SPH 315/401 : ELECTRODYNAMICS

INTRODUCTION

What is “electrodynamics (ED)” is all about ?

Study of phenomena associated with moving charged bodies/particles in a

varying electric and magnetic fields, based on the Maxwell’s equations (ME),
i.e., electric and magnetic fields and their interactions with matter.

Since a moving charge produces a magnetic field, ED is also concerned with

effects such as magnetism, electromagnetics (em) radiation and em induction

Importance of ED
Has created a great revolution in the area of engineering applications, leading
to huge impact on the various fields such as medical, industrial, space, energy,
transportation, telecommunication, information, research, etc.

For instance, in telecommunication, the transmission of energy over long

distance is carried out through em waves at high frequencies (also referred to
as microwaves or radio waves).

Electromagnetic waves produced by time-varying sources are propagated

through waveguides or transmission lines.

Electromagnetic wave radiation is formed when em fields are propagated away

from the sources without any connection or conducting media from the source

1
we adopt the following symbols, notations and relations
E ≡ electric field strength, (V/m)
D ≡ electric flux density, (C/m2) [also referred to as “current displacement vector”] D = ε0E
ε0 ≡ electric permittivity of free space ε0 = 8.85 × 10 -12
(F/m)
J ≡ displacement electric current density (A/m2), i.e., the partial time-derivative of
electric flux density
J ≡ conduction current density, (A/m2)
J = σE
σ ≡ electrical conductivity
H ≡ magnetic field strength, (A/m)
B ≡ magnetic flux density, (wb/m2 or Tesla) B = µ0H
µ0 ≡ magnetic permeability of free space , µ0 = 4π × 10-7 (N/A2)
q ≡ total charge (C)
ρ ≡ volume-charge density (C/m3) ≡ charge, q, per unit volume V, i.e., ρ = q/V ⇔ q = ρV
γ ≡ surface-charge density (C/m2) ≡ charge, q, per unit area A, i.e., γ = q/A ⇔ q = γA
λ ≡ linear-charge density (C/m) ≡ charge, q, per unit length L, i.e., λ = q/L ⇔ q = λL
c ≡ speed of light in vacuum, c ≅ 3.0 × 108 (m/s)

DIFFERENTIAL FORMS OF MAXWELL EQUATIONS (ME) IN FREE SPACE

·E (Gauss’s law (electrostatic)) (i)
·B 0 (Gauss’s law (magnetostatic)) (ii)
×E − (Faraday’s law) (iii)
×B J (Ampere's law) (iv)

where ∇ is the del-operator

(in cartesian coordinates) ∇ + + ̂ (x,y,z)

(in cylindrical coordinates) ∇ ̂+ θ" + ̂ (r,θ,z)
!
(in spherical coordinates) ∇ ̂+ "+ " (r,θ,φ)
! #$%&

2
 GAUSS’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (to derive ME (i))

When the charges are distributed evenly over a volume element dv, and if
ρ is the volume-charge density, then the total charge, Q, inside the surface
enclosing the volume will be ) *- +,
According to the Gauss’s law, the total flux φ emanating from a closed
surface is “1/ε0 multiplied by the total charge Q” enclosed by the surface
( ) *- +,
Electric flux φE linked with the surface area element dA enclosing this volume,
by Gauss’s law (theorem) is
*0 . +/ (1
 *0 . +2 *3 +, ⇐ (1) [Gauss’s law]

GAUSS’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (to derive ME (i)), Cont…

But according to the “Gauss’s divergence theorem”, the vol. integral of the
divergence of electric field E is equal to the surface integral of E over the
surface area element dA that encloses the given volume, i.e.,
*- (+5, .)+, *# . +/
 *# . +/ *- (+5, .)+, ⇐ (2)

Comparing eqn (1) and (2)

*- (+5, .)+, *- +,
(+5, .) *- +, *- +,

3
GAUSS’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (to derive ME (i)), Cont…
Since this is valid for any arbitrary volume, the volume integrals on the
two sides must be equal at any point
(+5, .)
 . ⇐ (3)
 8 . ⇐
Eqn. (3) is the 1st ME (Gauss’s law) in its differential form and is the
fundamental equation on electrostatic.
It states that “the divergence of electric field E at any point is inversely proportional
to volume-charge density ρ at that point ”.
the proportionality parameter being electric permittivity of free space,
ε0 = 8.85 × 10-12 F/m

FARADAY’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (to derive ME (iii)),

Faraday discovered that the induced emf Vemf in any closed circuit is equal to
the time-rate of change of the negative (-ve) magnetic flux B linked by circuit
This is called the Faraday’s law, and it can be expressed as (note that B = nφ)
=> =A
9:;< − −@ (4)
=? =?
 “n” is the number of turns in the circuit and φ is the flux through each turn.
 The –ve sign indicates that the induced voltage Vemf acts in such a way as to
oppose the flux producing it
 This is known as the “Lenz’s law”, and it emphasizes concept that the
direction of the current flow in the circuit is such that the induced magnetic
field produced by induced current will oppose the original magnetic field

4
FARADAY’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (to derive ME (iii)), cont…
From the relationship between induced voltage Vemf and the electric field E,
we can relate electric field E and the magnetic field B.
For a single circuit, n = 1, eqn (4) becomes
=AB
9:;< − (5)
=?

In terms of E and B, eqn. (5) can be written as

9:;< *D . +C
=AB
∴ *D . +C −
=?
(note that ( *0 E. +2)
=
*D . +C −
=?
*0 G +2 (6)
where magnetic flux φB has been replaced by *0 G +/ and S is the
surface area of the circuit bounded by the closed path L

FARADAY’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (to derive ME (iii)), cont…

from eqn. (6)
 it is clear that in a time-varying situation, both E and B are
present and interrelated.
 both dL and dA elements are in accordance with the right-hand
rule as well as the Stokes’s theorem.

The variation of flux with time as in eqn (5) or (6) may be achieved in three
ways, i.e., by having :
1. a stationary loop in a time-varying B
2. a time-varying loop in a static B
3. a time-varying loop area in a time-varying B

5
FARADAY’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (to derive ME (iii)), cont…
eqn. (6) can be re-arranged as ;
=
*D . +C −
=?
*0 G +/
=G
 *D . +C − *0 +/
=?
=G
 − *0
=?
+/ *D . +C ⇐ (7)

According to the Stokes’s theorem, “ the surface integral of the curl of a vector E
over a surface boundary bounded by closed surface is equal to the line integral of the vector
E around that surface ”
i.e., *# HI J . +/ *D . +C
∴ *# × . +/ *D . +C (8)

FARADAY’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (to derive ME (iii)), cont…

Comparing eqn. (7) and (8), we have ;

=G
thus, *# . +/ − *# +/
=?
=G
. *# +/ − *# +/
=?
=G
 K − ⇐ (9)
=?
Eqn. (9) is the 3rd Maxwell equation, which states “the curl of E is equal
G
and in opposite to the time-rate of change of B , i.e., K − ? ”

It shows that the time-varying field E is a non-conservative ( . ≠ 0)

This doesn’t imply that the principle of energy conservation is violated. The
work done in taking a charge around a closed path in a time-varying E is due
to the energy from the time-varying B

6
GAUSS’S LAW (magnetostatics) IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (to derive ME (ii))

Magnetism exists as dipoles, i.e., a north pole

always comes with a south pole.
Implies that magnetic field lines must be
continuous, just like electric field lines.
Choosing a gaussian space, the number of
magnetic fields entering this region equal the
number of magnetic field lines leaving the space.
Therefore, the net magnetic flux φB is zero.

*0 G +/ 0 (10)

GAUSS’S LAW (magnetic) IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (to derive ME (ii)), cont…

Using divergence theorem, i.e., “the volume integral of divergence of magnetic
field B is equal to the surface integral of the field B over the surface area S which
encloses the given volume ”
i.e., *3 (+5, G)+, *0 G +/ (11)
Comparing eqn. (10) and (11)
*3 (+5, G)+, 0

∴ (+5, G) *3 +, 0
 M 0 ⇐ (12)
Eqn. (12) is the 2nd ME that states “ the divergence of B is always zero ”

7
AMPERE’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (to derive ME (iv))
Right-hand thumb rule
Thumb points in the current I direction and
fingers curl around the current indicating the
direction of the magnetic field B
O
N
/
⇔ O N/ ,
I ≡ electric current (Amperes (A))
A ≡ cross-section area (m2 )
J ≡ electric current density (A/m2 )
By Biot-Savart’s law, magnetic field B
P Q
E (note 2π V)
RS
Since B and dL element are in the same direction

AMPERE’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (to derive ME (iv)), cont...

