Regulation – 2015 (CBCS Scheme)

High voltage Engineering-15EE73

2019--20

MODULE-1: Conduction and Breakdown in Gases

Syllabus
Gases as Insulating Media
Collision Process, Ionization Processes
Townsend's Current Growth Equation, Current Growth in the Presence of Secondary Processes, Townsend's
Criterion for Breakdown
Experimental Determination of Coefficients α and γ,
Breakdown in Electronegative Gases
Time Lags for Breakdown
Streamer Theory of Breakdown in Gases
Paschen's Law
Breakdown in Non-Uniform Fields and Corona Discharges.
Conduction and Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics: Liquids as Insulators, Pure Liquids and Commercial Liquids,
Conduction and Breakdown in Pure Liquids, Conduction and Breakdown in Commercial Liquids.
Breakdown in Solid Dielectrics: Introduction, Intrinsic Breakdown, Electromechanical Breakdown, Thermal
Breakdown.

Course Objectives

1. To discuss conduction and breakdown in gases, liquid dielectrics.

2. To discuss breakdown in solid dielectrics.

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1. Introduction

1. Dielectric material is a poor conductor of electricity.

2. But it can be conducted by applying high electric field.
3. It is an efficient supporter of electric field.
4. Whenever we are applying electric field the position of ions get changed and support for
electricity conduction.
5. Examples of dielectric materials are mica, glass, ceramics etc.

a) Dielectric Strength

•The dielectric strength of an insulating material is defined as the maximum dielectric stress with the
material can withstand.

b) Factors affecting Dielectric strength

1. Pressure
2. Temperature
3. Humidity
4. Nature of applied voltage
5. Imperfection of material

c) Types of Dielectrics

1. Gas or Vacuum Dielectrics

2. Liquid Dielectrics
3. Solid Dielectrics
4. Composite Dielectrics

1. Gas or Vacuum Dielectrics

1. It has high dielectric strength (10^7 V/cm)

2. Breakdown occur in the gas or vacuum is due to collisional ionization. (Ionization by
collision)
3. If the applied voltage is sufficiently large electrons are multiplied in an exponential manner &
breakdown will be occurred.
4. Examples- Sulphar Hexa Fluoride, CO2 etc

2. Liquid Dielectrics

1. The liquid dielectric are used in HV equipment for dual purpose of insulation & heat
dissipation.
2. Temporary failure can be quickly re-insulated by the liquid flow to the affected area.
3. Highly purified liquid is more suitable to serve as a dielectric medium.
4. Dielectric strength is up to 1 MV/cm
5. Breakdown strength reduces due to impurities.
6. Selection of liquid dielectric is based on dielectric strength, viscosity, stability, flash point,
gas constant etc
7. Examples- Petroleum, transformer oil (Mineral oil) etc
8. Applications- Area where equipments is continuously operated like Distribution Transformer.

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3. Solid Dielectrics

1. It has good mechanical strength & bonding capability.

2. Dielectric strength – 10MV/cm
3. Examples- Inorganic materials (Ceramics, glass etc) , Organic materials(PVC, Polyethylene,
natural rubber etc)
4. Application- Electrical apparatus

4. Composite Dielectrics

1. Combination of more than two kinds of insulators

2. Chemically stable
3. Long life span
4. But dielectric constant of two material should match
5. Two insulators never react together.
6. Examples – Oil impregnated paper, Oil impregnated metalized plastic film.

1. 1 Gases as Insulating Media

1. The simplest and the most commonly found dielectrics are gases.
2. Most of the electrical apparatus use air as the insulating medium, and in a few cases other
gases such as Nitrogen (N2), Carbon dioxide (CO2), Freon (CCl2F2) and Sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6) are also used.
3. Various phenomena occur in gaseous dielectrics when a voltage is applied.
4. When the applied voltage is low, small current flow between the conducting electrodes and
the insulation keep its electrical properties.
5. Whereas if applied voltage is large, the current flowing through the insulation increases very
sharply, and an electrical breakdown occurs.
6. A strongly conducting spark formed during breakdown practically produces a short-circuit
between the electrodes.
7. The maximum voltage applied to the insulation at the moment of breakdown is called the
breakdown voltage.
8. Two types of electrical discharge in gases: (1) Non-sustaining discharges and (2) Self-
sustaining types.

