7.

CELL CYCLE

7.1 Introduction
The cell cycle is the series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and
duplication (replication). It is the period from the beginning of one cell division to the beginning
of the next cell division. The cell may undergo mitotic division or meiotic division depending on
the cell type.

7.2 Objectives : At the end of this topic you should be able to:
(i) Identify the stages in the cell cycle and describe the main events of each stage

(ii) Describe the various stages of mitosis emphasizing the behaviour of chromosomes

(iii) Describe the various stages of meiosis emphasizing the behaviour of chromosomes

(iv) Explain the significance of mitosis

(v) Explain the significance of meiosis

(vi) Contrast between the events of mitosis and meiosis

7.3 Stages of the Cell cycle

The time it takes to complete one cycle is called the generation time and it varies according to
the type of cell involved and according to environment of the cells. In eukaryotes, the cell cycle
can be divided in two periods: (i) interphase during which the cell grows by synthesizing
molecules needed for duplicating its DNA, (ii) the mitotic (M) phase during which the cell splits
into two separate "daughter cells”. The time it takes to complete one cycle is called the
generation time and it varies according to the type of cell involved and according to environment
of the cells. In eukaryotes, the cell cycle can be divided in two periods: (i) interphase during
which the cell grows by synthesizing molecules needed for duplicating its DNA, (ii) the mitotic
(M) phase during which the cell splits into two separate "daughter cells".
Figure 7.1 Diagram of a typical cell reproductive cycle. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org
/wiki/Cell cycle.

Cell division involves two major processes; karyokinesis (division of the nucleus) and
cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm). In some cases a cell may only undergo nuclear division
without cytokinesis resulting in a cell with two or more nuclei as seen in muscle cells. The
lengths of these phases differ from one cell type to another. Normal mammalian cells growing in
tissue culture, for example, usually require 18-24 hours at 37°C to complete their cell cycle.

7.3.1 Interphase

Interphase, also known as the preparatory phase, takes place before mitosis and cytokinesis.
Before a cell can enter cell division, it needs to synthesize different molecules. All of the
preparations are done during the interphase which is in three stages; (i) G1, (ii) S, and (iii) G2.
During interphase, the nucleus and cytoplasm do not divide but the cell merely prepares for
division.

7.3.2 Gap 1 phase- G1

G1 is the growth phase and is the first part of interphase, from the end of the previous M phase
until the beginning of DNA synthesis. During this phase the biosynthetic activities of the cell
take place at a high rate. This phase uses the 20 amino acids to form millions of enzymes and
other proteins that are required in the S phase for DNA replication. The duration of G1 is highly
variable but is relatively long.

7.3.3 Synthesis phase - S

The S phase starts with DNA replication and when it is complete, all of the chromosomes have
been replicated. This means each chromosome will have two sister chromatids. Thus, during this
phase, the amount of DNA in the cell is doubled. This phase is completed very quickly to avoid
damage to the exposed base nucleotides which are sensitive to mutagens. DNA synthesis starts
at several positions on each chromosome thereby reducing the time required to replicate the
whole chromosome.

7.3.4 Gap 2 phase - G2

This is also called the post- DNA synthesis phase. It is the gap between DNA synthesis and
mitosis during which the cell will continue to grow. The cell makes sure that everything is ready
for it to enter the M (mitosis) phase.

7.4 Mitosis

The period of the cell cycle when the cell is undergoing division is called the mitotic phase (M
phase). It is the process by which the chromosomes of the cell nucleus a cell separate into two
identical sets and end up in two separate nuclei. It is a form of karyokinesis (nuclear division)
which is followed by cytokinesis (cell division) in which the nucleus and cytoplasm, organelles,
and cell membrane are divided into roughly equal amounts. The process of mitosis is fast and
quite complex. It is divided into (i) prophase, (ii) metaphase, (iii) anaphase and (iv) telophase.
The times spent in each of these phases are quite different but prophase usually requires longer
durations than the other phases and metaphase is the shortest.

Mitosis is important for the maintenance of the chromosomal set; each daughter cell receives
chromosomes that are identical in composition and equal in number to the chromosomes of the
mother cell.

Mitosis is important for the following functions:

(i) Growth and development

(ii) Cell replacement and tissue repair e.g. in the skin and digestive and red blood cells
(iii) Tissue and organ regeneration: e.g , starfish regenerate lost arms through mitosis
(iv) Asexual reproduction e.g budding in yeast and hydra and vegetative propagation in plants.
PROPHASE METAPHASE

The chromatin is condensing The chromatids align at the

into chromosomes. metaphase plate.