By Biot-Savart’s law, magnetic field B

W
E
2π
Since B and dL are parallel, i.e., in the same direction
G XC E cos 0 +V E+V
Hence
P Q P Q P Q
*D G XC RS
*D +V RS
V
RS
2π W

But, W *0 \ +2

*D G XC *0 \ +2 \ *0 +2 (13)

8
 AMPERE’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (to derive ME (iv)), cont…
By Stokes’s theorem “ the surface integral of the curl of a vector B over a surface
boundary bounded by closed surface is equal to the line integral of the vector B around
that surface ”
i.e., *# HI J M +2 *D M XC

∴ *# M +2 *D M XC (14)
from eqn. (13) and (14), we have
*# M +/ *D M XC *0 J +2
*# M +/ *0 J +2
M *# +/ \ *0 +2
 M J ⇐ (15)

AMPERE’S LAW IN DIFFERENTIAL FORM (cont…)

Eqn. (15) is the 4th Maxwell equation, which states “ the curl of B is directly
proportional to the current density J ”
the proportionality parameter being the “magnetic permeability” of free space,
µ0 = 4π × 10-7 N/A2 = 12.58 × 10-7 N/A2
Differential & Integral Forms of ME in free space
Differential form Integral form Remarks

8 K ] 8 *0 K +2 *3 ]+, Gauss’s law (electrostatic)

E 0 *0 E +2 0 Gauss’s law (magnetostatic)

>
×K − *D K +V − * E +2 Faraday’s law
? ? #

×E \ *D E +V *0 \ +2 Ampere’s law

9
Differential & Integral Forms of ME in free space (cont…)

Alternatively; replacing ^ 8 K and E _

Differential form Integral form Remarks

^ ] *0 ^ +2 *3 ]+, Gauss’s law (electrostatic)

_ 0 *0 _ +2 0 Gauss’s law (magnetostatic)

`
×K − *D K +V − * _ +2 Faraday’s law
? ? #

×_ \ *D _ +V *0 \ +2 Ampere’s law

Differential & Integral Forms of ME in free space (cont…)

b c > `
For static fields, set 8 0, and, 0
? ? ? ?

Differential form Integral form Remarks

^ ] *0 ^ +2 *3 ]+, Gauss’s law (electrostatic)

_ 0 *0 _ +a 0 Gauss’s law (magnetostatic)

×K 0 *D K +V 0 Faraday’s law

×E \ *D _ +V *0 \ +2 Ampere’s law

10
Solved Examples
e V/m in free space, determine D, JD, B & H
Q.1 Given that E = 10sin(ωt-kz)d
A.1 D = ε0E  e C/m2
D = 10ε0sin(ωt-kz)d
b
\b 1080g5@ hi − j 10h80 cos hi − j e A/m2
d
? ?
From Maxwell’s 3rd eqn.
>
×K −
?
e
k e
d l
cm cm
×K − e + 0d
k e+ l
0 K 0

Worked Examples (cont…)

Since E = 10sin(ωt-kz) V/m is not a function of variable x,
c
then 0 (i.e., does not depends on x)
cm
∴ ×K − e
k − 10g5@ hi − j e
k
>
10j cos hi − j e
k −
?
 E e
− * 10j cos hi − j +i k
n
 E sin hi − j e wb/m2 (Tesla)
k
o
but, B = µ0H
n
 H = B/µ0  _ sin hi − j e A/m
k
oP

11
Q.2
If the electric field strength E of an electromagnetic wave in the free space is
given by K 2 cos hi − o- de V/m, find magnetic field strength H.
>
A.2 − ×K
?
e
k e
d l
cm cm cm
∴ − ×K − − − e + 0d
k e+ e
d k
0 K 0

A.2 (cont…)
>
− ×K
?
e
k e
d l
cm cm
∴ − ×K − − e + 0d
k e+ l
0 K 0
cm o
e
k 2 cos hi − e
k
-
Ro o >
sin hi − e
k
- - ?

Ro o
 B * sin hi − +i k ∴  B = µ0H
- -
rRo o  H = B/µ0
 B cos hi − - k
- o
rR o
rR o  _ cos hi − e A/m
k
 B -
cos hi − -
k - P -

12
Q.3 If the electric field strength E of a radio broadcast signal at a TV
receiver in free space is expressed as K 5 cos ωt − ky l V/m, determine
the displacement current density JD . If the same field exists in a
medium whose electrical conductivity σ = 2.0 × 103 Ω/cm, find the
conduction current density J.

A.3 D = ε0E  D = 5ε0cos hi − j l C/m2

Displacement current density, JD
b
\ 5 0 cos ωt − ky l −5h 0 sin ωt − ky l A/m2
? ?
Conduction current density, J
J = σE  J = 5σcos ωt − ky l C/m2

A.3 (cont…)
J = σE  J = σ5cos ωt − ky l A/m2
but, σ = 2.0 × 103 Ω/cm ⇔ σ = 2.0 × 105 Ω/m
⇔ J = 2 × 105 × 5 cos ωt − ky l A/m2
 J = 10ƒ cos ωt − ky l A/m2

Questions
i. State Gauss’s laws for electrostatic and magnetostatic, both in
mathematical and statement forms
ii. How do they differ ?
iii. Why is the difference in the two laws

13
Applications of Ampere’s law
o calculating magnetic field(s) generated by electric field(s)
o useful in electromagnetics, motors, generators and transformers
Limitations of Ampere’s law
o only applicable in steady situation(s)
o valid in steady current
Modified Ampere’s law and the displacement current density JD
• Ampere’s law × B J does not hold good for time-varying fields
• To account for time-varying fields, Maxwell amended Ampere’s law by
introducing the concept of displacement current.
b
• It led to the inclusive of the quantity ? in the 4th equation of Maxwell
b
• Maxwell added this term (i.e., ? ) and applied the amended version of
equation to derive EM wave equation, which forms the basis for ME.

Modified Ampere’s law and the displacement current density JD (Cont…)

Putting E _, Ampere’s law ×E \ becomes
×_ \ (16)
Taking divergence from left direction in both sides of eqn. (16)
×_ \
But the divergence of the curl of a vector is zero, (say vector A)
×2 0
×_ 0  \ 0 (17)
 the divergence of the current density J is zero ⇐

14
Modified Ampere’s law and the displacement current density JD (cont…)

From Gauss’s law (electrostatic) relation,

K (18)
Differentiating eqn. (18) w.r.t. time t
c c
 8
? ? ? ?

Adding \ to the left of both sides

c
\+8 \+ (19)
? ?
According to the fundamental equation of continuity
c
\+ 0  ∴ \+8 0∴ ⇐
? ?

Modified Ampere’s law and the displacement current density JD (Cont…)

b
But D = ε0E  \+ 0
?
b b
∇ \+ 0 ⇔ \+ 0
? ?

„
\+ is referred as the “total current density”, and should replace the
?
conduction current density J in the ampere’s law

Therefore, the modified form of Ampere’s law ( × _ \ ) becomes

b
×_ \+ (20)
?

15
Modified Ampere’s law and the displacement current density JD (Cont…)
b
 The term ? in eqn. (20) is referred to as “the displacement current
density JD”, which is defined as the “rate of change of electric flux density
b
vector, D, w.r.t time t ” , i.e., \b ?
 Eqn. (20) becomes × _ \ + \b , and it is the consequence of the
conservation of charges

Magnitude of the displacement current density JD

Consider a parallel plate capacitor with vacuum

(free space) between the plates, surface area A
on each plate, and charge q on each plate.
Let I and ID be conduction (charging) current
and displacement current, respectively

o conduction/conventional current I is not continuous inside the gap.

o according to Maxwell, changing electric field E across the gap serves the
purpose of conducting current in the gap.
o Displacement current ID in the gap is found to be equal to conduction
current I in the load wires.

