Hydrology Principles Analysis and Design Second Edition H.M. Raghunath 2024 Scribd Download
Hydrology Principles Analysis and Design Second Edition H.M. Raghunath 2024 Scribd Download
com
https://ebookgate.com/product/hydrology-
principles-analysis-and-design-second-edition-h-m-
raghunath/
https://ebookgate.com/product/hydrology-principle-analysis-
design-2nd-ed-edition-raghunath/
https://ebookgate.com/product/environmental-hydrology-second-
edition-trimble/
https://ebookgate.com/product/principles-of-functional-analysis-
second-edition-martin-schechter/
https://ebookgate.com/product/physical-hydrology-second-edition-
s-lawrence-dingman/
Design Analysis in Rock Mechanics Second Edition
William G. Pariseau
https://ebookgate.com/product/design-analysis-in-rock-mechanics-
second-edition-william-g-pariseau/
https://ebookgate.com/product/trace-environmental-quantitative-
analysis-principles-techniques-and-applications-second-edition-
paul-r-loconto-author/
https://ebookgate.com/product/progressive-dies-principles-and-
practices-of-design-and-construction-second-edition-society-of-
manufacturing-engineers/
https://ebookgate.com/product/metabolism-of-the-anthroposphere-
analysis-evaluation-design-second-edition-peter-baccini/
https://ebookgate.com/product/transformer-design-principles-with-
applications-to-core-form-power-transformers-second-edition-
robert-m-del-vecchio/
THIS PAGE IS
BLANK
Copyright © 2006 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
H.M. Raghunath
C—9\N-HYDRO\HYD-TIT.PM5 IV
THIS PAGE IS
BLANK
( vii )
H.M. Raghunath
C—9\N-HYDRO\HYD-TIT.PM5 V
THIS PAGE IS
BLANK
CONTENTS
Preface to the Second Edition (v)
Preface to the First Edition (vii)
2 Precipitation 17
2.1 Types of Precipitation 17
2.2 Measurement of Precipitation 18
2.3 Radars 22
2.4 Rain-gauge Density 22
2.5 Estimates of Missing Data and Adjustment of Records 23
2.6 Mean Areal Depth of Precipitation (Pave) 26
2.7 Optimum Rain-gauge Network Design 31
2.8 Depth-Area-Duration (DAD) Curves 33
2.9 Graphical Representation of Rainfall 36
2.10 Analysis of Rainfall Data 38
2.11 Mean and Median 43
2.12 Moving Averages Curve 48
2.13 Design Storm and PMP 49
2.14 Snow Pack and Snow Melt 49
3 Water Losses 60
3.1 Water Losses 60
3.2 Evaporation 60
x CONTENTS
4 Runoff 96
4.1 Components of Stream Flow 96
4.2 Catchment Characteristics 97
4.3 Mean and Median Elevation 101
4.4 Classification of Streams 103
4.5 Isochrones 104
4.6 Factors Affecting Runoff 104
4.7 Estimation of Runoff 106
5 Hydrographs 117
5.1 Hydrograph Components 117
5.2 Separation of Streamflow Components 120
5.3 Hydrograph Separation 122
5.4 Unit Hydrograph 124
5.5 Unit Hydrograph from Complex Storms 130
5.6 S-Curve Method 138
5.7 Bernard’s Distribution Graph 142
5.8 Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph 149
5.9 Synthetic Unit Hydrographs 149
5.10 Transposing Unit Hydrographs 154
5.11 Application of Unit Hydrograph 157
C—9\N-HYDRO\HYD-TIT.PM5 VII
CONTENTS xi
C—9\N-HYDRO\HYD-TIT.PM5 VIII
xii CONTENTS
Appendices 407
Selected References 453
Bibliography 456
Index 457
C—9\N-HYDRO\HYD-TIT.PM5 IX
PART A
FUNDAMENTAL HYDROLOGY
THIS PAGE IS
BLANK
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Hydrology is a branch of Earth Science. The importance of hydrology in the assessment,
development, utilisation and management of the water resources, of any region is being in-
creasingly realised at all levels. It was in view of this that the United Nations proclaimed the
period of 1965-1974 as the International Hydrological Decade during which, intensive efforts
in hydrologic education research, development of analytical techniques and collection of hy-
drological information on a global basis, were promoted in Universities, Research Institutions,
and Government Organisations.
Water potential
Sl. no. River basin
(M ha-m)
1. West flowing rivers like Narmada and Tapti 30.55
2. East flowing rivers like Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna, Cauvery and Pennar 35.56
3. The Ganges and its tributaries 55.01
4. Indus and its tributaries 7.95
5. The River Brahmaputra 59.07
Total 188.14
3
4 HYDROLOGY
R.
In
du
s
Kashmir
us
um ab
el Chen China
Ind
h
. J R. i
R.
R v
Ra H.P.
R. j
t l e
an
R . Su
t
is
Punjab Tibet
k
R.
Pa
us
Ind Ga am Ne
tra
R.
R
pal
ng un apu
.J
a hm
Rajasthan U.P. Bra
R. Ga R.
a
nga Assam
Bangla Desh
Gujarat Bihar
ada
R. Narm
R. T pti
a Burma
Madhya Pradesh ahan
R. M adi
r i ssa
O
R.
Mh. A.P.
G
od
R. Krishn
ar
Sea
i
R. Pennar
u
Nad
Karnataka
il
R.