Collision Process: Ionization Processes

1. At normal temperature and pressure, a gas acts as good insulating materials.

2. When high voltage applied between the two electrodes immersed in gaseous medium, the gas
becomes a conductor an electrical breakdown occurs.
3. Ionization by collisions are two type:
a. Elastic collisions: An elastic collision is a collision in which there is no net loss in
kinetic energy in the system as a result of the collision.
b. Inelastic collisions: A collision in which the total kinetic energy of the colliding
bodies or particles is not the same after the collision as it was before (opposed to
elastic collision).

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The processes that are primarily responsible for the breakdown of gas are

1. Primary ionization process

2. secondary ionization process

1. Primary ionization process

1. Ionization by collision
2. Photo ionization

2. Secondary Ionization Process

1. Electron emission due to positive ion impact

2. Thermal ionisation
3. Ionization by interaction of meta stable with neutral atoms
4. Electron detachment

1.2.1. Primary Ionisation

a) Ionization by collision

1. Ionization is defined as a process of leaving free electron from a gas molecule with the
continuous generation of positive ion.
2. In the process of ionization by collision, a free electron collides with a neutral gas molecule
and gives rise to a new electron and a positive ion.
3. If we consider a low-pressure gas column in which an electric field E is applied across two
plane parallel electrodes, as shown in Fig. 2.1.
4. If the energy (E) gained during this travel between collision exceeds the ionization
potential, Vi, which is the energy required to remove an electron from its atomic shell, then
ionization take place. This process can be represented as :

Where, A is the atom, A+ the positive ion and e- is the electron.

5. A few electron produce at the cathode by some external means, say by ultra-violet light
falling on the cathode, ionize neutral gas particles producing positive ions and additional
electrons.
6. The additional electrons, then, themselves make ‘ionizing collisions’ and thus the process
repeats itself.

b) Photo ionisation

The ionization caused by cosmic radiation or photons is called photo-ionization.

Photo-ionization occurs when the amount of radiation energy absorbed by an atom or molecule
exceeds its ionization potential.

There are several processes by which radiation can be absorbed by atoms or molecules.

They are (a) excitation of the atom to a higher energy state, and

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(b) continuous absorption by direct excitation of the atom or dissociation of diatomic molecule or
direct ionization, etc.

This reversible process can be expressed as,

E > Ai; Condition of breakdown Where E = hγ = hc/λ

h – planks constant, c – velocity of light and λ- wave length of radiation

Figure 1.1 :Parallel plate capacitor

The higher the ionization energy, the shorter will be the wavelength of the radiation capable of
causing ionization.

Note :It was observed experimentally that a radiation having a wavelength of 1250 Å is capable of
causing photo-ionization of almost all gases.

1.2.2 Secondary Ionization

“The process of formation of secondary electrons after completion of ionization by collision & photo
ionization”

(a) Electron emission due to positive ion impact

1. Positive ion formation is due to either ionization by collision or photo ionization.

2. Positive ions moves towards cathode
3. The secondary ion is forms such a way that “Total energy >2*work function”
Where Total energy= KE+ Ionization energy

When positively and negatively charged particles present recombination take place.

This Recombination process is the reverse process of photo ionization and symbolically represented
as :

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(b) Thermal Ionization

1. At high electrical stress, the gas filling the gap between the electrodes is heated up.
2. The gases at high temperature some of the gas molecules acquire high kinetic energy.
3. The collision between molecules creates ions due to release of electron from the neutral
particles.
4. The electrons and other high speed molecules in- turn collide with each other and release
more electrons. Thus the gas gets ionized.

(c) Electron emission due to meta-stable & neutral atoms

1. In the atmosphere, there are some elements or atoms whose life time extends to few seconds,
in certain electronic states. Such atoms are called meta-stable atoms.
2. They have high potential energy.
3. Therefore, meta-stable atoms are able to ionize neutral particle.
4. It can be represented by following reaction of intersection:

d) Deionization by Attachment (Electron Detachment)

1. Electrons can combine with neutral atoms or molecules to form negative ions, in certain gases.
2. Some of the Gases have a characteristics that are lacking one or two electrons in their outer
surface known as electronegative gases.
3. Electronegative gases have very high dielectric strength due to formation of negative ion
during deionization process.
4. The reaction represented symbolically as

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Townsend's Current Growth Equation, Current Growth in the Presence of Secondary

Processes, Townsend's Criterion for Breakdown
Why Townsend’s theory… ................?