16
Proof
…
Electric field E between the plates K †
[using Gauss’s law, i.e.,
ME (i), use q in place of ρ]
… … b …
But D 8 K  ^ 8
†
⇔ ^ †

? † ?
⇐
b b …
Displacement current, WD 2\^, and \D
?
, i.e., ? † ?
b † … …
∴ WD 2
? † ? ?
W [hence  W WD ⇐ ]

 this means the displacement current WD provides a continuous pathway for the
charges across the capacitor ⇐

EXAMPLE
Q1 A parallel plate capacitor with plate area 5 cm2 and plate separation of 3 mm has a
voltage signal 9 50 sin 10‡ i V applied across its plates. Calculate the total
displaced current ID , assuming ε = 2ε0 (where ε0 = 8.85 × 10-12 F/m)
ˆ b =ˆ
A1 ^ 8K 8  \b (since V=Ed)
= ? = =?
hence, total displaced current ID
=… =ˆ =… † =ˆ †
Wb \b 2
† =ˆ
‰
=ˆ
, (C is the capacitance) “ ‰9, ‰ ⇔ ‰ ⇐
=? =? =? = =? =
= =? =?
† =ˆ =ˆ
Wb H
= =? =?
‹× Œ• =
2 × 8.85 × 10r R
ŒŽ 50 sin 10‡ i which is the same as the conduction current I given by
‡× =?
=… = =b =c † =ˆ =ˆ
2.95 × 10r R 50 × 10‡ cos 10‡ i W 2 82 H
=? =? =? =? = =? =?
1.47 × 10r’ cos 10‡ i A ∴W W ⇐
147 cos 10‡ i nA
Exercise: Q2. In a free space, . 20 cos hi − 50 l V/m. Determine JD, H, and ω
Q3 In a medium characterized by σ=0, ε=4ε0, µ=µ0 and . 20 sin hi − 50 d e V/m.
calculate β and H

17
MAXWELL EQUATIONS IN CONDUCTING MEDIA
Fundamental Maxwell equations (ME)
K [Gauss’s law (electrostatic)] ^ ]
E 0 [Gauss’s law (magnetostatic)] _ 0
> `
×K − [Faraday’s law] ×K −
? ?
c b
×E \+ 8 [Ampere’s law] ×_ \+
? ?
For a linear isotropic and homogeneous medium, i.e., an isotropic material is
the one in which physical properties are direction independent.
D 8 K 8 - permittivity of free space
B _ - permeability of free space of a medium
J ”K ” – electrical conductivity

MAXWELL EQUATIONS IN CONDUCTING MEDIA (cont…)

leading to :

K [Gauss’s law (electrostatic)] ^ ]

E 0 [Gauss’s law (magnetostatic)] _ 0
> `
×K − [Faraday’s law] ×K −
? ?
b b
×E \+ ×_ \+
? ?
š.
[Modified
•×G œ™ —. + œ™ ˜™ š.
š› Ampere’s law] •×– —. + ˜™
š›

18
TIME-VARYING EM FIELDS IN FREE SPACE
Consider a region where both volume-charge density ] and current density \
equal to zero, i.e., ] \ 0.
∴ ME become : (21)
K 0
E 0 (22)
>
×K − (23)
?
c
×E 8 (24)
?

multiply eqn. (24) on the left by × in both sides

TIME-VARYING EM FIELDS IN FREE SPACE (cont…)

× ×E 8 ×K (25)
?
Using vector identity (take vector C for B)
∇×(∇×C)= ∇(∇⋅C) − ∇2C
that is;
∇×(∇×B)= ∇(∇⋅B) − ∇2B
but ∇⋅B = 0 (see eqn (22)
 ∇×(∇×B)= − ∇2B (26)
Also ;
> (27)
×K − (i.e., refer to eqn. 23))
?

19
TIME-VARYING EM FIELDS IN FREE SPACE (cont…)
Plugging eqns. (26) and (27) into eqn. (25)
R >
− E 8 −
? ?
•>
R (28)
E 8
?•

Similarly eqn. (23) can be written as

× ×K − ×E
?
c
But K 0 and ×E 8
?
R c
− K − 8
? ?
•c
R (29)
 K 8
?•

TIME-VARYING EM FIELDS IN FREE SPACE (cont...)

 eqns. (28) and (29) are wave equations governing electric field E and magnetic
field B in free space
 Both equations have the same form of the general wave equation, i.e.,
•Ÿ
R
ž ,
-• ?•
with velocity (speed) ν
¤
•
, Œ¢ Œ¤•
P ¡× £.£‹×
299803051 ≈ 3 0 × 10£ m/s
this happens to be precisely the velocity of light in the free space.
 so MEs imply that empty space supports the propagation of EM waves
travelling at the speed of light .

20
DIELECTRIC MEDIUM AND DEVICES

Theory of dielectric
Dielectric (insulator) is a material in which all the electrons are tightly
bound to the nuclei of the atom.
No free electrons available to carry current.
Examples are glass, paper, wood, mica, rubber, etc.

Dielectric constant εr
# ratio of capacitance C with the dielectric material filling the entire space
between the plates of capacitor to the capacitance C0 of the same
capacitor in vacuum is called dielectric constant (relative permittivity), εr #

DIELECTRIC MEDIUM AND DEVICES (cont…)

Question
• What is a dielectric ?
− insulator with tightly bound electrons
• How do they differ from conductors
− Do not conduct electricity/electrons. Also they are thermally inactive
• Is it an insulator ?
− Loses insulating properties for a particular electric field strength, called
breakdown strength

21
DIELECTRIC MEDIUM AND DEVICES (cont…)
capacitance C of the medium not in vacuum
†
‰ (30)
=
capacitance c0 of the medium placed in vacuum
†
‰ (31)
=

dielectric constant (or relative permittivity) εr is the ratio of

permittivity of the dielectric to that of free space
¨ † =
8§  8§  8§
¨ = †

 8 8§ 8 ⇐  ‰ 8§§‰ ⇐ (32)
similarly, μ μ§ μ , for magnetic material in a magnetic field
NB: in vacuum and air , § μ§ 1

PROPAGATION OF PLANE EM WAVE THRO’ CONDUCTING MEDIUM

Recall: in vacuum and air, § μ§ 1, otherwise, § ,&, μ μ§ μ
D 8K 8 8§ 8 - permittivity
B _ - permeability
§ of a material
J ”K ” – electrical conductivity

leading to: K [Gauss’s law (electrostatic)] ^ ]

E 0 _ 0
>
[Gauss’s law (magnetostatic)] `
×K − ×K − ?
?
b
[Faraday’s law] b
×E \+ ×_ \+
? ?
š.
[modified Ampere’s law] š.
•×G œ—. + œ˜ š› •×– —. + ˜ š›

22
PROPAGATION OF PLANE EM WAVE THRO’ CONDUCTING MEDIUM (cont…)
consider a space where volume-charge density ] is zero, i.e., ] 0.
∴ ME become: K 0 (33)
E 0 (34)
`
×K − (35)
?
c
×_ ”K + 8 (36)
?

taking the curl of eqn. (35): × ×K − ×_

?
R
K − . − ×_
?
R .
K − . − ”. + 8
? ?

PROPAGATION OF PLANE EM WAVE THRO’ CONDUCTING MEDIUM (cont...)

but ∇⋅E = 0 (refer to eqn.(33))

c •c
R
K ” + 8
? ?•

c •c
R
K− ” − 8 0 (37a)
? ?•

similarly, take curl of eqn. (36) and re-arrange

` •`
R
_− ” − 8 0 (37b)
? ?•

 eqns. (37) and (38) are EM wave equations in conducting media,

are referred to the Helmholtz equations.