Tam
Ca
uv
er
y
Ke
ra
la
Sri Lanka
Indian Ocean
The rivers of north India are perennial (i.e., the water in sufficient quantity flows in
them throughout the year) since they receive the snow melt runoff in summer. Rivers of penin-
sular India (south India) receive only runoff due to rainfall and have a good flow only during
monsoons; many of them are either dry or have negligible flow during most of the remaining
part of the year.
The average annual rainfall (a.a.r.) of India is around 114 cm. The isohyetal map of
India (i.e., isohyets or lines joining all places having the same a.a.r.) is shown in Fig. 2.8. Based
on this a.a.r., Dr. K.L. Rao has estimated the following data.
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD1-1.PM5 4
INTRODUCTION 5
1
2. Evaporation loss @ 3 of item (1) above 123
The geographical area of the country (India) is 3.28 Mkm2 and the annual runoff
(from rainfall) is 167 M ha-m (or 167 × 104 Mm3), which is approximately two-and half-times
of the Mississippi-Missouri river Basin, which is almost equal in area to the whole of India.
Due to limitations of terrain, non-availability of suitable storage sites, short period of occur-
rence of rains, etc. the surface water resources that can be utilised has been estimated as
only 67 M ha-m. The total arable land in India is estimated to be 1.47 Mkm2 which is 45%
of the total geographical area against 10% for USSR and 25% for USA. India has a great
potential for agriculture and water resources utilisation. A case history of the ‘Flood Hydrol-
ogy of Tapti Basin’ is given below for illustration.
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD1-1.PM5 5
6
73° 74° 75° 76° 77° 78°
N
22° 22°
Maharashtra
Multai
i pi
ma Ta
Go R.
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD1-1.PM5
R.
Gujarat Tapi Shahad
River nar
6
R. A
Kakrapar Shirpur
weir Burhanpur
Surat Kadod R. Buray
Ukai
21°
Nanded Jalga 21°
Bhusawal Tale gaon
R. Panjhra Madhya Pradesh -on R. Purna
Gulf
of Dhulia
Cambay ori
R. B Akola
ghur
irna Basin
Basin R. G
Malegaon
R. Ya
characteristics boundary
ea
Chalisgaon
nS
2
A = 62200 km
bia
Lb = 720 km (thalweg)
Ara
A Maharashtra
Wb = = 86.5 km
Lb
20° 20°
P = 1840 km
Compactness
Coefficient = 2.08
Wb km 20 10 0 10 20 km
Form factor = = 0.12
Lb Scale
73° 74° 75° 76° 77° 78°
1. Section I II III IV
3. Terrain Dense forests; Several large Hilly tract cov- Low flat alluvial
hill ranges hug tributaries join ered with for- plains of Gujarat.
the river banks, on both sides. ests, Number of River meanders
Rocky bed and Rich fertile rapids between past towns of
steep banks as plains of east and Kamalapur and Kathor and Surat.
the river west Khandesh Kakrapur a dis- Numerous rapids
passes through districts of tance of 32 km. near towns of
Satpura moun- Maharastra At Kakrapur the Mandvi and Kadod
tain ranges river falls by
7.5 m; beyond
Kakrapur the
river widens to
about 900 m
The catchment areas of the river Tapti above Burhanpur and Bhusaval are 81800 and
31350 km2, respectively. The catchment area of the river before it enters the Gujarat state is
about 57000 km2, while the catchment at Surat is 61800 km2. Thus, most of the catchment can
be called hilly with good gradients. The important tributaries, their catchment areas and the
length of their run are given below:
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD1-1.PM5 7
8 HYDROLOGY
The river Purna has the biggest catchment. The river Girna has its upper catchment in
the eastern slopes of Sahyadri mountains and joins Tapti at its 300th km, only 400 km up-
stream of Surat city. Due to heavy rainfall of ≈ 150 cm in Ghats, this tributary influences the
floods in the Tapti to a great extent.
The River Tapti drains a vast catchment of 62200 km2, of which 27600 km2 are situated
in Madhya Pradesh, 32100 km2 in Maharashtra, and 2500 km2 in Gujarat. The average an-
nual rainfall over the catchment is 78.8 cm, the maximum being 203 cm. More than 95% of the
annual rainfall occurs during the south-west monsoon from mid-June to mid-October. The
isohyetal map of normal rainfall during monsoon period is shown in Fig. 1.3. The average
annual runoff and 75% dependable yield at Ukai is assessed to be 1.73 and 1.26 M ha-m,
respectively.
Alirajpur
00
1000
22° 22°
Khandwa
10
Rajpipla 900
0 800
0
80
90
1000
11 00
00
12 0
0
10
Nagpur
R. Tapti
Tale ga on
1 0
21° 21°
450
15 400
0
Chandor
13
00
431
00
16
77
00 0
Arabian sea
73
10 50
75
0
0
80
0
1
50
65 0
65
0
0
0
70
Nekkar
50
45 0
0
50
20° 500 45 0 20°
0
Nasik Aurangabad
The map of the Tapti basin and its sub-basins are shown in Fig. 1.2. The shape of the
catchment is elongated and becomes narrow as it enters Gujarat. Some catchment character-
istics are given below:
(i) Area of the basin A = 62200 km2
(ii) Perimeter of the basin P = 1840 km
(iii) Length of the thalweg of the mainstream Lb = 720 km
A 62200
(iv) Average width of the basin Wb = = = 86.5 km
Lb 720
(v) To find the compactness coefficient of the basin:
Radius (R) of the equivalent area is given by
πR2 = 62200 km2
62200
R= = 142 km
π
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD1-1.PM5 8
INTRODUCTION 9
30°
15°
10°
gets a well-distributed rainfall over its entire catchment except its extreme western end, where
a steep isohyetal gradient exists due to the influence of the western Ghats. Many times the
depressions move along the river courses synchronising with the movement of floods. This
phenomenon causes devastating floods. The river widens out at the lower reach. Low tides
come as far as Surat and high tides travel very much upstream. Many times high tides and
tidal waves due to storms, synchronise with floods resulting in devastation. Particularly near
the Gulf, the water becomes a vast sheet of water extending from Narmada to Mindhola, a
*The highest flood peak of R. Tapti in 1968 was 42,500 cumec, while of R. Narmada was 58,000 cumec
in 1968 and 69,400 cumec in 1970.