ANAPHASE TELOPHASE

The chromosomes split and the The decondensing chromosomes are surrounded by
kinetochore microtubules shorten nuclear membranes. Cytokinesis has already begun;
the pinched area is known as the cleavage furrow.
Figure 7.2. Diagrams of mitosis in a hypothetical cell. Source: https://www.google.com/
search?q= mitosis&biw=1440&bih=789&tbm=isch&tbo= u&source=univ&sa= X&sqi=
2&ved=0ahUKEwiR__LOvq3JAhWBPxoKHTwTDMMQsAQIVA#imgrc=g0yz1VgoLnpHyM
%3A.

7.4.1 Prophase: Chromosomes become condensed by coiling and thickening. The chromosomes
have replicated into chromatids but are still attached at the centromeres. The nuclear membrane
disappears.

7.4.2 Metaphase: Chromatids align at the metaphase plate (equatorial region) and are still
attached at the centromeres.

7.4.3 Anaphase: Chromatids split into separate chromosomes and the two sets migrate to the
opposite poles of the cell.
7.4.4 Telophase: Chromosomes uncoil and become thin. The nuclear membrane reappears and
each set of chromosomes is enclosed by a separate nuclear membrane. Cytokinesis has already
begun.

7.4.5 Cytokinesis: In animals, the cell separates into two through a pinched area known as the
cleavage furrow while in plants the cells separates into two by the cell plate. At the end of
mitosis two daughter cells are produced and each of them contains the same number of
chromosomes as the mother cell.

7.4.6 Role of centrioles and microtubules (spindle fibres): Microtubules (spindle fibres) which
found in both plant and animal cells hold the chromosomes in place and also help with the
separation of the chromatids into chromosomes. Centrioles which are present in animal cells but
not in plant cells help to organize the spindle fibres during cell division.

7.4.7 Rapidly dividing cells: In humans, examples of rapidly dividing cells are those in the
epithelium of the digestive track, in the skin and the stem cells that are used to produce blood
cells. The rate at which cells divide is genetically controlled to prevent abnormal division,
apoptosis and cancerous tumours.

7.5. Meiosis

Meiosis is a type of cell division which is involved in the production of gametes that are
involved in sexual reproduction. The male gametes are generally called sperm and the female
gametes are generally called eggs. Meiosis is not a cycle like mitosis because the end products
(gametes) must first undergo fertilization to produce a zygote which develops into an individual
organism. This individual will then produce gametes which will undergo the same fate. Meiosis
occurs only in the specialized cells (germ line) of the reproductive organs (gonads). In animals,
the testes are male gonads and the ovaries are female gonads. Gametes contain the haploid
number (n) of chromosomes, but originate from diploid (2n) cells of the germ line. Meiosis
ensures that the number of chromosomes is reduced by half during gamete formation in order to
maintain the chromosome number of the species after fertilization. Meiosis involves a single
DNA/chromosome replication and two divisions of the cytoplasm (meiosis I and meiosis II).
The DNA/chromosome replication takes place during interphase before meiosis I. In the end, one
diploid mother cell divides into four haploid daughter cells as a consequence of meiosis I and
meiosis II.
7.5.1 Meiosis I
The first meiotic division is a reductional division that produces two haploid cells from a single
diploid cell. Meiosis I consists of four major phases (i) prophase I, (ii) metaphase I, (iii)
anaphase I and (iv) telophase I.
7.5.1.1 Prophase I
Prophase I differs from the prophase of mitosis in that homologous chromosomes come to lie
side by side in a pairing process called synapsis. Each pair of chromosomes is called a bivalent
(2 chromosomes) with each chromosome consisting of two identical sister chromatids. A
bivalent may also be called a tetrad (4 chromatids). During synapsis, non-sister chromatids (one
from each of the paired chromosomes) of a tetrad may cross over and exchange portions. The
point of exchange is called a chiasma (plural = chiasmata). Therefore, at a given chiasma, only
two of the four chromatids cross over in a random manner. Generally, the longer the
chromosome, the higher the number of crossovers.