23
EM WAVES IN NON-CONDUCTING MEDIA
For non-conducting media, σ = 0, hence eqns. (37) and (38) become
•c
R
K− 8 0 (39)
?•
•`
R
_− 8 0 (40)
?•
where velocity ,
P Pª P ª

ENERGY TRANSPORT OF EM WAVE

Energy UE stored in a capacitor due to electric field E
«1 ‰9 R
UE ≡ energy
R
C ≡ capacitance
but V = Ed V ≡ p.d between the plates
C = (ε0A)/d A ≡ x-section area of the plate

ENERGY TRANSPORT OF EM WAVE (cont…)

† R
«1 K+ 8 K R 2+ ; but Ad = vol.
R = R

 «1 8 K R vol. ⇐
R
Volume-energy density τE of the electric field E
®¯ †=
-1 8 KR  -1 8 KR ⇐ (41)
°±². R †= R
Energy UB stored in an inductor due to magnetic field B
UB ≡ energy
L ≡ inductance
« VWR (42)
I ≡ current R

A ≡ x-section area
n ≡ number of turns per unit length d

24
ENERGY TRANSPORT OF EM WAVE (cont…)

 For a solenoid of length d, and n-turns, the inductance L is

V @R 2+ , (43)
and field B
(44)
E @W (Biot-Savert magnetic law)
>
Plugging eqns. (43) and (44) into eqn. (42), and noting that W P %
,
> R
« @R 2+
R P %
>• but Ad = vol.
« 2+
RP
>•
« vol.
RP

ENERGY TRANSPORT OF EM WAVE (cont…)

∴ volume-energy density τB of magnetic field B

®B >• †=
-
°±². RP †=
>•
 - RP
⇐ (45)
In 1D (take x)
•. •. with simple solutions
• 8 . K sin j − hi
?•
•G •G ⇔ G E sin j − hi
• 8
?•
 E & B are in-phase ⇐

 E and B are mutually ⊥lar to each other and also to the direction of propagation ⇐

25
ENERGY TRANSPORT OF EM WAVE (cont…)

E = electric field
B = magnetic flux
c = speed of light

and are related by the equation,

E Bc ⇔ E cB (46)

but H P
 K
P
E ⇔ 8 K E

ENERGY TRANSPORT OF EM WAVE (cont…)

thus, the total-energy density τ E 8 K  ER 8 KR
- -1 + - >•
>•
 8 KR ⇐
P
>• - , or
- 8 KR + P >
R RP - 8 KK 8 K
R
>• >• i.e., - 8 K , or P
τ +
RP RP - KE KE
>• >•
- KE P P
P
- +
R P P
- KE ⇐
P
c Pc
The ratio E to H is called “impedance ´ ” of EM wave (measured in Ω), i.e., ´ ⇔´ .
` >
c P c P
In free space, ´ (termed as intrinsic impedance ´ ) equals to 377 Ω , i.e., ´ ⇔´ H .
` >

P ¡× Œ¢
´ Œ¤• 377 Ω OR ´ H 4µ × 10r’ 3.0 × 10£ 377 Ω
£.£‹×

26
 ENERGY TRANSPORT OF EM WAVE AND THE POYNTING VECTOR, S ,
>•
Recall energy densities, -1 8 K R and -
R RP
Consider two circular ends of a cylinder, kept distance dz apart,
each of cross-section area A.
Assume the two ends are normal to the direction of the
propagation of the wave.
Total energy element du in the volume element Adz between the
ends is
+I -2+ (47)
The rate at which energy passes thro’ unit area A, i.e., energy flow-rate (say S)
=¶
a (48)
† =?
[S ≡ rate of energy transfer (flow) per unit area]

ENERGY TRANSPORT OF EM WAVE AND THE POYNTING VECTOR, S , (cont...)

Energy carried by EM fields travelling at speed of light c, i.e., H P

Thus, dividing (47) by dt in both sides
=¶ = =
-2  H
=? =? =?
=¶
-2H (49)
=?

substitute (49) into (48)

a -2H -H a -H
†
 a -H ⇐ (50) P
KE
P
c>
but - KE and H a
P
(51)
P P

27
ENERGY TRANSPORT OF EM WAVE AND THE POYNTING VECTOR, S, (cont…)
Now, energy flow is ⊥lar to E and B.
Direction of energy flow = direction of wave propagation
This fact was incorporated in (51) by English Physicist
John Henry Poynting using vector analysis, leading to
Poynting vector S
a K × E (unit of S ≡ W/m2 or ( J/s-m2 )
·

Poynting vector S is also expressed as a K×_  a K_ ⇐

 Poynting vector S at a point is defined as the quantity describing the

magnitude and direction of the energy-flow rate in EM wave ⇐

POYNTING VECTOR, S , AND INTENSITY, I ,

• Intensity (I) is defined as the power (p) per unit area (A) •
a•
¸ =¶
W † † =?
a ⇐ • W
∴ the average (mean) intensity I of S (i.e., <S>), i.e., the rate of energy flow
per unit area
c >
W ≡º a » R ·
(where E0 and B0 are amplitudes (max. values) of E & B)
W ≡º a » K _ (where E0 and H0 are amplitudes of E & H)
R
c > c• ¼> •
Also W ≡º a » H8 K R
R · R· ¼ R · R

28
PROOF OF POYNTING VECTOR, S = E × H, FROM ME
Consider 3rd and 4th ME
>
×K − (52)
?
b
×_ \+ (53)
?
Take dot product from left of (52) and (53) with H and E, respectively,
>
_ ×K −_ ? − ? R _ E ; B0 =µH0
_ ×K − _R (54)
? R
b
K ×_ K\+K
?
K\+K
? R
K ^ ; D0 = εE0
K ×_ K\ + 8K R (55)
? R
(NB: E0 and H0 are amplitudes of E & H, respectively)

PROOF OF POYNTING VECTOR, S = E × H , FROM ME (cont…)

Subtract (54) from (55)

K ×_ −_ ×K K\ + _ R + R 8K R (56)
? R
but from vector identity
K×_ _ ×K −K ×_
 − K×_ K ×_ −_ ×K ⇐ (57)

substitute (57) into (56)

− K×_ K\ + ? R
_ R + R 8K R (58)

29
 PROOF OF POYNTING VECTOR, S = E × H , FROM ME (cont…)

Consider a volume V enclosed by surface area s.

Integrating (58) over V
− *ˆ K × _ +9 *ˆ K\ +9 + * 8K R + _ R +9 (59)
? ˆ R R
by divergence theorem
*ˆ K × _ +9 *½ K × _ +2 ; use in (59), and multiply
through by minus, i.e., (−)

*½ K × _ +2 − *ˆ K\+9 − * 8K R + _R +9 (60)
? ˆ R R

the rate energy is lost the rate of decrease of stored

thro’ joule heating energy due to E & B (or H)

PROOF OF POYNTING VECTOR, S = E × H FROM ME (cont…)

Hence term on LHS in (60) represents the rate of energy flow across the
area (Poynting vector, S) ⇔ a K×_
Thus,  S direction is ⊥lar to both E and H directions ⇐
Q1. In free space, . 50 cos hi − j k e, determine the average power crossing a circular
area of radius 12 m in the plane z= constant.
A1. If . K cos hi − j k e , consequently E E cos hi − j d e , where B0=E0/c , (or
H0=E0/(µ0c), where c = 3.0 × 10 m/s , hence, . 50 cos hi − j k
8 e V/m, and
£
E 50⁄3 × 10 cos hi − j d e Tesla (note that the wave /field(s) is propagating
along z-axis) (or _ 50⁄ 12.56 × 10r’ × 3 × 10£ cos hi − j d e A/m)
=¶ À
a K _ 0.5 × 50 × 50 / 12.57 × 10r’ × 3.0 × 10£ 3.315 W/m2.
† =? † R
∴ mean-power Pav crossing circular area of radius r=12m (A=πr2=3.142×122=452.448 m2)
ÂÃ- a2 3.315 × 452.448 1500 W (J-s).

30
LINEAR MOMENTUM p AND RADIATION PRESSURE Prad

EM waves transport linear momentum p

It can be shown that, linear momentum conveyed by em wave is given by
®
Ä
¼
(U ≡ energy ; H P
, speed of light in vacuum)
When the EM wave is reflected by a surface, the linear momentum is doubled
∆Ä ÄÆ − ħ ≡ change in momentum
i.e.,
® ® R® R®
∆Ä − −  ∆Ä
¼ ¼ ¼ ¼

R®
 ∆Ä ⇐
¨

LINEAR MOMENTUM, p, AND RADIATION PRESSURE, prad, (cont…)

Force F exerted by em wave on surface can be related to Poynting vector S

® =¸
From Ä , and by the Newton’s 2nd law ; Ç
¼ =?
then,
=®
Ç
=¸ = ® =®
 Ç ⇐
=? =? ¼ ¼ =? ¼ =?
=® =®
but a † =?
 =?
a2
Thus,
È # È
Ç a2 ⇔ ; but a -H  - ⇐
¼ É ¼ É
È
§ÊË - radiation pressure, i.e., Prad equals energy density τ
É

NB: light (EM) wave exerts pressure

31
POLARIZATION OF DIELECTRIC
a) NON-POLAR MOLECULES
o Non-polar molecule(s); - one in which the center of gravity of the
+ve charges (protons/ions) coincides with the center of gravity of
the -ve charges (electrons/ions)
o Symmetrical particles are non-polar, e.g., H2, N2, O2, etc
o When placed in an electric field, the centers are displaced ; and are
called induced dipoles

b) POLAR MOLECULES
o In polar molecule(s); - center of gravity of positives is separated from
center of gravity of negatives by some finite space/distance
o Is therefore an electric dipoles

b) POLAR MOLECULES (cont…)

In the absence of field,

dipoles are randomly • No net dipole
oriented, i.e., orient in is observed •
different directions

Applying field, forces on

dipoles give to rise to torque • Net dipole is
which aligns diploes in the observed •
direction of the field

Alignment not always perfect due to thermal agitation (effect) giving rise
to a net dipole moment mD.