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD1-1.PM5 9
10 HYDROLOGY
distance of about 72 km. Therefore a proper flood warning system and raised platforms would
be necessary. The city of Surat lies between elevations +21 and +32 m. The river spills over its
banks at two places above Surat, i.e., at Dholanpardi above the National Highway and
Nanavaracha. These spills are obstructed by high embankments of railways, roads and canals
causing interruptions in these services and damages to lands and property due to inundation
of floods. The city of Surat and the surrounding fertile delta are quite low and are vulnerable
to floods.
The highest ever flood seems to have occurred in 1837; most of the heavy floods have
occurred in August and September. The recent high floods in 1959 and 1968 were catastrophic
and brought untold damages to industry, commerce and normal life of the city of Surat. An
assessment of the damages caused by these floods are given below.
The ‘depth-duration’ and the ‘depth-area-duration’ curves for the heavy storms during
August 4-6, 1968 (3 days) are shown in Fig. 1.5 and Fig. 2.15. The weighted maximum rainfall
depth for the Tapti basin up to Ukai for 1, 2, and 3 days are 11.43, 22.38, and 25.96 cm,
respectively.
The maximum representative dew point of Tapti basin during the storm period (Aug 4-6,
1968), after reducing to the reference level of 1000 mb, was 29.8 °C and the persisting repre-
sentative dew point for the storm was 26.7 °C. The moisture adjustment factor (MAF), which is
the ratio of maximum precipitable water at the storm location to the precipitable water available
during the storm period, was derived with respect to the standard level of 500 mb (by refer-
ence to the diagram given by Robert D. Fletcher of US Weather Bureau as
Depth of maximum precipitable water (1000 mb to 500 mb)
MAF =
Depth of storm precipitable water (1000 mb to 500 mb)
98 mm
= = 1.23
80 mm
The storm of August 4-6, 1968 was ‘increased by 23% to arrive at the maximum prob-
able storm (MPS) of 31.8 cm, assuming the same mechanical efficiency. This MPS with mini-
mum infiltration losses and the rainfall excesses (net rainfall or runoff) rearranged during
successive 6-hour intervals, was applied to the ordinates of the 6-hour design unit hydrograph
(derived from the 1968 flood hydrograph at Kakrapar weir at Ukai) to obtain the design flood
hydrograph, the peak of which gave the maximum probable flood (MPF) of 59800 cumec (see
example 8.4). The highest flood peak observed during 1876-1968 (93 years) was 42500 cumec
in August 1968 (Fig. 1.6). The standard project flood (SPF) recommended by the Central Wa-
ter and Power Commission (CWPC), New Delhi for the design of Ukai dam was around 48200
cumec and the design flood adopted was 49500 cumec. The MPF recommended by CWPC was
also 59800 cumec.
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD1-1.PM5 10
INTRODUCTION 11
25 Aug 1968
20
July 1941
15 Sept 1945
Sept 1904
Rainfall depth, (cm)
July 1894
Sept 1959
Aug 1944
July 1896
10 Sept 1949
Sept 1891
Sept 1954
Aug 1958
0
1 2 3
(Days)
For the 3-day storm of 1968, the rainfall of 25.96 cm has resulted in a surface runoff of
11.68
11.68 cm, thus giving a coefficient of runoff of = 0.43 for the whole catchment. During
25.96
this flood, there was a wind storm of 80 km/hr blowing over the city of Surat. There was
simultaneous high tide in the river. There was heavy storm concentration in the lower catch-
ment. The total loss due to the devastating floods of 1968 was around Rs. 100 lakhs.
In Chapter 15, the magnitudes and return periods (recurrence intervals) of the high
floods are determined by the deterministic, probabilistic and stochastic approaches using the
annual flood data of the lower Tapti river at Ukai for the 30-years period from 1939 to 1968.
The Gumbel’s method, based on the theory of extreme values gives a 100-year flood of 49210
cumec and hence this method can be safely adopted in the estimation of design flood for the
purpose of safe design of hydraulic structures, while the stochastic approach may give a suit-
able value of MPF.
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD1-1.PM5 11
12 HYDROLOGY
50
49500 cumec
45
42500 cumec (1968 flood)
40
Discharge Q (1000 cumec)
25
Design flood hydrograph
20
15
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time (hr)
25
20 Rainfall-runoff curve
Rainfall, (cm)
15
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Discharge (1000 cumec)
Hydrologic cycle is the water transfer cycle, which occurs continuously in nature; the
three important phases of the hydrologic cycle are: (a) Evaporation and evapotranspiration (b)
precipitation and (c) runoff and is shown in Fig. 1.7. The globe has one-third land and two-
thirds ocean. Evaporation from the surfaces of ponds, lakes, reservoirs. ocean surfaces, etc.
and transpiration from surface vegetation i.e., from plant leaves of cropped land and forests,
etc. take place. These vapours rise to the sky and are condensed at higher altitudes by conden-
sation nuclei and form clouds, resulting in droplet growth. The clouds melt and sometimes
burst resulting in precipitation of different forms like rain, snow, hail, sleet, mist, dew and
frost. A part of this precipitation flows over the land called runoff and part infilters into the
soil which builds up the ground water table. The surface runoff joins the streams and the
water is stored in reservoirs. A portion of surface runoff and ground water flows back to ocean.
