane lifts a load of 200 kg through a vertical
𝑴. 𝑨 =
𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 distance of 3.0m in 6 seconds. Determine the;
I. Work done
 For most machines, M.A is greater than one since load is greater II. Power developed by the crane
than effort. In a few machines M.A. is less than one (i.e effort is III. Efficiency of the crane given that it
greater than load) e.g. a bicycle. is operated by an electric motor
Factors Affecting M.A of a Machine rated 1.25 kW.
Solution
I. Friction between moving parts of the machine-The greater the
friction, the less the mechanical advantage 𝑰. 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
II. Parts of the machine that have to be lifted – The heavier the
weight, the less the mechanical advantage. 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 200 × 10 × 3.0 = 6000 𝐽
4. Velocity Ratio, V.R
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝐼𝐼. 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
 It is the ratio of the distance moved by the effort 𝑫𝑬 to the
distance moved by the load 𝑫𝑳 in the same time. 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
6000
= 1000 𝑊 𝑜𝑟1𝑘𝑊
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕, 𝑫𝑬 6
𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐, 𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅, 𝑫𝑳 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐼𝐼𝐼. 𝜂 = × 100%
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑫𝑬
𝑽. 𝑹 = 1000
𝑫𝑳 𝜂 = 1250 × 100% = 80%

 Note: If two machines A and B with velocity ratios V.𝑹𝑨 and Exercise
𝑽. 𝑹𝑩 respectively are combined, the resultant velocity ratio
V.R will be given by: 1. When an electric pump whose efficiency is 70% raises water
𝑽. 𝑹 = 𝑽𝑹𝑨 × 𝑽𝑹𝑩 to a height of 15m, water is delivered at the rate of 350
litres per minute.
5. Efficiency, 𝜼 I. What is the power rating of the pump?
II. What is the energy lost by the pump per second?
 It is the ratio of the useful work done by the machine (work 2. An electric pump can raise water from a lower-level
output) to the total work put into the machine (work input) reservoir to the high level reservoir to the high level
reservoir at the rate of 3.0 x 105 kg per hour. The vertical
expressed as a percentage.
height of the water is raised 360m. If the rate of energy loss
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 (𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕)
𝜼= in form of heat is 200 kW, determine the efficiency of the
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 (𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕) pump.
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 3. Define the efficiency of a machine and give a reason why it
can never be 100%
Relationship between Mechanical Advantage, Velocity Ratio and 4. A pump uses 1g of a mixture of petrol and alcohol in the
ratio 4:1 by mass to raise 1000 kg of water from a well
Efficiency
200m deep.
I. How much energy is given by 1g of mixture?
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 (𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕)
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% II. If the pump is 40% efficient, what mass of this mixture
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 (𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕) is needed to raise the water?
𝑳 × 𝑫𝑳 (1g of alcohol = 7000J, of petrol= 48000J)
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 5. In a machine, this load moves 2m when the effort moves
𝑬 × 𝑫𝑬
𝑳 𝑫𝑳 8m, if an effort of 20N is used to raise a load of 60N, what
𝜼= × × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% is the ef
𝑬 𝑫𝑬 6. ficiency of the machine?
𝑳 𝑫𝑳 𝟏
𝒃𝒖𝒕 = 𝑴. 𝑨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 =
𝑬 𝑫𝑬 𝑽. 𝑹
𝟏
𝜼 = 𝑴. 𝑨 × × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹
𝑴. 𝑨
𝜼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽. 𝑹

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Types of Simple Machines Exercise

1. Levers The figure below shows a lever

 A lever is a simple machine whose operation relies on the I. Determine the force 𝑭𝑨 in each case
II. Determine the 𝑴. 𝑨 and 𝑽. 𝑹 in each case
principle of moments. It consists of the effort arm, load arm and
III. Calculate efficiency in each case
pivot furculum. The effort arm𝑬𝑨 is the perpendicular distance
of the line of action of the effort from the pivot. The load can,
𝑳𝑨 is the perpendicular distance of the line of action of the load
from pivot.
 Consider the figure of simple levers shown below

Classes of Levers

A. Levers with pivot between load and effort e.g. pliers,

hammer etc.
B. Levers with the load between pivot and effort e.g.
wheel barrow, bottle openers etc.
C. Levers with the effort between the load and the pivot
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕, 𝑫𝑬 e.g. sweeping brooms, a fishing rod and hammer arm.
𝑽. 𝑹 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓 =
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅, 𝑫𝑳
𝑫𝑬 𝑬𝑨
𝑼𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆𝒔; =
𝑫𝑳 𝑳𝑨 2. Wheel and axle
𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒎, 𝑬𝑨
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓, 𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒓𝒎, 𝑳𝑨  Consists of large wheel of radius R attached to axle of
radius r, the effort is applied on the wheel while the
load is attached to the axle. An example of the wheel
and axle is the winch used to draw water from well

 In one complete revolution the wheel moves through a

distance 2πR while the load moves through 2πr.
𝟐𝝅𝑹 𝑹 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍
𝑽. 𝑹 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒙𝒍𝒆 = = , 𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝟐𝝅𝒓 𝒓 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒙𝒍𝒆