32
 Non-polar and polar molecules

NB: § non-polar molecules in the presence of electric field; become dipole

(induced dipole moment)
§ polar molecules in the presence of field ; dipole moment increased
• the process of aligning dipoles to the field’s direction is called electric polarization P •
• dielectric strength is the maximum electric field that a dielectric can tolerate or withstand
without electrical breakdown •
CACULATING MAGNITUDE of DIPOLE MOMENT mD
Magnitude of dipole moment md is directly proportional to external field E
(mD is in the same direction as E), i.e., mD ∝ E
 Íb ÎK ⇐ (61)
α ≡ molecular polarization for dielectric

CACULATING MAGNITUDE OF ELECTRIC POLARIZATION P (i.e.,

POLARIZATION VECTOR, P)

# Electric polarization (polarization vector) P is defined as the product of

dipole moment mD of each molecule and the number of molecules per
unit volume η # , i.e.,
Ï: ´Ð where η = (no. of molecules)/vol.
• so we can define polarization vector P of a dipole moment per unit vol. •
§ P is in the same direction as E §

33
Relation between polarization vector (p) and polarization
surface-charge density (σ)

consider a polarized dielectric material

placed in a uniform electric field E
Dielectric surface is parallel to P

• +q, -q ↔ net surface charge

• σ ↔ density of polarization charge (i.e., charge per unit surface area)
• p ↔ polarization vector
• A ↔ cross-section area
• d ↔ length of the slab i.e., distance between the plates

Relation between polarization vector (P) and polarization

surface-charge density (σ) (cont…)
=$¸ÒÓ: ;Ò;:%? ÐÔ ÐÔ
now: Ñ  Ñ ⇐
-ÒÓ¶;: ÕÖ ÕÖ
 Ð Ñ2+ ⇐ (62)

Assume a slab of single dipole with total surface charge, q, and cross-section A
(i.e., q = σA) separated by distance, d,
but, dipole moment = (charge)⋅(length)
Í “+ ⇐
Í ”2+ ⇐ (63)

34
Relation between polarization vector (p) and polarization
surface-charge density σ (cont...)

comparing (62) and (63)

Â2+ ”2+
 Â ” ⇐ (64)
 polarization P is numerically equal to surface-charge density σ ⇐

GAUSS’S LAW IN DIELECTRIC MATERIAL

 consider a parallel-plate capacitor (condenser)

with capacitance c, area A, vacuum between
plates, charges +q, -q and electric field E0
between the plates
 Let PQSR be Gaussian surface

By Gauss’s law
…
*0 K +2 , dA is the Gaussian surface vector, and is parallel to E0
…
*0 K +2 *0 K +2 K *0 +2 K 2
… …
K 2 ⇐ ⇔ K †
(65)

35
GAUSS’S LAW IN DIELECTRIC MATERIAL (cont…)

If a material of dielectric constant 8 is introduced

between the plates of the capacitor
 charge induced in the dielectric +q′ and –q′ (induced
charges) 
 while +q and –q are free charges 
• Dielectric material produces a filed E′ which opposes
E0 leading to resultant field E, i.e., E = E0 – E′
• Net charge in the Gaussian surface = q – q′
By Gauss’s law
…r… ×
*0 K +2 (E0 is parallel to dA) (66)

GAUSS’S LAW IN DIELECTRIC MATERIAL (cont…)

…r… ×
*0 K +2 *0 K+2 cos Ø *0 K+2 cos 0± K *0 +2 K2
…r… × ¼ …
 K2 ⇐ (67) 8
¼
;“ H9  C
ˆ
… …
∴‰ and C
Now if 8 ≡ dielectric constant, then by definition ˆ ˆ
¨ … ˆ ˆ
¨ c 8
8
¨
⇔ 8 c
¨ ˆ … ˆ
ˆ
 8 , but 9 K+,
ˆ
K 8 K (68)
∴9 K + and 9 K+
Equating (65) with (68), we have : Thus, 8
ˆ c = c
… … ˆ c= c
†
8 K ⇔ K2 (69) 8
c
⇔ K 8 K
ª c

36
 GAUSS’S LAW IN DIELECTRIC MATERIAL (cont…)

Equating (67) with (69)

…r… × … …
⇔ “ − “Ù (70)
ª ª
…
Plugging (70) into (66); leads to *0 K +2
ª

…
*½ 8 K +2 (71)

Therefore, (71) gives the Gauss’s law in dielectric medium/material.

…
Alternatively, (71) can be expressed as *0 K +2 , where ε = εrε0

ELECTRIC DISPLACEMENT VECTOR, D,

Now, in the presence of dielectric medium, (67) can be rearranged as:
…r…× …r…× … r…× … …×
K2 ⇔ 8 K ⇔ 8 K + ⇔ 8 K −
† † † † †
… …×
 8 K+ ⇐ (72)
† †
where; E – net electric field inside the dielectric medium
…
†
– electric displacement vector D (ratio of conventional charges to area)
…× …×
†
– induced surface charge per unit area ≡ electric polarization P, i.e., †
Â

o Thus, (72) becomes ^ 8 K + Â (in a medium), as opposed to ^ 8 K in vacuum

o Since D, E, P are vectors , then „ 8 . + Ñ

37
ELECTRIC SUSCEPTIBILITY (χe)
§ When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, it becomes electrically polarized
§ For isotropic material/material (uniform physical properties), the value of
polarization vector P is directly proportional to the value of electric displacement
vector D in vacuum, i.e., P ∝ D, i.e., Ñ : „,  Ñ :8 . ⇐
„ 8 .+Â
„ 8 .+ Ú8 . Ú ≡ the electric susceptibility (characteristic of material)
„ 1+ Ú 8 .
⇔

„ 8 8 . where 8 1+ Ú
⇔

„ 8. where 8 8 8 (see eqn. (32))

Questions
Q1. Show that electric polarization vector Ñ 8 . 8 −1
A1. „ 8 .+Ñ ⇔ Ñ „ − 8 . ; but „ 8. 8 8 .
∴Ñ 8 8 .−8 . ⇔ Ñ 8 −1 8 . ⇔ Ñ 8 −1 „⇐
Q2. What is the significance of the electric displacement vector D ?
A2. D enables one to calculate fields in the presence of dielectrics without first having
to know the distribution of polarization charges
Q3. Calculate the value of polarization vector P in dielectric material whose 8 2.8
and „ 3.0 × 10r’ k e C/m2.
A3. Ñ 8 −1 „ 2.8 − 1 3.0 × 10r’ k
e 5.4 × 10r’ k
e C/m2.