Again evaporation starts from the surfaces of lakes, reservoirs and ocean, and the cycle re-
peats. Of these three phases of the hydrologic cycle, namely, evaporation, precipitation and
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD1-1.PM5 12
INTRODUCTION 13
runoff, it is the ‘runoff phase’, which is important to a civil engineer since he is concerned with
the storage of surface runoff in tanks and reservoirs for the purposes of irrigation, municipal
water supply hydroelectric power etc.
Sun
Rain cloud
R a i n
Evaporation Cloud
Snow from condensa-
storage Interception tion of Water
on
sp irati vapour
Tran
Transpi
n
ration
Mountainous tio
n
ra
atio
n
range o
oratio
Infiltration R ap
n
ov un Ev
por
Ground surface
tio
er off
ra
Eva
lan
evap
o
Percolation d
ap
Soil flo
ev
Interflow w
Soil
Capillary fringe Well
a
Se
G.W.T. River or
lake Soil
Ground water table
Groun msl
d wate
Ground water Aquifer r flow
flow (pervious formation) Permeable
Fresh ce out crop
fa Sea
ground water
Inter Sea water
wedge
intruded
Impervious formation
Sea bed
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD1-1.PM5 13
14 HYDROLOGY
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD1-1.PM5 14
INTRODUCTION 15
(iii) Isohyetal maps—Isohyets may be drawn for long-term average, annual and
monthly precipitation for individual years and months
(iv) Cropping pattern—crops and their seasons
(v) Daily, monthly and annual evaporation from water surfaces in the basin
(vi) Water balance studies of the basin
(vii) Chronic problems in the basin due to a flood-menacing river (like Tapti or Tapi
in central India) or siltmenacing river (like Tungabhadra in Karnataka)
(vii) Soil conservation and methods of flood control
QUIZ I
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD1-1.PM5 15
16 HYDROLOGY
QUESTIONS
1 Explain the hydraulic cycle in nature with the help of a neat sketch, indicating its various phases.
2 What are the basic data required for hydrological studies? Name the agencies from which the
data can be obtained?
3 What is the function of hydrology in water resources development? What are the basic hydrological
requirements for a river basin development?
4 Explain ‘hydrologic equation’.
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD1-1.PM5 16
Chapter 2
PRECIPITATION
The precipitation in the country (India) is mainly in the form of rain fall though there is
appreciable snowfall at high altitudes in the Himalayan range and most of the rivers in north
India are perennial since they receive snow-melt in summer (when there is no rainfall).
Warm
air
Heavy rain
Windward Leeward
(Seaward side) (Landward) side
Mountainous
range
msl
Rain-shadow area
Land
Sea
50
55 cm
Masonry
foundation block
60 cm × 60 cm × 60 cm
Measuring
jar (glass)
60 cm
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD2-1.PM5 18
PRECIPITATION 19
The non-recording rain gauge used in India is the Symon’s rain gauge (Fig. 2.3). It con-
sists of a funnel with a circular rim of 12.7 cm diameter and a glass bottle as a receiver. The
cylindrical metal casing is fixed vertically to the masonry foundation with the level rim 30.5
cm above the ground surface. The rain falling into the funnel is collected in the receiver and is
measured in a special measuring glass graduated in mm of rainfall; when full it can measure
1.25 cm of rain.
The rainfall is measured every day at 08.30 hours IST. During heavy rains, it must be
measured three or four times in the day, lest the receiver fill and overflow, but the last meas-
urement should be at 08.30 hours IST and the sum total of all the measurements during the
previous 24 hours entered as the rainfall of the day in the register. Usually, rainfall measure-
ments are made at 08.30 hr IST and sometimes at 17.30 hr IST also. Thus the non-recording or
the Symon’s rain gauge gives only the total depth of rainfall for the previous 24 hours (i.e.,
daily rainfall) and does not give the intensity and duration of rainfall during different time
intervals of the day.
It is often desirable to protect the gauge from being damaged by cattle and for this
purpose a barbed wire fence may be erected around it.
Recording Rain Gauge
This is also called self-recording, automatic or integrating rain gauge. This type of rain gauge
Figs. 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6, has an automatic mechanical arrangement consisting of a clockwork, a
drum with a graph paper fixed around it and a pencil point, which draws the mass curve of
rainfall Fig. 2.7. From this mass curve, the depth of rainfall in a given time, the rate or inten-
sity of rainfall at any instant during a storm, time of onset and cessation of rainfall, can be
determined. The gauge is installed on a concrete or masonry platform 45 cm square in the
observatory enclosure by the side of the ordinary rain gauge at a distance of 2-3 m from it. The
gauge is so installed that the rim of the funnel is horizontal and at a height of exactly 75 cm
above ground surface. The self-recording rain gauge is generally used in conjunction with an
ordinary rain gauge exposed close by, for use as standard, by means of which the readings of
the recording rain gauge can be checked and if necessary adjusted.