Example
The figure below shows a lever

a) Determine the force𝑭𝑨

b) Determine the 𝑴. 𝑨 and 𝑽. 𝑹
c) Calculate efficiency

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Solution Example

𝑎) 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 A wheel and axle is used to raise a load of 300N by a force
of 50N applied to the rim of the wheel. If the radii of the
𝐹 𝐴
× 5 = 75 × 2 wheel and axle are 85cm and 10cm respectively, calculate
the 𝑴. 𝑨, 𝑽. 𝑹 and efficiency.
150
⇒ 𝐹𝐴 = = 30 𝑁
5 Solution
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑀. 𝐴 = ;
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 300
𝑏) 𝑀. 𝐴 = ; 𝑀. 𝐴 = =6
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 50
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 0.85 𝑚
𝑉. 𝑅 = ; 𝑉. 𝑅 = = 8.5
75 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑥𝑙𝑒 0.10 𝑚
𝑀. 𝐴 = = 2.5
30
𝑀. 𝐴 6
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑚, 𝐸𝐴 𝜂= × 100%; 𝜂= × 100% = 70.59 %
𝑉. 𝑅 8.5
𝑉. 𝑅 = ;
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑚, 𝐿𝐴

5
𝑉. 𝑅 = = 2.5
2

𝑀. 𝐴
𝑐) 𝜂 = × 100%;
𝑉. 𝑅

2.5
𝜂= × 100% = 100%
2.5

3. The Inclined Plane 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒎𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅

𝑽. 𝑹 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘 =
𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
 Consider the plane below inclined at an angle 𝜃 to the =
𝟐𝝅𝑹
horizontal. 𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉

Where R is the radius of the screw head. A screw combined with a

lever is used as a jack for lifting heavy loads such as cars.

Example
𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑳
𝑽. 𝑹 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 = =
𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒉
𝒉 The figure below shows a car- jack with a lever arm of 40 cm and
𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = ⇒ 𝒉 = 𝑳𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 a pitch of 0.5 cm. If the efficiency is 60 %, what effort would be
𝑳
required to lift a load of 300 kg.
𝑳 𝟏
𝑽. 𝑹 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 = ; 𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝑳 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

Example

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A man uses the inclined plane to lift 100kg load through a vertical
height of 8.0m. The inclined plane makes an angle of 400 with the
vertical. If the efficiency of the inclined plane is 85%, calculate

I. The effort needed to move the load up the inclined plane at

a constant velocity.
II. The work done against friction in raising the load through the
height of 8.0m Solution
𝑀. 𝐴 𝑀. 𝐴
𝜂= × 100% ⇒ 𝜂 = × 100%
𝑉. 𝑅 2𝜋𝑅 ⁄𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
Solution
𝑀. 𝐴
𝑀. 𝐴 𝑀. 𝐴 60 = × 100%
𝑰. 𝜂 = × 100%; 85 = × 100%; 2𝜋 × 0.4⁄
𝑉. 𝑅 1⁄ 0.005
𝑠𝑖𝑛 50 (2𝜋 × 0.4)⁄
60 × 0.005 = 301.63
85 × 1⁄𝑠𝑖𝑛 50 ⇒ 𝑀. 𝐴 =
𝑀. 𝐴 = = 1.110 100
100 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑚𝑔) 300 × 10
𝑀. 𝐴 = ⇒ 301.63 =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑚𝑔 ) 1000
𝑀. 𝐴 = ; 1.110 = ; 300×10
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 = = 9.46 𝑁
301.63

1000
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 = = 900.9 𝑁 Exercise
1.110
A car weighing 200kg is lifted with a jack of 15mm pitch. If the
handle is 32cm from the screw, find the applied force.

𝐼𝐼. 15 % 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑖. 𝑒. 15 % 𝑜𝑓 (𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 ) 5. Gears

15 8
× (900.9 × ) = 1411.26 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠  A gear is a wheel which can rotate about its centre and
100 𝑠𝑖𝑛 50 has equally spaced teeth or cogs around it. Two or
more gears are arranged to make a machine which can
be used to transmit motion from one wheel to
another.

4. The Screw

 If the driver wheel has 𝑷 teeth and the driven wheel

𝑸 teeth, then, when the driver wheel makes one
𝑃
revolution, the driven wheel makes 𝑄 revolution
 The distance between two successive threads of a screw is called
𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝟏 𝑸
the pitch of the screw. 𝑽. 𝑹 = ; =
𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝑷⁄ 𝑷
 In one complete revolution, the screw moves forward or 𝑸
backward through a distance equal to one pitch. 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍
𝑽. 𝑹 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 =
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍

Exercise

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A certain gear has 30 teeth and drives another with 75 teeth. How many
revolutions will the driver gear when the driving gear makes 100
revolutions?

6. Pulleys

 A pulley is a wheel with a groove for accommodating a string or

rope. V.R for a pulley system is the number of ropes supporting
load. There is the three common pulley systems.

A) Single Fixed Pulley

NB For a block and tackle with an odd number of pulleys it

is convenient to have more pulleys fixed than movable.