38
SCALAR POTENTIAL FUNCTION, φ ,

A given vector field A is conservative if ×/ 0

‡ e+ 6 −2 e + (3 R R R
e.g., / 2 +6 k d − )l
e
k e
d l
×/
‡ R R R
2 +6 6 −2 (3 − )
R R R e+ ‡ R R R e
3 − − 6 −2 k 2 +6 − 3 − d
‡
+ 6 −2 − 2 +6 l
e+ 6 R R e + (6 − 6)d
e
−2 + 2 k −6 d
0

SCALAR POTENTIAL FUNCTION, φ , (cont…)

The conservative field A relates to a scalar function φ as
/ −  − * /. +
=
In 1D ; /k −=  − * /k +

An example of conservative field is the electrostatic force Fe

…¤ …•
ÛÜ • N
¡
…¤ …•
∴ the electric potential function 9 −
¡
V
=ˆ
i.e., 9 − * ÛÜ + V ⇔ ÛÜ N −=
Exercise
Q1. Given that = xR y−2xzR, find the x-, y- and z-components of vector field A
Q2. If =5x R + R /R + R + R r /R is the electric potential in the xy pane,
determine the rectangular coordinates of electric field E at x=2 and y=3

39
Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations
The Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations are the results of combining
electrostatic Gauss’s law with the gradient of electric filed E
. (73)
Electric field E is related to a scalar potential function V by
. − 9 (74)
Substituting (74) into (73)
R
(− 9)  9 − (75)
Eqn. (75) is the famous Poisson’s equation

Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations (cont…)

If there are no charges presence in the assumed gaussian space, then,
ρ = 0, and (75) becomes
R9
0 (76)
Eqn. (76) is known as the Laplace’s equation
• • •
in cartesian coordinates ∇R 9 • + • + •

ˆ •ˆ •ˆ
in cylindrical coordinates ∇R 9 + • +
!• •

•ˆ
in spherical coordinates ∇R 9 R ˆ ˆ
• + • sin Ø + • #$%• & •
½ÆÝ ! ! !

Q1. Show that electric potential function V in the cartesian coordinates

satisfies the Laplace equation.

40
MAGNETIC VECTOR POTENTIAL FUNCTION, Õ

The relationship between electric field E and electric potential V is given by (74)
. − 9 (-∇V ↔ -ve gradient) (77)
Now for a magnetic field B
G 0 (∇⋅B ↔ div. of B) (78)
Since the div. of any curl is always zero, then, its reasonable to express B as the
curl of any vector (say A)
G ×/ (79)
 A in (79) is referred to as “magnetic vector potential” ⇐

MAGNETIC VECTOR POTENTIAL FUNCTION, A (cont…)

• Thus, magnetic vector potential A can be defined as the vector whose
curl at any point gives the value of magnetic field at that point •
• Other conditions imposed on A is that •
c
×G × ×/ \+ 8 ?
(80)
c c
×G × ×/ \+ 8 ⇔ ×G × ×/ \+ 8 8
? ?

can express E in the 3rd eqn. of Maxwell in terms of scalar potential V

and magnetic vector potential A ∇ ≠ f(t)

G Þ /
×. − − ×/ − ×/+ ×
? ? ? ?
/ / /
×. − ×  ×.+ × 0  × .+ 0⇐
? ? ?
/
×ß 0 where ß .+
?

41
MAGNETIC VECTOR POTENTIAL FUNCTION, Õ (cont…)
/
 .+ ?
− 9
/
Thus,  . − 9−
?
⇐
Derivation of an expression for Õ
consider a current-carrying loop shown
• dB ≡ magnetic element vector
• dI ≡ current element vector
• dL ≡ length element vector
• I ≡ total current
From Biot-Savart’s law, magnetic flux/induction/ dB due to length
element dL distance r is
P Q XO×à P Q à
+G XO × (81)
S àá S àá

Derivation of an expression for Õ (cont…)

it can be shown that (from vector analysis)
à ã
àá
−â (82)
à
P Q ã
 +G +O × −â
S à
P Q ã
+G â × +O (83)
S à

From vector identity

â × ä/ âä × / + ä â × /
 âä × / â × ä/ − ä â × /
ã ã ã
∴ â à × +O â× +O − à â × +O (84)
à

42
Derivation of an expression for Õ (cont.)
Using (84) in (83)
P Q ã
 +G â × +O
S à
P Q XO ã
+G S
â× −
à à
â × +O (85)
Now, â × +O ™ since ∇ is a function of r(x,y,x) and dI (current vector)
is not a function of r(x,y,x).
P Q XO
 +G S
â×
à
P Q XO
 G S
∮ â×
à
⇐ (86)

Derivation of an expression for Õ (cont.)

â × → independent of the integration, so it be factored out
P Q XO
 G â×
S
*æ à
⇐
OR
G â×2 ⇐
where
P Q XO
 / *
S æ à
is the magnetic vector potential ⇐

43
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AT SURFACES SEPARATING TWO DIELECTRICS

(a) Boundary condition for electric displacement vector/field

Consider two dielectric media of absolute permittivity 8 and 8R separated by

boundary xy

• area vector element dA →(normal to

boundary)
• let θ1 and θ2→ angles between normal
and fields D1 and D2 respectively
• draw a cylindrical Gaussian surface
• no charges inside

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AT SURFACES SEPARATING TWO

DIELECTRICS (cont…)
…
Applying Gauss’s law in dielectrics (i.e., *# 8 . +/  *# 8§ 8 . +/ “)
for D to the cylinder ,
*ç „ +/ and *ç „R +/ are the electric displacement fluxes thro’ the ends of
the cylinder
Since no net flux inside the cylinder ;
− *ç „ +/ + *ç „R +/ 0 (-ve since D1 points into surface)

 − *ç ^ cos θ +2 + *ç ^R cos θR +2 0
Now ; D1cosθ1 ↔ normal component of D1 ≡ Dn1
; D2cosθ2 ↔ normal component of D2 ≡ Dn2

44
 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AT SURFACES SEPARATING TWO
DIELECTRICS (cont…)

 − *ç ^% +2 + *ç ^%R +2 0 ⇐
 *ç ^% +2 *ç ^%R +2 ⇐
 ^% *ç +2 ^%R *ç +2 ⇐
 ^% ^%R ⇐
^% ^%R

 thus, the normal component of D is continuous across the a charge free boundary
between two dielectrics ⇐

(b) Boundary condition for electric field è

Consider work done w in taking a unit charge round

a small length element dL, and negligible height

W = 0 , since the height W = 0 , since the height

dL is negligible dL is negligible

ê ë ë #
é *æ K +V *À K +V + *ê K +V + *# KR +V + *À KR +V
(work done in closed path is zero)
ê ë
 é *æ K +V *À K +V + *# KR +V 0 ⇐

45
(b) Boundary condition for è (cont…)
• Using horizontal (tangential) components of E1 (Et1) and E2 (Et2) and
considering they are in different directions •
Now ; E1sinθ1 ↔ tangential component of E1 ≡ Et1
; E2sinθ2 ↔ tangential component of E2 ≡ Et2
ì *æ K +V −K sin Ø +V + KR sin ØR +V 0
−K sin Ø +V + KR sin ØR +V 0
K sin Ø +V KR sin ØR +V 0
 K sin Ø KR sin ØR ⇐
.݋ .ݒ
 therefore, the tangential components (t) of the electric fields are the same on the
two sides of the boundary ⇐

Snell’s law of refraction

^% ^%R Divide (87) by (88)
8 E cosθ 8 R ER cosθR
8 8 K% 8 R 8 K%R
K sin Ø KR sin ØR
8 8 E cosθ 8 R 8 ER cosθR 8 8R
8 E cosθ 8 R ER cosθR (87) iä@Ø iä@ØR
also, K sin Ø KR sin ØR (88) 8 iä@Ø
8R iä@ØR

8 iä@Ø
Snell’s law of refraction (89)
8 R iä@ØR

 this relation is similar to the Snell’s law of refraction of light ray at any boundary ⇐
• hence, it is known as the law of refraction •

46
Q1 An electric field line is going from one dielectric (εr = 5) to another (εr = 4). If
it makes an angle of 60° with the boundary in the first dielectric, what is the
direction in the second dielectric
A1 i.e., θ1 = 90° − 60° = 30°
?Ã%!¤ ‹ ?Ã%‡
∴ ª¤
⇔
ª• ?Ã%!• ?Ã%!•
‹ ?Ã%‡
 iä@ØR ‹
 ØR iä@r 0.8 × iä@30
 ØR 25
Exercise
An electric field line is travelling from one dielectric medium (8 9) to another
(8 5). If the field makes an angle of 70° with the boundary in the first dielectric,
what would be its direction in the second dielectric ?