30 cm
Receiving
Receiver funnel
Metal cover
Funnel
Tipping bucket Catch
To recording bucket
device
Spring
balance
Revolving drum
(chart mounted)
Measuring tube
Clock mechanism Pen
Fig. 2.4 Tipping bucket gauge Fig. 2.5 Weighing type rain gauge
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD2-1.PM5 19
20 HYDROLOGY
There are three types of recording rain gauges—tipping bucket gauge, weighing gauge
and float gauge.
Tipping bucket rain gauge. This consists of a cylindrical receiver 30 cm diameter
with a funnel inside (Fig. 2.4). Just below the funnel a pair of tipping buckets is pivoted such
that when one of the bucket receives a rainfall of 0.25 mm it tips and empties into a tank
below, while the other bucket takes its position and the process is repeated. The tipping of the
bucket actuates on electric circuit which causes a pen to move on a chart wrapped round a
drum which revolves by a clock mechanism. This type cannot record snow.
Weighing type rain gauge. In this type of rain-gauge, when a certain weight of rain-
fall is collected in a tank, which rests on a spring-lever balance, it makes a pen to move on a
chart wrapped round a clockdriven drum (Fig. 2.5). The rotation of the drum sets the time
scale while the vertical motion of the pen records the cumulative precipitation.
Float type rain gauge. In this type, as the rain is collected in a float chamber, the float
moves up which makes a pen to move on a chart wrapped round a clock driven drum (Fig. 2.6).
When the float chamber fills up, the water siphons out automatically through a siphon tube
kept in an interconnected siphon chamber. The clockwork revolves the drum once in 24 hours.
The clock mechanism needs rewinding once in a week when the chart wrapped round the
drum is also replaced. This type of gauge is used by IMD.
203 cm
Ring
Funnel
750 cm
Base cover
Revolving drum
Filter (Clock-driven)
Chart mounted
Pen
Clock mechanism
Float chamber
Syphon
Syphon Float
chamber
Base
G.L.
The weighing and float type rain gauges can store a moderate snow fall which the op-
erator can weigh or melt and record the equivalent depth of rain. The snow can be melted in
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD2-1.PM5 20
PRECIPITATION 21
the gauge itself (as it gets collected there) by a heating system fitted to it or by placing in the
gauge certain chemicals such as Calcium Chloride, ethylene glycol, etc.
Curve traced by pen of
self-recording rain gauge Pen reverses
direction
20 20
Total 15 25
rainfall 10 30
(cm) 5 35
0 40
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (days)
25 cm
50 c
m
n
75 c
m China
a
125
cm
190 c
75 125
5
t
cm0
m
19
0
s
cm
Tibet cm
0c
m
m 500
19 0c
i
25 cm
375
k
190
125 cm
a cm cm
cm
25 50
P
m
0c
Bangla
25
190
75 cm
90 cm
0c
m Burma
cm
19
75 cm
A
r
50 cm 190 cm
125 125 cm
a
cm 0
cm
5
b
190 cm Bay of
250 125
i
cm Bengal
a
300
n
cm
50 cm
cm
s
75
m
e
m
c
5c
75
a
12
0
30 m
c
m
Isohyet cm
75 c
2500 Sri
in cm
m
19 5 Lanka
75 c
(normal annual) 12
Indian ocean
Automatic-radio-reporting rain-gauge
This type of raingauge is used in mountainous areas, which are not easily accessible to collect
the rainfall data manually. As in the tipping bucket gauge, when the buckets fill and tip, they
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD2-1.PM5 21
22 HYDROLOGY
give electric pulses equal in number to the mm of rainfall collected which are coded into mes-
sages and impressed on a transmitter during broadcast. At the receiving station, these coded
signals are picked up by UHF receiver. This type of raingauge was installed at the Koyna
hydro-electric project in June 1966 by IMD, Poona and is working satisfactorily.
2.3 RADARS
The application of radars in the study of storm mechanics, i.e. the areal extent, orientation and
movement of rain storms, is of great use. The radar signals reflected by the rain are helpful in
determining the magnitude of storm precipitation and its areal distribution. This method is
usually used to supplement data obtained from a network of rain gauges. The IMD has a well
established radar network for the detection of thunder storms and six cyclone warning radars,
on the east cost at Chennai, Kolkata, Paradeep, Vishakapatnam, Machalipatnam and Karaikal.
See the picture given on facing page.
Location of rain-gauges—Rain-gauges must be so located as to avoid exposure to wind
effect or interception by trees or buildings nearby.
The best location may be an open plane ground like an airport.
The rainfall records are maintained by one or more of the following departments:
Indian Meteorological Department (IMD)
Public Works Department (PWD)
Agricultural Department
Revenue Department
Forest Department, etc.
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD2-1.PM5 22
24 HYDROLOGY
(i) Station-year method—In this method, the records of two or more stations are com-
bined into one long record provided station records are independent and the areas in which the
stations are located are climatologically the same. The missing record at a station in a particu-
lar year may be found by the ratio of averages or by graphical comparison. For example, in a
certain year the total rainfall of station A is 75 cm and for the neighbouring station B, there is
no record. But if the a.a.r. at A and B are 70 cm and 80 cm, respectively, the missing year’s
rainfall at B (say, PB) can be found by simple proportion as:
75 PB
= ∴ PB = 85.7 cm
70 80
This result may again be checked with reference to another neighbouring station C.
(ii) By simple proportion (normal ratio method)–This method is illustrated by the fol-
lowing example.