The velocity ratio of single fixed pulley is 1.

B) Single Movable Pulley

The upper pulley in (b) makes it possible for effort to be applied

downward. The velocity ratio of each of the pulleys (a) and (b) is 2
since two ropes are supporting the load.

C) Block and tackle

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This system consists of two or more sets of pulley blocks. Below are Example
examples.
A block and tackle system is used to lift a mass of 400 kg. If this
machine has a velocity ratio of 5 and an efficiency of 75 %

a) Sketch a possible arrangement of the pulleys showing

how the rope is wound
 Solution

b) Calculate the effort applied.

 Solution
𝑀. 𝐴 𝑀. 𝐴
𝜂= × 100% ⇒ 75 = × 100%
𝑉. 𝑅 5
75 × 5
𝑀. 𝐴 = = 3.75
100
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 400 × 10
𝑀. 𝐴 = ; 3.75 =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡

4000
⇒ 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 = = 1066.7 𝑁
3.75

Exercise

1. An effort of 125N is used to lift a load of 500N through a

height of 2.5m using a pulley system. If the distance moved
by the effort is 15m, calculate
a) The work done on the load
b) The work done by the effort
c) The efficiency of the pulley system.
2. Draw a lock and tackle pulley system of V.R 6 to show how
the pulley can be used to raise a load L by applying an effort
E
Example

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7. Pulley Belts The radius of the effort piston of a hydraulic lift is 2.1cm while
that of the load piston is 8.4cm. This machine is used to raise a
load of 180kg at a constant velocity through a height of 5m.
Given that the machine is 75% efficient, calculate:

a) The effort needed

b) The energy wasted in using this machine.
Solution

𝑀. 𝐴
(𝑎) 𝜂 = × 100% 𝑏𝑢𝑡,
𝑉. 𝑅
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝜋𝑅𝐿 2
𝑉. 𝑅 = =
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝜋𝑅𝐸 2
𝜋 × 0.0842
𝑉. 𝑅 = = 16
 They are found in posh mills, sewing machines, motor engines 𝜋 × 0.0212
𝑀.𝐴 75×16
75 = 16 × 100% ⇒ 𝑀. 𝐴 = 100 = 12
etc. If the radius of the driver pulley is R and that of the driven
𝐿 180 × 10
pulley is r, the belt turns a distance of 2𝜋𝑅 when the driving 𝐸= ⇒𝐸= = 150 𝑁
𝑀. 𝐴 12
wheel makes the revolution. The load wheel (driven wheel) at
the same time makes (b)25 % of work input is equivalent to energy wasted, i.e. 15 % of ((work
𝟐𝝅𝑹 𝑹
= 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 output)/Efficiency ×100)
𝟐𝝅𝒓 𝒓 25 1800 × 5
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝟏 𝒓 ×( × 100) = 3000 𝑁
𝑽. 𝑹 = = = 100 75
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑹 𝑹
𝒓
𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 Exercise
𝑽. 𝑹 =
𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍
1. The diagram below shows hydraulic brake system.

8. Hydraulic machines

a) State three properties of the hydraulic brake oil.

b) A force of 20N is applied on a foot pedal to a piston of
areas 50cm2 and this causes stopping force of 5000N.
I. Pressure in the master cylinder
II. Area of the slave piston
III. Velocity ratio of the system
2. Study the figure below of a hydraulic lift and answer the
question below.

When the effort piston moves downwards the load piston is pushed
upwards.

𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓

= 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓

𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 × 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 − 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏

= 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 × 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔
− 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 The areas of cross- sections of the pistons and the length of the
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
arm are as indicated. Find 𝑭𝒐, M.A and efficiency of the
𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 − 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏
= machine.
𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 − 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏

2R 2 R 2
𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 = 
2r 2 r 2

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Revision Exercise This is a Property of Mwalimu
1. The figure below shows a system of gears for transmitting power. Gear Consultancy Ltd. Contact Mr Isaboke
A has 200 teeth and act as the driving gear. Gears Band C with 40 teeth
and 100 teeth respectively are mounted on the same axle and they 0746-222-000 for more Educational
transmit motion to the last gear D which has 50 teeth.
Materials.

I. In what direction(s) would gear C and D rotate? If gear A is

rotated in clockwise direction.
II. Find the velocity ratio of the gear system
2. The figure below shows the rear wheel of a bicycle and the crank wheel
A, connected to the sprocket B by a chain. If wheel A has 40 teeth while
B has 25 teeth and the radius of the rear wheel is 42 cm, calculate:

a) the velocity ratio of the machine,

b) the distance travelled by the bicycle in one revolution of the crank
wheel.

3. The pulley system above has a MA OF 3 calculate: i) the total work

done when a load of 60N is raised through a height of 9m.ii) the
efficiency of the machine.

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Chapter Four 𝑹𝑬𝑭𝑹𝑨𝑪𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵 𝑶𝑭 𝑳𝑰𝑮𝑯𝑻

NOTE!
This is a Sample of the Well Organized Detailed Simplified Notes
Available.

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SUCCESS

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