UNIVERSITY OF ENERGY AND NATURAL RESOURCES, SUNYANI

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

BSC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, AUTOMOTIVE OPTION: LEVEL 400

LECTURE NOTE: VEHICLE CONTROL, SUSPENSION AND STABILITY (MECH 492)

LECTURER: DANIEL KWASI ANSAH

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VEHICLE SUSPENSION SYSTEM
Introduction
A vehicle needs a suspension system to cushion and damp out road shocks, so providing comfort to
the passengers and preventing damage to the load and vehicle components.

The main function of a suspension system is to stop road shocks from being transmitted to the
vehicle body.
Suspension and spring systems have several tasks:
– to control the movements of the wheel with respect to the body
– to accommodate the driving and braking forces
– to carry the mass of the vehicle and the cargo that it carries
– to accommodate and absorb vibrations, roll and shocks when driving.
The suspension and spring system are linked together. Together they must
ensure good handling and good driving comfort.
The suspension system has the following main functional requirements:
• Cushion the car, passengers and load from road surface irregularities.
• Resist the effects of steering, braking and acceleration, even on hills and when loads are
carried.
• To ensure that the front and rear axles are correctly located.
• The tire must be able to rise and fall, relative to the body of the vehicle, to allow the springs
and shock absorbers to reduce bump and road shocks
• Tyres must be kept in contact with the road at all times. It is important for the suspension
system to keep the alignment of the tires as accurate as possible so that maximum contact
between the tire and the road is maintained.
• The springs should be able to carry the weight of the vehicle.
• Work in conjunction with the tyres and seat springs to give an acceptable ride at all speeds.
The above list is difficult to achieve completely, so some sort of compromise has to be reached.
Because of this many different methods have been tried, and many are still in use. Keeping these
four main requirements in mind will help you to understand why some systems are constructed in
different ways.

Terminology
Spring: The part of the suspension system that takes up the movement or shock from the road

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or vehicle movement. The energy of the movement is stored in the spring. There are many different
forms of spring, ranging from a steel coil to a pressurised chamber of nitrogen.
Damper: The energy stored in the spring after a bump has to be got rid of, otherwise the spring
would oscillate (bounce up and down). The damper reduces these oscillations by converting the
energy from the spring into heat. If working correctly, the spring should stop moving after just one
bounce and rebound.
Shock absorber: This term describes the action of a spring. It is often used incorrectly to describe a
Damper.
Strut: Often the combination of a coil spring with a damper inside it, between the wheel stub axle
and the inner wing. This is a very popular type of suspension.
Wishbone: A triangular shaped component with two corners hinged in a straight line on the vehicle
body and the third corner hinged to the moving part of the suspension.
Bump stop: When a vehicle hits a particularly large bump, or if it is carrying a heavy load, the
suspension system may bottom out (reach the end of its travel). The bump stops, usually made of
rubber, prevents metal to metal contact which would cause damage
IFS: Independent front suspension
IRS: Independent rear suspension
Link: A very general term to describe a bar or similar component that holds or controls the position
of another component. Other terms may be used such as tie bar.
Beam axle: A solid axle from one wheel to the other. Not now used on the majority of light
vehicles, but still common on heavy vehicles as it makes a very strong construction.
Gas/fluid suspension: The most common types of spring are made from spring steel. However,
some vehicles use pressurised gas as the spring (think of a balloon or a football). On some vehicles
a connection between wheels is made using fluid running through pipes from one suspension unit to
another.
‘Sprung’ and ‘Unsprung’ Mass of a Suspension System.
Sprung mass is that which is supported by the vehicle springs. Unsprung mass is that of the
components between the springs and the road. For most vehicles, unsprung mass includes wheels,
tyres, brake, steering and suspension components, as well as part of the drive shafts. But some of the
suspension and drive components are sprung at one end and unsprung at the other! The less mass the
road wheel and the other units attached to it have, the smaller is the total energy involved when they
are moved. Vehicles are made with as little unsprung mass as possible as this reduces the effect of
road shock on the vehicle body. Soft springs provide the best comfort, but stiff springs can be better
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for high performance. Vehicle springs and suspension therefore are made to provide a compromise
between good handling and comfort.

How Suspension System Works

A spring between the wheel and the vehicle body allows the wheel to follow the road surface. The
tyre plays an important role in absorbing small road shocks. It is often described as the primary
form of suspension. The vehicle body is supported by springs located between the body and the
wheel axles. Together with the damper, these components are referred to as the suspension system.

The weight of the vehicle, including its load, acts on the springs. The springs and other components
compress and expand as the wheels hit bumps or holes in the road. The function of the suspension
components is to allow the wheels to move up and down without moving the vehicle body. As a
wheel hits a bump in the road, it is moved upwards with quite some force. An unsprung wheel is
affected only by gravity, which will try to return the wheel to the road surface, but most of the
energy will be transferred to the body. When a spring is used between the wheel and the vehicle
body, most of the energy in the bouncing wheel is stored in the spring and not passed to the vehicle
body. The vehicle body will now only move upwards through a very small distance compared to the
movement of the wheel.