Example 2.1 Rain-gauge station D was inoperative for part of a month during which a storm
occured. The storm rainfall recorded in the three surrounding stations A, B and C were 8.5, 6.7
and 9.0 cm, respectively. If the a.a.r for the stations are 75, 84, 70 and 90 cm, respectively,
estimate the storm rainfall at station D.
Solution By equating the ratios of storm rainfall to the a.a.r. at each station, the storm rain-
fall at station D (PD) is estimated as
8.5 6.7 9.0 PD
= = =
75 84 70 90
LM
1 8.5 6.7 9.0 OP
3 The average value of PD = 3 75 × 90 + 84 × 90 + 70 × 90 = 9.65 cm
N Q
(iii) Double-mass analysis—The trend of the rainfall records at a station may slightly
change after some years due to a change in the environment (or exposure) of a station either
due to coming of a new building, fence, planting of trees or cutting of forest nearby, which
affect the catch of the gauge due to change in the wind pattern or exposure. The consistency of
records at the station in question (say, X) is tested by a double mass curve by plottting the
cumulative annual (or seasonal) rainfall at station X against the concurrent cumulative values
of mean annual (or seasonal) rainfall for a group of surrounding stations, for the number of
years of record (Fig. 2.9). From the plot, the year in which a change in regime (or environment)
has occurred is indicated by the change in slope of the straight line plot. The rainfall records
of the station x are adjusted by multiplying the recorded values of rainfall by the ratio of slopes
of the straight lines before and after change in environment.
Example 2.2 The annual rainfall at station X and the average annual rainfall at 18 surround-
ing stations are given below. Check the consistency of the record at station X and determine the
year in which a change in regime has occurred. State how you are going to adjust the records
for the change in regime. Determine the a.a.r. for the period 1952-1970 for the changed regime.
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD2-1.PM5 24
PRECIPITATION 25
Solution
The above cumulative rainfalls are plotted as shown in Fig. 2.9. It can be seen from the
figure that there is a distinct change in slope in the year 1958, which indicates that a change in
regime (exposure) has occurred in the year 1958. To make the records prior to 1958 comparable
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD2-1.PM5 25
26 HYDROLOGY
with those after change in regime has occurred, the earlier records have to be adjusted by
multiplying by the ratio of slopes m2/m1 i.e., 0.9/1.25.
600
1970
2
m
=
9
0.
500 1968
2 =
.8
= 1
Cumulative annual rainfall of Stn. X, cm
1966
e
op
Sl
400 1964
1962
2.5
300 1960
1958 1.8
2
1
m
Change in regime
=
200
25
indicated in 1958
1.
1956
2 =
\ Adjustment of records
5
= 2.
100
op
Sl
1952
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Cumulative annual rainfall-18 Stns. average, cm
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD2-1.PM5 26
PRECIPITATION 27
ΣP1
Pave = ...(2.1)
n
where Pave = average depth of rainfall over the area
ΣP1 = sum of rainfall amounts at individual rain-gauge stations
n = number of rain-gauge stations in the area
This method is fast and simple and yields good estimates in flat country if the gauges
are uniformly distributed and the rainfall at different stations do not vary very widely from
the mean. These limitations can be partially overcome if topographic influences and aerial
representativity are considered in the selection of gauge sites.
(ii) Thiessen polygon method—This method attempts to allow for non-uniform distribu-
tion of gauges by providing a weighting factor for each gauge. The stations are plotted on a
base map and are connected by straight lines. Perpendicular bisectors are drawn to the straight
lines, joining adjacent stations to form polygons, known as Thiessen polygons (Fig. 2.10). Each
polygon area is assumed to be influenced by the raingauge station inside it, i.e., if P1, P2, P3, ....
are the rainfalls at the individual stations, and A1, A2, A3, .... are the areas of the polygons
surrounding these stations, (influence areas) respectively, the average depth of rainfall for the
entire basin is given by
ΣA1 P1
Pave = ...(2.2)
ΣA1
where ΣA1 = A = total area of the basin.
The results obtained are usually more accurate than those obtained by simple arithme-
tic averaging. The gauges should be properly located over the catchment to get regular shaped
polygons. However, one of the serious limitations of the Thiessen method is its non-flexibility
since a new Thiessen diagram has to be constructed every time if there is a change in the
raingauge network.
(iii) The isohyetal method—In this method, the point rainfalls are plotted on a suitable
base map and the lines of equal rainfall (isohyets) are drawn giving consideration to orographic
effects and storm morphology, Fig. 2.11. The average rainfall between the succesive isohyets
taken as the average of the two isohyetal values are weighted with the area between the
isohyets, added up and divided by the total area which gives the average depth of rainfall over
the entire basin, i.e.,
ΣA1− 2 P1− 2
Pave = ...(2.3)
ΣA1− 2
where A1–2 = area between the two successive isohyets P1 and P2
P1 + P2
P1–2 =
2
ΣA1–2 = A = total area of the basin.
This method if analysed properly gives the best results.
Example 2.3 Point rainfalls due to a storm at several rain-gauge stations in a basin are
shown in Fig. 2.10. Determine the mean areal depth of rainfall over the basin by the three
methods.
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD2-1.PM5 27
28 HYDROLOGY
Basin boundary
Stn.
A D Thiessen
polygons
G
O L
C
E
K
B
F M
I
J
N
1 2 3 4 5
(contd.)...