DIPOLE RADIATION
 Electric dipole ↔ comprises of two unlike charges of equal magnitude
kept at a distance "d″ apart ⇐

• Characterised by dipole moment P directed

from negative charge to positive charge
• Â “ + ⇔ product of q and distance d

• Electric dipoles where dipole moment P changes with time (due to change in
“d” or quantity of charge “q”) produce electromagnetic radiation known as
dipole radiation •

47
Question
Determine the resultant electric field ER at point R

… …
Kr • & Kî • , but r- = r+ = r
¡ Œ ¡ ï

Horizontal Components
“ + “ +
. Kî cos Ø + Kr cos Ø R
− + R
−
4µ8 4µ8
“ −2“+ −2“+ −2Â:
‡
−+ − + ‡ ‡
4µ8 4µ8 ‡
4µ8 ℎR + + R R 4µ8 ℎR + + R R

Vertical Components
“ ℎ “ ℎ
. Kî sin Ø + Kr sin Ø R
+ R
−
4µ8 4µ8
“
‡
ℎ−ℎ 0
4µ8

48
Question
Determine the resultant electric field ER at point R

… …
Kî • & Kr •
¡ ¡

Horizontal Components
“ + “ +
. Kî cos Ø + Kr cos Ø R
+ R
4µ8 4µ8
“ 2“+ 2“+ 2Â:
‡
−+ − + ‡ ‡
4µ8 4µ8 ‡
4µ8 ℎR + R
+ R 4µ8 ℎR + R
+ R

Vertical Components

“ ℎ “ ℎ
. Kî sin Ø + Kr sin Ø R
+ R
−
4µ8 4µ8
“
‡
ℎ−ℎ 0
4µ8

49
ELECTROSTATIC IMAGES

Method of images are commonly used to determine V, E, D and

surface charge ρs
Due to charge presence surface of conductor(s) (conducting surface
is equipotential)
We avoid direct solving Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations
The image theory states that a given charge configuration above an
infinite grounded conducting plane may be replaced by the charge
configuration itself, its image and an equipotential surface in the place
of the conducting plate

ELECTROSTATIC IMAGES

In the electric dipole configuration, potential at

any point within the bisecting plane (line) is zero.

If a conducting plane is inserted to

coincide with the bisecting plane, the
field pattern of the dipole remains
unchanged
If the –ve charge below the conducting plane is removed, the field distribution still
remain the same, and the total charge induced on the surface of the conductor is -q

50
 ELECTROSTATIC IMAGES (cont.)
A point charge q is located above the surface
of conducting plane of infinite extent and
depth. Calculate the potential V and electric
field E at point S. Show that the total charge
induced on the surface is -q
assume a point charge q at (0,0,d) above the surface of a
conducting plane. To determine the fields, we place an
imaginary charge -q at (0,0,-d) and ignore the existence of the
plane. The potential V at any point S(x,y,z) and z ≥ 0
…
9 − ,
¡ ¤ •
R R R /R R R R /R
where + + −+ and R + + ++

ELECTROSTATIC IMAGES (cont.)

On the surface of the conductor, i.e., the z = 0 plane, V = 0 as r1 = r2= r
The electric field E at S
… î= r=
. − 9 − Ž − Ž ñ + Ž − Ž ñ + Ž − Ž ñ
¡ • ¤ • ¤ • ¤
On the surface of the conducting plane/medium, E reduces to
R…= RÀ R R
. − Ž ñl − Ž ñl where + + +R /R
¡ ¡
The D field must be equal to the surface charge density ρs on the surface of the
conductor at z = 0, so we have
R…= rR…=
â·. Ž  â · 8. c.f. â · 8. −]ò
¡ ¡ Ž
R…= RÀ
 ]ò − Ž − ⇐
¡ ¡ Ž

51
ELECTROSTATIC IMAGES (cont.)
The total charge Q induced on the conductor’s surface
R…= ó = R¡
) *ò ]ò +g − * • î= • Ž/• * +( −“
¡

EM WAVE MOTION IN DIFFERENT MEDIA

EM waves propagate in different media:

i) Free space (” 0, 8 8 , )
ii) Lossless dielectrics (” ≈ 0, 8 8 8 , , ” ≪ h8, i.e., ” ≪ h8 8 )
iii) Lossy dielectrics (” ≠ 0, 8 8 8 , )
iv) Good conductor (” ≈ ∞, 8 8 , , ” ≫ h8, i.e., ” ≫ h8 8 )

EM waves include radio wave, TV signals, radar beams and light rays.
EM energy have 3 fundamental characteristics
o They all travel at high velocity
o They possess properties of wave
o Radiate outward from a point source

52
EM WAVE MOTION IN DIFFERENT MEDIA (cont…)
A wave is a function of both space and time. One of the solutions of eqn
(37) is K K sin hi − ÷

sign in z gives the direction of propagation ; i.e., if z is –ve, then the

wave is travelling in the +ve z-direction (l) , and if z is +ve, then the
wave is travelling in the -ve z-direction (-l).
o The amplitude K has the same units as K
o Phase hi − ÷ (measured in radian and always constant) depends
on time t and space variable z
o Angular frequency h 2µø is in rad/s,
o ÷, (measured in m-1) is the wavenumber (j) , i.e., ÷ ≡ j 2µ⁄ù

EM WAVE MOTION IN DIFFERENT MEDIA (cont…)

ù ≡ wavelength (m) – distance wave travels to repeat itself

ú ≡ period (sec) – time wave takes to repeat itself , i.e., time for one cycle
ø ≡ frequency (Hertz) – number of cycles per second , ø ú r or ú ø r

velocity/speed , øù  , ù⁄ú  ,ú ù
R¡ R¡< o
wavenumber ÷ j
û
 ÷ j
- -
o o o
÷ j
-
⇔ ,
n
or , ü

R¡ R¡ R¡
period ú 1⁄ø  ú
o n- ü-

53
EM WAVE MOTION IN DIFFERENT MEDIA (cont…)
wave travelling in +z-direction K K sin hi − ÷
taking its angular phase hi − ÷ integer
differentiate w.r.t. time “t”
= = = o o
=?
hi − ÷ h−÷
=?
0 
=? ü
⇔ ,
ü
thus, the velocity is +ve i.e., wave is propagating in +ve z-direction

wave travelling in -ve z-direction K K sin hi + ÷

taking its angular phase hi + ÷ integer
differentiate w.r.t. time “t”
= = = o o
=?
hi + ÷ h+÷
=?
0 
=?
−
ü
⇔ , −
ü
thus, the velocity is -ve i.e., wave is propagating in -ve z-direction

EM WAVE MOTION IN DIFFERENT MEDIA (cont.)

Q1. If K 50 cos 10£ i + ÷ d e V/m , in free space

a) Find the direction of propagation and the amplitude
b) Calculate β and time the wave takes to travel distance λ/2
solution
A1. a) From +ve sign in hi + ÷ , we infer that the wave is propagating
along − , with amplitude E0 = 50 V/m
o o þ
b) ÷ -
, but , H÷
¼ ‡× þ ‡
m-1  0.333 m-1
û û û R¡ R¡ R¡
, ,ú but ÷ ù ⁄‡
6µ
- R¼ û ü
û ƒ¡
∴ ú R¼ R· ‡× þ 3.142 × 10r£ s  31.42 ns

54
EM WAVE MOTION IN DIFFERENT MEDIA (cont…)
question
In free space, _ 0.1 cos 2 × 10£ i − j ñ A/m , calculate ;
a) wavenumber k, wavelength λ, and period T
b) time the wave takes to travel λ/8
solution
From -ve sign in hi − ÷ , we infer that the wave is propagating along ñ ,
and the amplitude = 0.1 A/m
o o R× þ R
(a) j , but , Hj þ m-1  0.667 m-1
- ¼ ‡× ‡
R¡ R¡ R¡
j ù ⇔ù 3π m  9.43 m
û n R⁄‡
o RS¼ RS ‡× þ
or , øù ù,  ù þ 3π m
R¡ o R×

EM WAVE MOTION IN DIFFERENT MEDIA (cont…)

RS RS RS
∴ ú  ú 3.142 × 10r£ s  31.4 ns
< o o R× þ
û û û R¡ R¡ R¡
(b) , ,ú but j ù 3π
- £¼ û n R⁄‡
û ‡S
∴ ú þ 3.93 × 10r s  3.93 ns
R¼ £· ‡×

EM WAVE IN PHASE FORMS

For a linear, isotropic and homogeneous, E and H fields are assumed to be
time-varying plane waves
c •c ` •`
R R
K ” + 8
(37a) & _ ” + 8 • (37b)
? ?• ? ?
For time-harmonic fields, the instantaneous (in time-domain) vector G is
related to phasor (frequency-domain) vector Gs by

55
EM WAVE IN PHASE FORMS (cont…)
G ⇔ Gs
ß
⇔ jωGs
?
•ß
⇔ (jω)2Gs
?•
Using these relationships, the instantaneous vector wave equations in (37) are
transformed into phasor vector equations as :
R
Kò ” h Kò + 8 h R Kò h ” + h8 Kò
R
Kò h ” + h8 Kò (90a)
R
_ò ” h _ò + 8 h R _ò h ” + h8 _ò
R
_ò h ” + h8 _ò (90b)
The subscript “s” in both E and H implies the vectors represented in phasor
form.