1. We can measure the probability of secondary electron formation by using Townsend’s theory
2. Analysis of ‘ionization by collision’ is carried out by Townsend’s theory
3. It is applicable for primary & secondary ionization.

Townsend’s first ionization coefficient (α)

1. α : is defined as the average number of ionizing collisions made by an electron per

centimeter travel in the direction of the field
2. ‘α’ depends upon Pressure (P) and Electric field in V/cm (E)
3. ‘ α ’proportional to (E/P)

 Let us consider a parallel plate capacitor having gas as in insulating medium and separated by
a distance as shown in Fig.

Fig1.2: Parallel plate capacitor

 Let us assume that n0 electrons are emitted from the cathode. 

 When one electron collides with a neutral particle, a positive ion and an electron are formed.
This is called an ionizing collision.
 Let α be the average number of ionizing collisions made by an electron per centimeter
distance travel in the direction of the field (α depends on gas pressure p and E/p, and is called
the Townsend’s first ionization coefficient).

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 Fig. 1.2 illustrates the breakdown phenomenon of a gas and the growth of current in the gas
which is responsible for breakdown.
 The curve has three regions:
1. Ohmic region
2. Saturation region
3. Townsend’s discharge region

Fig 1.2 : Typical current growth curve In Townsend discharge

 It is observed from the figure that the current at first increases proportionally with the increases in field
or voltage. This region is called ohmic region.
 After this state, a situation comes when current become constant I0 even if voltage is increased. The
constant current I0 is called the saturation current.
 At still higher voltage, the current increases exponentially.

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NUMERICAL

Townsend’s Second Ionization Co-efficient

1. The single avalanche process described in the previous section becomes complete when
the initial set of electrons reaches the anode.
2. The probability amplification of the electrons being release in the gap by other
mechanisms increases, and these new electrons create further avalanches.
3. The other mechanisms are
(i) The positive ions released may have sufficient energy to cause liberation of
electrons from the cathode when they impose on it.
(ii) The excited atoms or molecules in avalanches may emit photon, and this will
lead to the emission of electrons due to photo-emission.
(iii) The meta-stable particles may diffuse back causing electron emission.
4. The electrons produced by these processes are called secondary electrons.

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This is Townsend’s current growth equation due to primary and secondary ionization

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Limitation of Townsend’s theory

Townsend theory or Townsend’s mechanism applied to gas-discharge phenomenon was found to have some
drawback or limitations.
(i) First drawback is that according to Townsend’s theory, the current growth occurs as a result of ionization
process only. But in practice, breakdown voltages were found to depend on the gas pressure and the geometry of
the gap.
(ii) Secondary, the Townsend’s mechanism predicts the time-lag of the order of 10 -5seconds. While in practice,
the breakdown was observed to occur at very short time of the order of 10 -8 sec.
(iii) Townsend’s mechanism predicts the very diffused from of discharge but in practice, it was found to be
filament and irregular.
iv) It is applicable for pd value below 1000 torr-cm.

Condition for Gaseous dielectric breakdown

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Breakdown in Electronegative Gases

 Electronegative gases are the gases that have similarity towards electrons. When electron
comes into contact with these gas molecules, the gas molecule attracts the electrons and
becomes negative ion.
 The gases, which are lacking in one or two electrons in their outer shell are known as
electronegative gases.
 The most common attachment processes encountered in gases are :

 A simple gas of this types is oxygen. Other gases are Sulphur hexafluoride, Freon, carbon
dioxide, and fluorocarbons.
 In this gases, ‘A’ is usually Sulphur or carbon atom, and ‘B’ is oxygen atom or one of the
halogen atoms or molecules.
 With such gases, the Townsend current growth equation is modified to include ionization and
attachment.