Figure 1: Vehicle showing main suspension components

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Suspensions may be divided into two types:
• Non-Independent suspension: It is fitted to vehicles that have beam axles, and for light
vehicles is usually combined with leaf springs. Its disadvantage is that when one of the
wheels rises or falls because of an uneven road surface, the movement is transmitted across
the whole axle and causes the vehicle to tilt.
• Independent suspension: This allows a wheel of the vehicle to move without affecting the
wheel on the other side or the body. This ensures that the vehicle remains at a more even
and constant ride height at all times.

Types of Spring

Coil Springs
Although modern vehicles use a number of different types of spring medium, the most popular is
the coil (or helical) spring. Coil or helical springs used in vehicle suspension systems are made from
round spring steel bars. The heated bar is wound on a special former and then heat treated to obtain
the correct elasticity (springiness). The spring can withstand any compression load, but not side
thrust. It is also difficult for a coil spring to resist braking or driving thrust. Suspension arms are
used to resist these loads.

Coil springs are used with independent suspension systems; the springs are usually fitted on each
side of the vehicle, between the stub axle assembly and the body. The spring remains in the correct
position because recesses are made in both the stub axle assembly and body. Due to the weight of
the vehicle the spring is always under compression and hence holds itself in place.

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Leaf Springs
The leaf spring can provide all the control for the wheels during acceleration, braking, cornering
and general movement caused by the road surface. They are used with fixed axles. There are two
main types of leaf spring:
• Laminated or multi leaf springs
• Single leaf or mono leaf springs
A third type, known as the tapered leaf spring, is a combination of these two.
The multi leaf spring was widely used at the rear of cars and light vehicles and is still used in
commercial vehicle suspension systems. It consists of a number of steel strips or leaves placed on
top of each other and then clamped together. The length, cross section and number of leaves is
determined by the loads carried.

The top leaf is called the main leaf, and each end of this leaf is rolled to form an eye. This is for
attachment to the vehicle chassis or body. The leaves of the spring are clamped together by a bolt or
pin known as the Centre bolt. The spring eye allows movement about a shackle and pin at the rear,
allowing the spring to flex. The vehicle is pushed along by the rear axle through the front section of
the spring which is anchored firmly to the fixed shackle on the vehicle chassis or body. The curve
of a leaf spring straightens out when a load is applied to it, and its length changes.
Because of this change in length, the rear end of the spring is fixed by a shackle bolt to a swinging
shackle. As the road wheel passes over a bump, the spring is compressed and the leaves slide over
each other. As it returns to its original shape, the spring forces the wheel back in contact with the

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road. The leaf spring is usually secured to the axle by means of U bolts. As the leaves of the spring
move, they rub together. This is known as interleaf friction, which also has a damping effect.

Figure 2: Coil Spring Figure 3: Laminated Leaf Spring

Single Leaf or Mono Leaf Springs

A single leaf spring, as the name implies, consists of one uniformly stressed leaf. The spring varies
in thickness from a maximum at the centre to a minimum at the spring eyes. This type of leaf spring
is made to work in the same way as a multi leaf spring. Advantages of this type of spring are as
follows:
• Simplified construction
• Constant performance over a period of time because interleaf friction is eliminated
• Reduction in unsprung mass.

Leaf springs are now rarely found on light vehicles, but never say never!

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Figure 4: Single Leaf Spring

Torsion Bars
This type of suspension uses a metal bar which provides the springing effect as it is twisted. It has
the advantage that the components do not take up too much room. Some vehicles that use torsion
bars do not have dampers. This is because some layouts have a self-damping effect.

Figure 5: Torsion bar spring

Pneumatic or Air Suspension
Steel springs must be stiff enough to carry a vehicle’s maximum load. This can result in the springs
being too stiff to provide consistent ride control and comfort when the vehicle is empty. Pneumatic
suspension can be made self-compensating. It is fitted to many heavy goods vehicles and buses, but
is also becoming more popular on some off road light vehicles.

The air spring is a reinforced rubber bellow fitted between the axle and the chassis, or vehicle body.
An air compressor is used to increase or decrease the pressure depending on the load in the vehicle.
This is done automatically, but some manual control can be retained for adjusting the height of the
vehicle or stiffness of the suspension.

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 Figure 6: Air suspension (heavy vehicle)
Rubber springs
This is now a very old system, but often old ideas come back! The suspension medium, or spring, is
simply a specially shaped piece of rubber. This technique was used on early Minis, for example. In
most cases the rubber did not require damping.