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD2-1.PM5 28
PRECIPITATION 29
(iii) Isohyetal method—The isohyets are drawn as shown in Fig. 2.11 and the mean
areal depth of rainfall is worked out below:
1 2 3 4 5 6
Example 2.3 (a) The area shown in Fig. P (2.3a) is composed of a square plus an equilateral
triangular plot of side 10 km. The annual precipitations at the rain-gauge stations located at
the four corners and centre of the square plot and apex of the traingular plot are indicated in
figure. Find the mean precipitation over the area by Thiessen polygon method, and compare
with the arithmetic mean.
Solution The Thiessen polygon is constructed by drawing perpendicular bisectors to the lines
joining the rain-gauge stations as shown in Fig. P (2.3a). The weighted mean precipitation is
computed in the following table:
Area of square plot = 10 × 10 = 100 km2
10 10
Area of inner square plot = × = 50 km2
2 2
Difference = 50 km2
56
Area of each corner triangle in the square plot = 4
= 12.5 km2
1 1
3
area of the equilateral triangular plot = 3
( 21 × 10 × 10 sin 60)
25
= = 14.4 km2
3
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD2-1.PM5 29
30 HYDROLOGY
P 9.2 cm
F
7.9 cm
A D Isohyetals
8.8 cm 9.2 cm
O
7.4 cm G
L
C 8.5 cm
12 cm 5.2 cm
10.8 cm
VI
H
E
7.6 cm III 10.5
B IV 13.8 cm cm
F V K
IV I
10.4 cm III 7.8 cm M
I
11.2 cm II 5.6 cm
9.5 cm
m
J
cm
8c
Basin boundary N
6c
10
6.8
m
8 cm
10
cm
Fig. 2.11 Isohyetal method, Example 2.3
Influence areas
km
10
45°
F
E
(60 cm)
(70 cm)
10 km 10 km
10
km 60°
Fig. P(2.3a)
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD2-1.PM5 30
PRECIPITATION 31
ΣA. P
C 12.5 76 950 =
ΣA
9517
D (12.5 + 14.4) 80 2152 =
143.2
= 26.9 = 66.3 cm
E 50 70 3500
F 14.4 60 864
ΣP 397
Arithmetic mean =
= = 66.17 cm
n 6
which compares fairly with the weighted mean.
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD2-1.PM5 31
32 HYDROLOGY
Solution
Σx 464
A 88 – 4.8 23.0 x = =
n 5
B 104 11.2 125.4 = 92.8 cm
Σ( x − x ) 2
C 138 45.2 2040.0 σ=
n−1
3767.4
D 78 – 14.8 219.0 = = 30.7
5−1
E 56 – 36.8 1360.0
σ 30.7
n=5 Σx = 464 Σ(x – x )2 = 3767.4 Cv = = × 100
x 92.8
= 33.1%
Basin boundary
A Isohyetals
88 cm
120 cm
VI
C
III
IV 138 cm
B V D
IV I
104 cm III 78 cm E
II 56 cm
cm
60
0c
80
cm
10
80 cm
10
0c
m
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD2-1.PM5 32
PRECIPITATION 33
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD2-1.PM5 33
34 HYDROLOGY
(iv) Starting with the storm centre in each zone, the area enclosed by each isohyet is
planimetered.
(v) The area between the two isohyets multiplied by the average of the two isohyetal
values gives the incremental volume of rainfall.
(vi) The incremental volume added with the previous accumulated volume gives the
total volume of rainfall.
(vii) The total volume of rainfall divided by the total area upto the encompassing isohyet
gives the average depth of rainfall over that area.
(viii) The computations are made for each zone and the zonal values are then combined
for areas enclosed by the common (or extending) isohyets.
(ix) The highest average depths for various areas are plotted and a smooth curve is
drawn. This is DAD curve for maximum 1-day rainfall.
(x) Similarly, DAD curves for other standard durations (of maximum 2, 3, 4 day etc. or
6, 12, 18, 24 hours etc.) of rainfall are prepared.
Example 2.5 An isohyetal pattern of critical consecutive 4-day storm is shown in Fig. 2.13.
Prepare the DAD curve.
Rain-gauge stations
cm
10 cm
15 cm
20 m
c
25
cm m
35 0 c
3
+B
Storm
centres
cm
15 0 cm
25
20 cm
cm
1
cm
30
cm
35
A
50 45
+
40
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD2-1.PM5 34
PRECIPITATION 35
Solution Computations to draw the DAD curves for a 4-day storm are made in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1.Computation of DAD curve (4-day critical storm)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Plot ‘col. (9) vs. col. (3)’ to get the DAD curve for the maximum 4-day critical storm, as
shown in Fig. 2.14.
60
50
40
Average depth cm
30
4-day s
torm
20
10
0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280
2
Area in (1000 km )
Fig. 2.14 DAD-curve for 4-day storm, Example 2.5
Isohyetal patterns are drawn for the maximum 1-day, 2-day, 3-day and 4-day (consecu-
tive) critical rainstorms that occurred during 13 to 16th July 1944 in the Narmada and Tapti
catchments and the DAD curves are prepared as shown in Fig. 2.15. The characteristics of
heavy rainstorms that have occurred during the period 1930–68 in the Narmada and Tapti
basins are given below:
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD2-1.PM5 35
36 HYDROLOGY
60
50
50
40
40
3-d
30 ay
stor
3-da 2-d m
y ay
2-da storm 20 s tor
20 y st 1-da m
orm y st
orm
1-day s 10
torm
10
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 2 100
2 Storm area (1000 km )
Storm area (1000 km )
(a) Narmada basin (b) Tapti basin
Fig. 2.15 DAD-curves for Narmada & Tapti Basin for rainstorm of 4-6 August 1968
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD2-1.PM5 36
PRECIPITATION 37
A hyetograph is a bar graph showing the intensity of rainfall with respect to time
(Fig. 2.16) and is useful in determining the maximum intensities of rainfall during a particu-
lar storm as is required in land drainage and design of culverts.