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Time Lag of Breakdown

1. Theoretically the mechanism of spark breakdown is considered as a function of ionization

processes under uniform field conditions.
2. In practical engineering designs, the breakdown due to rapidly changing voltage or impulse
voltage is of great importance.
3. Actually there is a time difference in the application of a voltage sufficient to cause
breakdown and the occurrence of breakdown itself. This time difference is called as the time
lag.
4. The Townsend criterion for breakdown is satisfied only if at least one electron is present in
the gap between the electrodes as in the case of applied d.c. or slowly varying (50Hz a.c.)
voltages. This is no difficulty in satisfying this condition.
5. With rapidly varying voltage of short duration (≈10 -6 s), the initiatory electron may not be
present in the gap then the breakdown cannot occur due to not available free electron.

i. Statistical time-lag(ts): is defined as the time lapsed between the application of voltage sufficient
to cause breakdown and the appearance of initiating electron is called as statistical time lag.

1. The Statistical time lag depends upon the amount of pre-ionization present in the gap.
2. This in turn depends on the size of the gap and the quantity of radiation that produces the
primary electrons.
3. The techniques generally used for irradiating the gaps include ultraviolet radiation,
radioactive materials and light sources.

ii. Formative time-lag(tf): After the appearance of electron, the time tf required for the ionization
process to develop fully to cause to the breakdown of gap is called as formative time-lag.

The formative time lags depend mostly on the mechanism of the avalanche growth in the gap.

iii. Total time-lag (t): is define as the sum total of Statistical time-lag and formative time-lag T= ts +
tf

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Fig 1.4 : 5Breakdown with a step function voltage pulse

Streamer or Kanal Mechanism of Breakdown of Spark:

1. The streamer Mechanism of Breakdown is also known as “Kanal” mechanism of breakdown.

2. The Streamer theory removes the limitation and drawbacks of Townsend’s theory.
3. We know that the charges in between the electrodes separated by a distance d increase by a factor
4. eαd when field between electrodes is uniform
5. This is valid only if we assume that the field E0 = V/d is not affected by the space charges of electrons
and positive ions.
6. Whenever the concentration exceeds 108, the avalanche current is followed by steep rise in current and
breakdown of the gap takes place.
7. The weakening of the avalanche at lower concentration and rapid growth of avalanche at higher
concentration have been attributed to the modification of the electric field E0 Due to the space charge
field.

Streamer theory of breakdown for gas or Avalanche breakdown :

1. Avalanche breakdown or streamer breakdown is a phenomenon that can occur in both

insulating and semiconducting materials.
2. It is a form of electric current multiplication that can allow very large currents within
materials & causes dielectric breakdown.
3. Formation of finger like discharge is called as streamer.

“A streamer discharge, also known as filamentary discharge, is a type of transient electrical

discharge. Streamer discharges can form when an insulating medium (for example air) is exposed to a
large potential difference.”

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Process :

1. Streamer breakdown occur when the dielectric medium is exposed to a high voltage
difference.
2. First step is the formation of avalanche.
3. Formation avalanche creates space charge (collection of charge or cloud of charge).
4. Space charge leads additional electric field.
5. The electric field enhance the growth of new avalanche.
6. Ionised region grows quickly & expand.
7. Applicable for non-uniform electric field
8. When the energy gained by the electrons greater than lattice ionization potential
formation of streamer takes palace. (Condition for streamer breakdown)
9. Breakdown occur when avalanche exceeds critical size & formation of many avalanche.
10. Streamer ionise the path & production of large current. Breakdown will be occurred.

Detailed Procedure:

Fig. 1.5 shows the electric field around an avalanche as it progresses along the gap and the resultant
field i.e., the superposition of the space charge field and the original field E 0.

A. Since the electrons have higher mobility, the space charge at the head of the avalanche is
considered to be negative and is assumed to be concentrated within a spherical volume.
B. It can be seen from Fig. 1.5 that the filed at the head of the avalanche is strengthened.
C. The field between the two assumed charge Centre’s i.e., the electrons and positive ions is
decreased as the field due to the charge centres opposes the main field E0 and again the field
between the positive space charge Centre and the cathode is strengthened as the space charge
field aids the main field E0 in this region.
D. It has been observed that if the charge carrier number exceeds 10 6, the field distortion
becomes noticeable.
E. If the distortion of field is of 1%, it would lead to a doubling of the avalanche but as the field
distortion is only near the head of the avalanche, it does not have a significance on the
discharge phenomenon.
F. However, if the charge carrier exceeds 108, the space charge field becomes almost of the same
magnitude as the main field E0 and hence it may lead to initiation of a streamer.