7.5.1.2 Metaphase I
During metaphase I, the bivalents align themselves at random on the equatorial plane. This
random orientation promotes independent assortment of the chromosomes and their genes.
7.5.1.3 Anaphase I
During anaphase I, the centromeres do not divide, but continue to hold sister chromatids
together. Because of crossovers, sister chromatids may no longer be genetically identical.
Homologous chromosomes (each consisting of 2 sister chromatids) separate and move to
opposite poles. This movement reduces the chromosome number from the diploid (2n) condition
to the haploid (n) condition.
7.5.1.4 Telophase I
The first meiotic division effectively ends when the chromosomes arrive at the poles. Each
daughter cell now has half the number of chromosomes but each chromosome consists of a pair
of chromatids. The nuclear membrane reappears and surrounds the haploid set of chromosomes.
The chromosomes uncoil back into chromatin.
Cytokinesis in telophase I divides the diploid mother cell into 2 haploid daughter cells. This
involves the formation of a cleavage furrow in animal cells or the formation of the cell plate in
plant cells, occurs. Sister chromatids remain attached during telophase I.
7.5.1.5 Interkinesis
The period between the first and second meiotic divisions is called interkinesis or interphase II.
The DNA does not replicate during interkinesis.
7.5.2 Meiosis II
The second meiotic division (meiosis II) is an equational division (mitosis-like), in which sister
chromatids of the haploid cells are separated). This process is similar to mitosis, though the cells
produced have half the number of chromosomes. Meiosis II also consists of four major phases
(prophase II. metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II).

7.5.2.1 Prophase II
In prophase II, the nuclear membrane disappears and the spindle fibres reappear. The chromatids
shorten and thicken in readiness for the second meiotic division.
7.5.2.2 Metaphase II
At metaphase II, the individual chromosomes line up on the equatorial plane. The new equatorial
metaphase plate is rotated by 90 degrees compared to meiosis I plate and is therefore
perpendicular to the metaphase I plate.
7.5.2.3Anaphase II
During anaphase II, the centromeres of each chromosome divide, allowing the sister chromatids
to be pulled apart in an equal division (mitosis-like) by the spindle fibres. The sister chromatids
which are now called chromosomes move toward opposing poles.
7.5.2.4 Telophase II
During telophase II, which is similar to telophase I, the chromosomes uncoil and lengthen. The
spindle fibres disappear and the nuclear membrane reforms and there is formation of either a
cleavage furrow (in animal cells) or cell plate (in plants) producing a total of four daughter cells,
each with a haploid set (half the number) of chromosomes.
Figure 7.3. Diagrams of meiosis in a hypothetical cell. Source: https://www.google.com/search?
q=meiosis&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjwssuHz63JAhXIVhoKHcK
iBXcQsAQISA&biw=1440&bih=789.
7.5 Revision questions

1. Name the stages of the cell cycle and briefly describe the major events of each stage.
2. Explain the function(s) of mitosis.
3. Explain the function (s) of meiosis.
4. Name the stages of mitosis and briefly describe the major events of each stage.
5. Name the stages of meiosis and briefly describe the major events of each stage.
6. Human cells normally have 46 chromosomes. For each of the following stages, state
the number of chromosomes present in a human cell:
a. Metaphase of mitosis
b. Metaphase I of meiosis
c. Telophase of mitosis
d. Telophase I of meiosis
e. Telophase II of meiosis
(In your answer, count sister chromatids as 1 chromosome).
7. Four of the following events are part of both meiosis and mitosis but only one is
meiotic. Identify it.
a. Chromatid formation
b. Spindle formation
c. Chromosome condensation
d. Chromosome movement to poles
e. Chromosome pairing
8. Define the following terms:
(a) Diploid (b) Haploid (c) Homologous chromosomes
9. Distinguish between chromatin, chromatid and chromosome
10. List the major differences between mitosis and meiosis

7.6 Summary

The cell cycle is the period from the beginning of one cell division to the beginning of the next
division. During interphase, the cell grows and prepares for the next division. The cell also
duplicates its DNA during the S phase of interphase. The division of the cell takes place during
the M phase. All somatic cells in a multicellular organism are descendant of one original cell, the
fertilized egg or zygote, through a divisional process called mitosis. During mitosis, a complete,
identical set of chromosomes is distributed to each daughter cell. It consists of prophase,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Sexual reproduction involves the production of gametes
(gametogenesis) and the union of a haploid male and a haploid female gamete (fertilization) to
produce a diploid zygote. Male gametes are sperms or pollen and female gametes are eggs (ova),
or ovules. Gametogenesis occurs only in the specialized cells (germ line) of the reproductive
organs (gonads) of the mature individual. Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half in
the daughter cells as compared to the mother cell. It is required in sexually reproducing
organisms because it results in gametes which have a haploid number of chromosomes and after
fertilization the zygote has the diploid number.