COTRELL ATMOSPHERES, PROPERTIES OF

MATERIALS AND STRESS STRAIN CURVE

The properties of materials can be categorized into several key types based on their physical, mechanical,
thermal, electrical, and optical behaviours. These properties help us understand how materials respond under
different conditions and their suitability for various applications in fields like engineering, construction,
electronics, and more. Here's an overview of the Mechanical properties of materials:-
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:-
Mechanical properties describe how a material behaves under mechanical forces (tension, compression, torsion,
etc.).
Strength: The ability of a material to withstand applied forces without breaking or deforming. Strength can be
further classified as:
 Tensile Strength: Resistance to pulling forces.
 Compressive Strength: Resistance to pushing or squeezing forces.
 Shear Strength: Resistance to forces that cause the material to slide or tear along a plane
Elasticity: The ability of a material to return to its original shape after being deformed by an external force.
Materials like rubber exhibit high elasticity.
Plasticity: The ability of a material to undergo permanent deformation when a force is applied. Metals exhibit
plasticity during processes like forging or rolling.
Hardness: Resistance to indentation, scratching, or wear. Hard materials like diamonds are used in cutting tools.
Ductility: The ability of a material to be stretched or elongated into a wire. Metals such as copper and aluminum
are highly ductile.
Brittleness: The tendency of a material to fracture or break with little deformation. Brittle materials like glass or
ceramics break easily under stress.
Toughness: The ability of a material to absorb energy and deform without breaking. Materials like steel exhibit
high toughness.
Creep: The slow, permanent deformation of a material under constant stress over a long period, often at elevated
temperatures.
Resilience: Resilience refers to the ability of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and to
release that energy upon unloading. Essentially, resilience measures how well a material can store energy without
undergoing permanent deformation.
COTTRELL ATMOSPHERE
The Cottrell atmosphere is a concept in materials science that explains how impurity atoms (like carbon or
nitrogen) gather around dislocations in a metal’s crystal structure. The region around is called Cottrell’s
atmosphere.
Key Features of the Cottrell Atmosphere:
 Dislocations and Impurities: Dislocations in a crystal are defects or irregularities in the otherwise ordered
atomic arrangement. When a dislocation moves through a material, it distorts the crystal lattice,
 generating regions of tensile and compressive stress. Impurity atoms, especially smaller ones like carbon
or nitrogen, tend to migrate to these areas because they can relieve some of the local stress.
 Locking of Dislocations: The accumulation of impurity atoms around a dislocation can "lock" or "pin"
the dislocation, making it more difficult for the dislocation to move. This has a significant effect on the
material's plasticity and yield strength. As a result, the material becomes stronger because dislocation
movement is one of the primary mechanisms of plastic deformation in materials.
 Strain Aging: Over time, the movement of impurity atoms towards dislocations can cause a phenomenon
known as strain aging. This occurs when a material is deformed and then left to rest, allowing the Cottrell
atmosphere to form around the dislocations. When the material is deformed again, it requires higher
stress to move the dislocations because they are pinned by the impurity atoms. This leads to an increase
in yield strength and reduced ductility.
 Baking Effect in Steel: The Cottrell atmosphere is particularly important in steel. When steel is deformed
and then heated to moderate temperatures (a process known as "baking"), carbon atoms diffuse to the
dislocations, pinning them more effectively. This process is used in industries, especially in automotive
steel, to increase strength through a phenomenon called bake hardening.
Importance in Materials Science: -
Cottrell’s atmosphere is important for the design and processing of materials. By controlling the
distribution of impurities, metallurgists can tailor the mechanical properties of metals
for specific applications. For example, adding small amounts of carbon to iron to create
steel relies on controlling dislocation movement through the formation of Cottrell
atmospheres, enhancing the strength and hardness of the material.
Limitations and challenges
 Temperature Sensitivity: The formation of a Cottrell atmosphere is dependent on temperature since
atomic diffusion is required. At low temperatures, impurity atoms are not mobile, so the Cottrell
atmosphere may not form efficiently.
 Effect on Fatigue Resistance: While the Cottrell atmosphere improves yield strength, it may also
contribute to material fatigue by making dislocations less mobile, leading to crack initiation under
cyclic loading conditions.
STRESS STRAIN CURVE

TRUE STRESS vs ENGINEERING STRESS

Engineering stress and true stress are ways to measure how much force a material can take when it's being
stretched or pulled.
TRUE STRESS ENGINEERING STRESS
True stress is more accurate because it looks at the Engineering stress is calculated using the original size
material’s changing shape as it stretches. of the material, before it stretches.
You take the force you're pulling with and divide it by You take the force you're pulling with and divide it by
the area of the material as it is right now, including any the original area of the material's cross-section.
changes as it gets thinner from being stretched.
This doesn't account for the fact that, as the material
True stress gives a more accurate picture, especially stretches, its shape changes. For example, when a metal
when the material has stretched a lot and gotten thinner. wire is stretched, it becomes thinner, but engineering
stress still assumes it's the same size as when you
started pulling.

SLIP MECHANISM: -
The slip mechanism happens when layers of atoms in a material slide over each other, allowing it to change
shape permanently. This movement starts when enough force is applied and is how metals bend without
breaking. It's key to how materials deform under stress.
It takes place between the elastic limit to the point of necking.
0.2% OFFSET RULE: -
The 0.2% offset rule is used to find the yield strength of materials, especially metals, which do not have a
clear yield point. Yield strength is the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically, in the sense it
will not return to its original shape when the stress is removed.

PIPES, TUBES AND HOSE:-

Pipes:
 Purpose: Pipes are typically used to transport liquids, gases, or solids.
 Size: Pipes are measured by their inside diameter (ID), as this affects how much fluid they can carry.
 Shape: Usually cylindrical and made of materials like steel, copper, or PVC.
 Applications: Found in plumbing, oil pipelines, and industrial systems.
Tubes:
 Purpose: Tubes are often used in structural applications (for strength) or where precise flow is needed.
 Size: Tubes are measured by their outside diameter (OD) and wall thickness.
 Shape: Can be cylindrical, square, or rectangular. Materials range from metals to plastics
 Applications: Used in mechanical systems (like frames), medical instruments, and heat exchangers.
Hose:
 Purpose: Hoses are flexible and used to transport fluids or air in temporary setups or movable
systems.
 Size: Like pipes, hoses are usually measured by their inside diameter.
 Flexibility: Made from materials like rubber or PVC, hoses are much more flexible than pipes or
tubes.
 Applications: Used in garden hoses, automotive systems, and hydraulic machines.