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G. The space charge field, therefore, plays a very important role in the mechanism of electric
discharge in a non-uniform gap.
H. This photon falls on the molecules and again electrons are release which is called
photoionization. Photoionization of gas molecules is the secondary mechanism of ionization
responsible for breakdown.
I. On the whole, it is observed that due to (i)Enhancement of field (ii)Primary ionization
(iii) Photoionization

A. Size of the electron avalanche is gradually increased and the avalanches are
transformed into channels of ionization which proceeds towards the anode.
B. Such channels are called the steamer (anode streamer).
C. Finally the gas breakdown, at the moment of breakdown the avalanche has got
specific size which is called critical size of avalanche.

Fig 1.5 : Breakdown with a step function voltage pulse

Fig: 1.6 Formation of secondary avalanches due to photo-ionization

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Streamer breakdown classification:

 Positive streamer
1. Low electric field
2. Positive streamers propagate in the opposite direction.
 Negative streamer
1. Negative streamers propagate against the direction of the electric field
2. Negative streamers require higher electric fields

Areas of application

1. Ozone production
2. Air purification
3. Plasma medicine

Paschen's Law

1. Paschen’s theory is one of the most important theories related to breakdown of gaseous
insulating material.
2. It is widely used in the design of extra high voltage equipments.
3. The gas to be used in the apparatus is matched and studied with operating voltage of the
system.
4. The breakdown voltage must be greater than the operating voltage of the system.

Paschen’s Law: The law essentially sates that, at higher pressures (above a few torr) the breakdown
characteristics of a gap are function (generally not linear ) of the product of the gas pressure(p) and
gap length(d), usually written as Vb= f(P.d)

The above relation does not imply that breakdown voltage Vb is directly proportional to product the
product of p and d.

Fig1.7: Vb varies non-linearly with the product Pd

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1. Paschen, a scientist studied the breakdown voltage of various gases between the parallel metal
plates as the pressure & distance where varied.
2. Paschen found that Voltage is a function only of the product of the pressure & gap
length(distance).
3. The equation V= f(pd) is called as Paschen’s law
4. At higher pressure and air gap length, the breakdown voltage is approximately proportional to
product of pressure & air gap.
5. The curve which shows the voltage versus the pressure gap length is called Paschen’s curve.
6. Paschen law will be helpful for finding the minimum breakdown voltage of a gas.
7. The minimum pd value for air is 0.567 and 367V.

8. Application – based on Paschen’s law, we can find the minimum sparking voltage
(Breakdown voltage)of various gas.

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Derive an expression for Paschen’s Law

pd(min) and Vb(min):

1. The Paschen's curve, the relationship between V and pd is shown in above graph for three gases CO2,
air and H2. It is seen that the relationship between V and pd is not linear and has a minimum value for
any gas.
2. This means that a breakdown voltage of a uniform field gap is a unique function of the product of p, the
gas pressure and d, the electrode gap, for a particular gas and for a given electrode material.
The breakdown criterion in gases is given as

Substituting for E in the expressions for a and y and rewriting Equation

Paschen’s curve for different dielectrics

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a) Mathematical Analysis

This is called Paschen’s law

NOTE:

Penning effect:

1. Paschen’s law does not hold good for many gaseous mixtures. A typical example is that of
mixture of Argon in neon.
2. A small percentage of Argon in Neon reduces substantially the dielectric strength of pure
Neon.
3. In fact, the dielectric strength is smaller than the dielectric strengths of either pure Neon or
Argon.
4. The lowering of dielectric strength is due to the fact that the lowest excited stage of neon is
meta-stable and its excitation potential (16eV) is about 0.9eV greater than the ionization
potential of Argon.

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5. The meta-stable atoms have a long life in neon gas, and on hitting Argon atoms there is a very
high probability of ionization them.
6. This phenomenon is known as Penning Effect.

Breakdown in Non-Uniform Fields and Corona Discharges

1. It is an electric discharge mainly occurring at non uniform electric field

2. Visual and audible discharge
3. The corona will occur when the strength of the electric field around a conductor is high
enough to form a conductive region, but not high enough to cause electrical breakdown or
arcing to nearby objects.
4. It is often seen as a bluish (or other color) glow in the air adjacent to pointed metal conductors
carrying high voltages, and emits light by the same property as a gas discharge lamp.
5. Potential difference between two electrodes should be greater than threshold value (30kV).