Figure 7: Rubber Spring Suspension

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Hydrolastic Suspension
The suspension unit is supported by a rubber spring. Under the spring a chamber of fluid is
connected by a pipe to the corresponding front or rear unit. This system was the forerunner to the
hydragas system.

Figure 8: Hydrolastic Suspension

Hydragas Suspension
In the hydragas suspension system, each wheel has a sealed displacer unit with nitrogen gas under
very high pressure. This works in much the same way as the steel spring in a conventional system.
A damper is also incorporated within the displacer unit. The lower part of the displacer units is
filled with a suspension fluid (usually a type of wood alcohol). The units can be joined by pipes or
used individually.

Connecting suspension units by fluid in pipes is designed to improve the ride quality. Linking front
to rear makes the rear unit rise as the front unit is compressed by a bump. This tends to keep the
vehicle level.

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 Figure 9: Hydragas Suspension

Dampers
As a spring is deflected, energy is stored in it. If the spring is free to move, the energy is released in
the form of oscillations for a short time, before coming to rest. This principle can be demonstrated
by flicking the end of a ruler placed on the edge of a desk. The function of the damper is to absorb
the stored energy which reduces the rebound oscillation. A spring without a damper would build up
dangerous and uncomfortable bouncing of the vehicle.

Hydraulic dampers are the most common type used on modern vehicles. They work by forcing fluid
through small holes. The energy in the spring is converted into heat as the fluid (a type of oil) is
forced rapidly through the small holes (orifices). The oil temperature in a damper can reach over
150°C during normal operation. As an example think of using a hand oil pump and how hard it is to
make the oil flow quickly.

The main type of hydraulic damper is known as the telescopic type. A lever arm type used on
earlier vehicles works on the same principle. Hydrolastic and hydrogas suspension systems have the
damper built in to the displacer units.

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Telescopic dampers
This is the most common type of hydraulic damper used on modern vehicles. The damper is
mounted between the body and the axle or wishbone. A piston, connected to a rod fixed via a rubber
bush to the vehicle body, moves oil in a circuit around the damper through valves from one
chamber to another. On some types oil passes through valves in the piston. The units are filled with
a thin oil and are usually sealed for life. Most dampers contain rubber bushes in mounting eyes. A
double acting damping action works on both the bump and rebound (up and down) strokes.

A typical double acting telescopic damper is made with a central pressure tube surrounded by a
reservoir tube. Two valves are fitted in the base of the pressure tube to control the movement of
fluid between the two tubes. The pressure and reservoir tubes are filled with fluid and are sealed.
The pressure tube contains a sliding piston and valve assembly at the lower end of the piston rod.
There is usually another tube over the rod and cylinder – this is simply a dirt shield.

On the compression stroke (bump stroke), the axle pushes the piston into the cylinder and oil
pressure opens the piston compression valve. Oil passes via the port in the piston from the lower to
the upper chamber. The oil also passes through the compression valve to the reservoir. On the
rebound stroke, the piston and the base valves close and oil passes through the rebound valves to the
lower chamber.

Resistance to movement is determined mostly by the size of the valve orifice (small hole). A
difference between bump and rebound can be obtained simply with different sized valves. The
damper can be designed to give a soft downwards movement when the vehicle first hits a bump,
with a harder rebound movement on the return stroke. This type of damper is called a single acting.
The only difference in operation is that larger orifices are used in the bump valves.

Figure 10: Action of a spring with and without a damper

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 Figure 11: Telescopic Damper
Suspension System Layouts
On most older types of vehicle, a beam axle was used to support two stub axles. Beam axles are
now rarely used in car suspension systems, although many commercial vehicles use beam axles
because of their greater strength and constant ground clearance.

The need for a better suspension system came from the demand for improved ride quality and
improved handling. Independent front suspension (IFS) was developed to meet this need.
The main advantages of independent front suspension are as follows:
• When one wheel is lifted or drops, it does not affect the opposite wheel.
• The unsprung mass is lower; therefore, the road wheel stays in better contact with the road.
• Problems with changing steering geometry are reduced.
• More space for the engine at the front.
• Softer springing with larger wheel movement is possible.
A number of basic suspension systems are in common use.

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 Figure 12: Rear beam axle suspension with front struts

Wishbone Suspension
Twin unequal length wishbone suspension is widely used on light vehicles. A coil spring is used
between two suspension arms. The suspension arms are ‘wishbone’ shaped, and the bottom end of
the spring fits in a plate in the lower wishbone assembly. The top end of the spring is located in a
section of the body. The top and bottom wishbones are attached to the chassis by rubber bushes. A
damper is fitted inside the spring and, as the spring, is attached at the top to the body and at the
bottom to the lower wishbone. The stub axle and swivel pins are connected to the outer ends of the
upper and lower wishbones by ball or swivel joints.