16
14
12.0 cm/hr
12
Intensity of rainfall i (cm/hr)
10 210-min. storm
8.5
8
6
4.5
4.0
4 3.5
3.0
2
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210
Time t (min)
A mass curve of rainfall (or precipitation) is a plot of cumulative depth of rainfall against
time (Fig. 2.17). From the mass curve, the total depth of rainfall and intensity of rainfall at any
instant of time can be found. The amount of rainfall for any increment of time is the difference
between the ordinates at the beginning and end of the time increments, and the intensity of
rainfall at any time is the slope of the mass curve (i.e., i = ∆P/∆t) at that time. A mass curve of
rainfall is always a rising curve and may have some horizontal sections which indicates peri-
ods of no rainfall. The mass curve for the design storm is generally obtained by maximising the
mass curves of the severe storms in the basin.
7
6
Cumulative rainfall P, cm
4 Ñ
p
Intensity, i = Ñ Mass curve of
t Ñ
p precipitation
3 Ñ
t
2
0
12 AM 4 8 12 PM 4 8 12 AM 4 8 12 PM
Time t, hr
Fig. 2.17 Mass curve of rainfall
C-9\N-HYDRO\HYD2-1.PM5 37
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Anusiasta syyt olivat hyväksyttävät, mutta hän alkoi ajatella, että
Billewiczien olo Taurogissa ei ollut erikoisen tukalaa ja että ruhtinas
samoinkuin Sakowicz eivät olleet niin suuria roistoja kuin miksi
miekankantaja oli heidät julistanut.
Hän ei ollut enää sama tyttö, joka ennen heloittava puna poskilla
ja silmät onnea säteillen kiiti reessä sulhasensa Andrzej Kmicicin
kanssa ja nauroi niin että metsä kajahteli.
Puhuttiin koko kansan noususta. Niin paljon kuin oli puita Puolan
metsissä, niin paljon kuin huojui tähkiä sen pelloilla, niin paljon kuin
öisin kimmelsi tähtiä Karpaattien ja Itämeren välillä, yhtä paljon
nousi sotureita taistelemaan ruotsalaisia vastaan, karkoittamaan
vihollista maasta.
Ruotsalaiset hukkuivat tähän joukkoon niinkuin tulvivaan virtaan.
— Missä on setänne?
Mutta äkkiä hän sai kokea vastarintaa taholta, mistä hän sitä
kaikkein vähimmin oli odottanut, nimittäin Anusian puolelta.
— Onnea matkalle!
— Mitä? Ette kai te luule, että lähden ilman teitä, toivoni armahin?
Sakowicz kalpeni kiukusta. Kyllä hän olisi näyttänyt, jos tuo tuossa
ei olisi ollut Anusia Borzobohata. Mutta ottaen huomioon, kenen
edessä hän seisoi, hän hillitsi itsensä, vääristi peloittavat kasvonsa
nauruun ja sanoi aivan kuin leikillään:
— Varsova on valloitettu!
Kmicicin oli kuljettava tuon kolmion läpi, sillä hänellä oli kiire, ja
siitä oli tie lyhin. Hän huomasi kohta joutuneensa verkkoon, mutta ei
pelästynyt, koska oli tottunut tämmöiseen sodankäyntiin. Hän arveli,
että verkko oli pingoitettu liian laajalle alalle ja että tarpeen tullen voi
pujahtaa sen silmukoista läpi. Ja mikä oli vielä ihmeellisempää:
vaikka häntä yhtä mittaa koetettiin pyydystää, niin hän ei vain
livahtanut pyydystäjien käsistä, vaan itsekin ahdisteli heitä. Ensin
hän meni Bugin yli Serockin luona, kulki joen rantaa Wyszkowiin ja
tuhosi Brariszczykin luona häntä kiinni ottamaan lähetetyn
kolmensadan miehen vahvuisen ratsujoukon, josta ruhtinas
Boguslaw kirjeessään mainitsi, niin perinpohjin, että siitä ei jäänyt
jäljelle ketään, joka olisi vienyt tiedon tappiosta päälliköille. Itse
Douglas kävi hänen kimppuunsa Dlugosiodlen luona, mutta hän löi
ruotsalaisen ratsujoukon pakoon ja pysytteli sen läheisyydessä ja
meni lopulta ruotsalaisten nähden uiden Narvan yli. Douglas jäi joen
rannalle odottamaan proomuja, mutta ennenkuin ne saapuivat, tuli
Kmicic yön pimeydessä taas joen yli takaisin ja sai hyökkäämällä
ruotsalaisten etuvartioita vastaan aikaan pelästystä ja sekamelskaa
koko Douglasin divisioonassa.
Hän jakoi joukkonsa kolmeen osastoon, joista yhtä johti hän itse,
toista Akbah-Ulan ja kolmatta Soroka, ja muutamassa päivässä hän
teki lopun melkein koko ruotsalaisjoukosta. Se oli yhtämittaista
ihmismetsästystä metsissä ja viidakoissa, jotka kaikuivat huudoista,
rytinästä, laukauksista ja vaikertelusta.