Corona Discharge:

1. If the electric field is uniform and if the field is increased gradually, just when measurable
ionization begins, the ionization leads to complete breakdown of the gap.
2. However, in non-uniform fields, before the spark or breakdown of the medium takes place,
there are many sign in the form of visual and audible discharges. These discharges are known
as Corona discharges.
3. This phenomenon is always accompanied by a hissing noise, and the air surrounding the
corona region becomes converted into ozone.
4. Corona is responsible for considerable loss of power from high voltage transmission lines,
and it leads to the deterioration of insulation due to the combined action of the bombardment
of ions and of the chemical compounds formed during discharges.
5. Corona also gives rise to radio interference.
6. The voltage gradient required to produce visual a.c. corona in air at a conductor surface,
called the corona inception field, can be approximately given for the case of parallel wires of
radius r as

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Fig. 1.8 shows the corona inception and breakdown voltages of the sphere-plane arrangement. From
the figure, it is clear that—

(i) For small spacing (Zone–I), the field is uniform and the breakdown voltage depends mainly on the
gap spacing.

(ii) In zone–II, where the spacing is relatively larger, the electric field is non-uniform and the
breakdown voltage depends on both the sphere diameter and the spacing. (iii) For still larger spacing.

(iii) at large spacing(zone-III) the field is non-uniform and the breakdown is preceded by corona and
is controlled only by the spacing. The corona inception voltage mainly depends on the sphere
diameter.

Fig 1.8 :Breakdown and corona inception characteristics for spheres of different diameter in
Sphere - plane gap geometry

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Results of corona

a. Power loss
b. Hissing noise
c. Ozone formation
d. Chemical activities

Factors affecting corona

a. Air desnsity & Humidity are inversely proportional to corona.

b. Surface conduction is proportional to corona.

Problems associated with corona

a. Ozone (O3) , Nitric acid & Nitrogen oxide (NO x) production

b. Electromagnetic interference
c. Audible noise
d. Insulation losses

Solid Dielectrics

• Solid dielectrics are commonly used all kinds of electric circuit and devices.

• Provide insulation for current carrying conductors.

Properties of good solid dielectric material

1. Good mechanical strength

2. Free from gaseous inclusion
3. Free from moisture
4. Resistant to thermal and chemical deterioration
5. Low dielectric loss

Types of breakdown mechanism

(a) Intrinsic or ionic breakdown

1. Electronic breakdown
2. Avalanche breakdown

(b) Electromechanical breakdown

(c) Failure due to treeing and tracking

(d) Thermal breakdown

(e) Electrochemical breakdown

(J) Breakdown due to internal discharges

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Types of breakdown mechanism

Intrinsic breakdown

1. Usually a small number of conduction electrons (free electrons) present in the solid dielectric
dielectric material.
2. The following reasons such as
i) Small number of impurities &
ii) Structural imperfection of dielectric material are responsible for intrinsic breakdown.
3. The impurity atoms, or molecules or both act as traps for the conduction electrons up to
certain ranges of electric fields and temperatures.
4. When these ranges are exceeded, additional electrons in addition to trapped electrons are
released, and these electrons participate in the conduction process.
5. Presence of free electrons which are capable of migration through the lattice of the dielectrics.
6. Process will be repeated until the completion of dielectric breakdown of solid dielectric
material.

Types of Intrinsic breakdown

1. Electronic breakdown
2. Avalanche breakdown

(1) Electronic breakdown

1. Due to the presence of large density free electrons in a solid dielectrics

2. Whenever a high voltage is applied, collision between large free electrons will take place.
3. As a result electrons gain energy from the electric field and cross the forbidden energy gap
from the valance to the conduction band.
4. Eventually dielectric breakdown takes place

(2) Avalanche or streamer breakdown

1. Similar to the breakdown in gaseous dielectric

2. Avalanche breakdown or streamer breakdown is a phenomenon that can occur in both
insulating and semiconducting materials.
3. It is a form of electric current multiplication that can allow very large currents within
materials & causes dielectric breakdown.
4. First step is the formation of avalanche.
5. Formation avalanche creates space charge (collection of charge or cloud of charge).
6. Space charge leads additional electric field.
7. The electric field enhance the growth of new avalanche.
8. Ionized region grows quickly & expand.
9. When the energy gained by the electrons greater than lattice ionization potential formation of
avalanche takes palace. (Condition for avalanche breakdown)
10. Breakdown occur when avalanche exceeds critical size & formation of many avalanche,
Breakdown will be occurred