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 Figure 13: Wishbone Suspension Layout

Strut Type Suspension

This type of suspension system has been used for many years. It is often referred to as the
MacPherson Strut system. With this system, the stub axle is combined with the bottom section of a
telescopic tube which incorporates a damper. The bottom end of the strut is connected to the outer
part of a transverse link (like a wishbone again) by means of a ball joint. The inner part of the link is
secured to the body by rubber bushes. The top of the strut is fixed to the vehicle body by a bearing
which allows the complete strut to swivel. A coil spring is located between the upper and lower
sections of the strut. This suspension system is quite simple in construction and is very effective in
operation. However, when the suspension is moved, the steering angles do change a little.

Figure 14: Strut Type Suspension

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Rear Wheel Suspensions
The systems used for the rear suspension of light vehicles vary, depending on the requirements of
the vehicle and whether the vehicle is front or rear wheel drive. Old vehicles using leaf type springs
were described briefly earlier. This leaves two main types using IRS:
• strut type (front wheel drive)
• trailing and semi-trailing arm with coil springs (rear wheel drive).
The strut type is very much the same as used at the front of the vehicle. The damper can be mounted
separately or inside the coil spring. Note that suitable links are used to allow up and down
movement but to prevent the wheel moving in any other direction. Some change in the wheel
geometry is designed in to improve handling on corners.

Trailing arm suspension and semi-trailing arm suspension both use two wishbone shaped arms
hinged on the body. Trailing arms are at right angles to the vehicle centre line and semi-trailing
arms are at an angle. This changes the geometry of the wheels as the suspension moves. The final
drive and differential unit is fixed with rubber mountings to the vehicle body. Drive shafts must
therefore be used to allow drive to be passed from the fixed final drive to the moveable wheels. The
coil springs and dampers are mounted between the trailing arms and the vehicle body. Because of
the shape of the arms, the wheels are fixed so that they will only move up and down with the
suspension

Figure 15: Rear Wheel Suspension – Strut Type

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 Figure 16: Rear Wheel Suspension – Trailing Arm Method
Active or ‘live’ Hydropneumatic Suspension
Conventional suspension systems are always a compromise between soft springs for comfort and
harder springing for better cornering ability.
This system, shown in figure 17, allows the driver to adjust the ride height (sometimes inaccurately
referred to as ground clearance) of the vehicle. It also maintains this clearance irrespective of the
load being carried. First developed by Citroen it has recently been taken up by a number of other
manufacturers. On the Citroen arrangement each suspension arm is supported by a pneumatic
spring.

Connected between the suspension arms at both front and rear are anti-roll bars. These are linked to
height correctors by means of control rods. An engine driven pump supplies oil under pressure to a
hydraulic accumulator and this is connected to the height control or levelling valves.

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As the vehicle is loaded, the downward movement of the body causes the rotation of the anti-roll
bar. This moves the slide valve in the height correctors and uncovers the port to supply oil under
pressure from the accumulator to the suspension cylinders. When the body reaches the
predetermined height (which can be varied by the driver moving a lever inside the vehicle), the
valve moves to the ‘neutral’ position. Removal of the load causes the valve to vent oil from the
cylinder back to the reservoir.

A delay device is incorporated to prevent rapid oil flow past the valve when the wheel contacts a
bump. This prevents the valve from continuously working and giving unsatisfactory operation. In
some systems a third spring unit is fitted between the two spring units on the front axle and between
the two spring units on the rear axle. This gives a variable spring rate and roll stiffness, i.e. the
suspension is active. The system is controlled by an ECU (electronic control unit) which senses
steering wheel movement, acceleration, speed and body movement and reacts accordingly via
control valves to regulate the flow of oil to and from the suspension units. Under normal driving
conditions the ECU operates the solenoid valve which directs fluid to open the regulator valves.
This allows fluid to flow between the two outer spring units and the third spring
units via the damper units to give a soft ride. During harder driving the solenoid valve is switched
off automatically relieving the regulator valves which close, preventing fluid flow between the
spring units. The third spring unit being isolated and not in use gives a firmer ride.

There are a number of benefits of this system:

• it automatically adjusts the spring and damper rate to suit road conditions and driving styles;
• it can provide a soft and comfortable ride under normal driving conditions;
• it will stiffen to give better road holding during hard driving;
• a near constant ride height can be achieved irrespective of the load on the vehicle.
• improvements in ride comfort, handling and safety
• predictable control of the vehicle under different conditions
• no change in handling between laden and unladen.
The benefits are considerable, and as component prices fall the system will become available on
more vehicles. Lotus Engineering have been one of the main companies involved in developing
active suspension and deserve credit for advancing the system. It is expected that even off road
vehicles may be fitted with active suspension in the near future.
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Fig. 17: Simplified layout of hydropneumatic suspension system

Figure 18: Active Suspension Block Diagram

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