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(b) Electro mechanical breakdown

1. Consider the following reasons

(i) solid dielectrics are subjected to high electric fields
(ii) electrostatic compressive forces which can exceed the mechanical compressive strength.
2. How do you calculate the ‘maximum value of electric field strength’ before the breakdown’..?
3. Consider a solid dielectric material
4. The thickness of solid dielectric material=do
5. Applied voltage = V
6. Thickness after the applied voltage = d . That means material is compressed.

7. Equation (1) represents electrically developed compressive stress in equilibrium.

where Y is the Young's modulus. From (1) find the voltage V^2

8. The highest apparent electric stress or maximum value of electric field before breakdown is
given by

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(C) Thermal breakdown

1. Most of the insulation failures in high voltage power apparatus occur due to thermal
breakdown.
2. When an electric field is applied to a dielectric, conduction current, however small it may be,
flows through the material.
3. The current heats up the specimen and the temperature rises.
4. The heat generated is transferred to the surrounding medium by conduction through the solid
dielectric and by radiation from its outer surfaces.

Mathematical expression

• The heat generated under d.c. stress E is given as

Where ‘σ’ is the D.C. conductivity of the specimen.

Under A.C. fields, the heat generated

The heat dissipated (WT) is given by

• Normally Wac or Wdc equals to WT

• Breakdown occur when Wac or Wdc Greater than WT

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c) Breakdown due to treeing & tracking

1. This type of breakdown occurs when a solid dielectric material subjected to electric stress for
a long time.
2. Presence of conducting path inside solid dielectric material due to moisture.
3. A mechanism whereby leakage current passes through the conducting path finally leading to
the formation of a spark.
4. Insulation deterioration occurs as a result of these sparks, sparks erodes the surface, generates
heat & surface becomes dry.
5. The spreading of spark channels said to be tracking, in the form of the branches of a tree is
called treeing
6. As time passes, breakdown channels spread through the insulation in an irregular "tree" like
fashion leading to the formation of conducting channels. This kind of channeling is called
treeing.
7. Usually, tracking occurs even at very low voltages of the order of about 100 V, whereas
treeing requires high voltage.
8. This is a cumulative process, and insulation failure occurs when carbonized tracks bridge the
distance between the electrodes.
9. This phenomena happening the layers of Bakelite, paper, cables and similar dielectrics built
of laminates.

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Breakdown due to treeing & tracking

1. When a dielectric material lies between two electrodes as shown in Fig. There is a possibility
for two different dielectric media, the air and the dielectric, to come in series.
2. The voltages across the two media are as shown (V1 across the air gap, and V2 across the
dielectric). The voltage V1 across the air gap is given as,

How to prevent treeing & tracking??

1. Treeing can be prevented by having clean, dry, and undamaged surfaces and a clean
environment.
2. The materials chosen should be resistant to tracking.
3. Sometimes moisture repellant greases are used. But this needs frequent cleaning and
regressing.
4. Increasing creepage distances should prevent tracking, but in practice the presence of
moisture films defeat the purpose.
5. Usually, treeing phenomena is observed in capacitors and cables, and extensive work is being
done to investigate the real nature and causes of this phenomenon.

Breakdown due to internal discharge

1. Due to voids or cavities present inside the insulating materials.

2. These voids are generally filled with a medium of lower dielectric strength, and the dielectric
constant of the medium in the voids is lower than that of the insulation.
3. Hence, the electric field strength in the voids is higher than that across the dielectric.
4. Therefore, even under normal working voltages the field in the voids may exceed their
breakdown value, and breakdown may occur.

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Numerical

A solid dielectric specimen of dielectric constant of 4.0 shown in the figure has an internal void of
thickness 1 mm. The specimen is 1 cm thick and is subjected to a voltage of 80 kV (rms). If the void
is filled with air and if the breakdown strength of air can be taken as 30 k V (peak)/cm, find the
voltage at which an internal discharge can occur

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Liquid Dielectrics

Properties of good liquid dielectric material

1. High density
2. High dielectric strength
3. Should free from moisture
4. Should free from oxidation
5. High resistivity
6. High heat transfer characteristics
7. Chemically stable
8. Applications- Transformer oil, Silicon oil, Synthetic hydro carbon(power cable) &
chlorinated hydro carbon

Breakdown in liquid dielectrics

1. Impurities like gas bubbles, suspended particles etc will reason for dielectric breakdown.
2. Breakdown mechanism depends upon nature of electrodes, physical properties of the liquid
dielectrics, presence of impurities & gas present in the liquid

Theories supported for dielectric breakdown in Liquid dielectric material

1. Suspended particle theory

2. Cavitation & bubble mechanism
3. Electro convection breakdown
4. Electronic breakdown

1. Suspended particle theory

1. Commercial liquids will always contain solid impurities like fibers or dispersed solid particles
& gaseous bubbles.
2. Consider the permittivity of liquid dielectrics Ԑ1 & permittivity of solid impurities being Ԑ2.
3. Ԑ2> Ԑ1
4. When the electric field is applied the force is directed towards areas of maximum stress case
of the presence of solid particles like paper (solid impurities) in the liquid.
5. On the other hand, if only gas bubbles are present in the liquid (Ԑ2<Ԑ1).
6. If we consider these impunities (solid or gas) to be spherical particles of radius ‘r’, and if the
applied field is ‘E’ then the particles experience a force ‘F’

7. The process of Liquid dielectric breakdown depends up on the size & number of external
impurities (either solid or gaseous impurities)
8. If the field exceeds the breakdown strength of the liquids, liquid dielectric breakdown will
occur.
9. If the number of impurities present are large, they becomes aligned due to these forces, and
thus form a stable chain bridging the electrode gap causing a breakdown between the
electrodes.

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2. Cavitations (Bubble’s theory) theory

1. Theory states that dielectric strength of liquid dielectric material depends up on hydrostatic
pressure.
2. Hydrostatic pressure proportional to higher electric field strength & it is responsible for
changing the phase of liquid dielectrics & results in liquid dielectric breakdown.
3. A kind of small vapor bubble formed inside the liquid dielectrics reason for dielectric
breakdown.
4. The following reasons responsible for the bubble’s formation in liquid dielectric material -
Gas pockets in the electrode surface - Irregular surface of electrodes - Change in temperature
& pressure - Dissociation of product by electron collision
5. Condition of breakdown- “ Voltage drop along the length of bubble equals to minimum value
of voltage in the Paschen’s curve”.
6. The value of breakdown field is given by

Where σ = surface tension of the liquid, Ԑ1=permittivity of liquid, Ԑ2= permittivity of gaseous
bubble, r=initial radios of gas bubble Vb= Voltage drop in the bubble corresponding to the
minimum value in the pachen’s curve.
1. Breakdown strength depends upon initial size of bubble’s, which influence by hydrostatic
pressure & temperature.

Limitations

• This theory doesn’t mention about the formation of initial bubbles.

• Theoretical & experimental calculation of breakdown strength are different.

3.Electronic breakdown

1. Once the voltage is applied in between two electrodes, electrons are injected to the liquid
2. Electron gains energy from the electric field • Starts the collision process in between other
electrons
3. Electrons are accelerated under electric field & would gain a sufficient energy to knock out an
electron & beginning the process of avalanche.
4. Condition of breakdown is referred as “Threshold condition”

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5. Threshold condition achieved when the energy gained by the electron equals to energy lost
during ionisation. • e*λ*E = C* h *μ C=constant

4. Electro-convection breakdown

1. Breakdown in pure insulating fluid under high voltage

2. Charge carrier injected to liquid surface
3. Resulting the formation of space charge region
4. Increase the columbic force
5. Reason for hydrodynamic instability
6. Formation of convection current
7. The interaction between the space charge & the electric field give rise to eddy motion of
liquid.

Conclusion

1. It is clear that no single theory can explain all the experimental observation satisfactorily.
2. All the above theories do not consider dependence of breakdown strength on the gap length.
3. Experimental evidence showed that the breakdown strength of liquids depends on the gap
length.

Note : Power law

1. The above equation is termed as ‘power law’ equation.

2. The breakdown voltage depends on nature of voltage, mode in which the voltage is applied,
Gap distance between electrodes & time of application.

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