EM WAVE IN PHASE FORMS (cont…)

R
Letting h ” + h8 , eqns (90) become :
R R
Kò Kò (91a)
R R
_ò _ò (91b)
Note that h ” + h8
Parameter γ is called the propagation constant, usually a complex quantity that
determines the value of E and H fields for different values of z as the wave
propagates in the z-direction.
We may separate real and imaginary parts of propagation constant γ and write
γ = (α + jβ)
R
∴ R Î+ ÷ R ± h ” + h8
R
thus, Î+ ÷ R h ” + h8 h ” + R hR 8 −hR 8 + h ”
Î R − ÷R + 2Î÷ −hR 8 + h ”

56
EM WAVE IN PHASE FORMS (cont…)
Equating real parts and imaginary parts in both sides of the equation
thus Î R − ÷ R −hR 8 & 2Î÷ h ” (92)
Can have Î R + ÷R Î R − ÷R R + 4Î R ÷ R
Î R + ÷R hR 8 R + h ” R

Î R + ÷R hR 8 R + h R 8” ⁄h8 R

Î R + ÷R hR 8 1 + ”⁄ h 8 R (93)
Using (92) and (93), we get by addition and subtraction processes
¤
o• P /R •
Î 1+ −1 (94)
R o
¤
o• P /R •
÷ 1+ +1 (95)
R o

EM WAVE IN PHASE FORMS (cont…)

∴ R
h ” + h8
± h ” + h8 ± h ”+ R hR 8 ± R hR 8+ RhR 8” ⁄ h8

± RhR 8· 1+ ±h 8· 1+ ±h 8 · 1 + ro
o •o

±h 8· 1−
o

+ve sign is taken to have +ve numerical values of parameters α and β, and
hence correspond to propagation in +ve z-direction
Physical significance of α and β
Consider wave equations
o?r
K K (96a)
o?r
_ _ (96b)

57
EM WAVE IN PHASE FORMS (cont…)
Physical significance of α and β:
Plug γ = (α + jβ) into (96a)  K K o?r î ü

K r o?rü
(97)
r
• Term K decreases exponentially as z increases. This implies that the
amplitude of E gets attenuated as z increases, because of the term (-αz) in the
exponent. ∴, parameter α is called the attenuation constant. Its unit is neper/metre,
i.e., (np/m)
• A common used unit for α is decibels (dB) which smaller than neper, i.e.,
1 dB = 0.115 neper (or 1 neper = 8.686 dB)
• The factor o?rü cos hi − ÷ + sin hi − ÷ shows that parameter β
introduces phase change as z increases, hence is called the phase constant. Its unit is
radian/metre, i.e., (rad/m)

EM WAVE IN PHASE FORMS (cont…)

wave characteristic intrinsic impedance η for lossy dielectric:
o?r e & o?r e
from K K k _ _ d
4th ME, ∇ × _ \ + \ ”K + 8 K ⁄ i in phasor form
o?r
∇ × _ò
0
” + h8 Kò ” + h8 K +K +K ̂
`m
0 0 `m 0
0
` ` ` ` o?r
− + − + − ̂ ” + h8 K +K +K ̂
`m o?r
− ” + h8 K +K +K ̂
`m o?r
taking x-component gives − ” + h8 K
Œ
∴_ ” + h8 K o? r o? :
* − + ” + h8 K

58
EM WAVE IN PHASE FORMS (cont…)
wave characteristic intrinsic impedance η for lossy dielectric:
o? r
_ ” + h8 K * − +
Œ :Œ Œ
o? : : :
” + h8 K ” + h8 K ” + h8 K
î o c
oP î o
`m î o c oP î o oP
⇔
c oP î o `m î o î o
ratio of Ex to Hy is called intrinsic impedance η of the material
c oP
i.e., ´ Ω (98)
`m î o
NB: electric E and magnetic H fields are not in time-phase as η is complex quantity,
measured in ohms (Ω)

EM WAVE PROPAGATION IN PERFECT DIELECTRIC (INSULATOR) MEDIUM

for a perfect dielectric (insulating) material, σ = 0, i.e., ´ K ⁄_ ⁄8

Summary of parameters γ, α, β, η, and λ
1) γ jω με 1 − j
/R /R
o• P
2) Î 1+o −1
R
/R /R
o• P
3) ÷ 1+o +1
R
·
4) η
î
RS
5) λ

59
CHARACTERISTIC OF LOSS TANGENT
• the term o is called the loss tangent.
• Comparing its magnitude to unity, one can get an idea of dielectric material loss
4th ME, ∇ × _ \ + \ ”K + 8 K ⁄ i ” + h8 Kò (99)
From (99), conduction current density J= σEs , and, displacement current density
JD = jωε Es
• Ratio of J to JD is o
−
o
, (i.e., σ/(ωε) ≡ loss tangent)

Phasor representation ”
of J and JD tan Ø
h8

Classification of material based on the loss tangent:

i) Good dielectric : ” ≪ h8, i.e., ≪1
o
ii) Quasi-conductor (semiconductor) : ” h8, i.e., 1
o
iii) Good conductor :” ≫ h8, i.e., ≫1
o
PROPAGATION OF EM WAVE IN PERFECT DIELECTRIC (σ = 0)

For isotropic, homogeneous and linear perfect dielectric (lossless) of

permittivity ε and permeability µ, the phasor equations are
∇R Kò h R 8Kò  R R R
h 8 R R
h 8 h 8
Î+ ÷ h ” + h8
If σ=0, then Î+ ÷ 0+ h 8
i) attenuation α = 0; ii) phase constant ÷ h 8 ; iii) intrinsic impedance ´ ⁄8
R¡ R¡
iv) velocity h⁄÷ 1⁄ 8 ; v) wavelength ù
ü o P < P

60
PROPAGATION OF EM WAVE IN PERFECT DIELECTRIC (σ = 0)
For a good dielectric, : ” ≪ h8, i.e., ≪1,
o
¤
o• P /R • P
Î R
1+o −1 R
 if σ = 0, then α = 0
¤
o• P /R • •
÷ 1+ +1 h 8 1+  if σ = 0, then ÷ h 8
R o £o• •
oP
´ if σ=0, then ´ ⁄8
î o
o •
1−  if σ=0, then
ü P £o• • P

PROPAGATION OF EM WAVE IN FREE SPACE (σ = 0, ε=ε0, µ=µ0)

∇R Kò h R
8 Kò  R R
hR 8 −hR 8  ±h 8
Î+ ÷ h ” + h8
If σ = 0, then, Î+ ÷ 0+ h 8

PROPAGATION OF EM WAVE IN FREE SPACE (σ = 0, ε = ε0, µ = µ0)

i) attenuation α = 0 ; ii) phase shift ÷ h 8 h ⁄H ;
iii) wave impedance ´ ⁄8 4π × 10r’ ⁄ 8.85 × 10r R 377 Ω
o
iv) Velocity 3.0 × 10£ m/s ;
ü P
R¡ R¡
v) wavelength ù
ü o P < P

PROPAGATION OF EM WAVE IN PERFECT (GOOD) CONDUCTOR (σ = ∞)

Perfect (good) conductor :” ≫ h8, i.e., o ≫ 1

∇R Kò h ” + h8 Kò  R
h ” + h8  ± h ” + h8
o
Î+ ÷ h ” + h8 h ” 1+ h ” 0+ h ”
R
+
R
h ” 45

61
PROPAGATION OF EM WAVE IN PERFECT (GOOD) CONDUCTOR (σ = ∞)
oP oP oP
γ h ” 45 h ” cos 45 + sin 45 + 1+
R R R
oP oP
Cf with Î+ ÷ R
+ R
oP
So Î ÷ R
π ”ø , i.e., Î ÷ π ”ø
So if the σ is very large, the wave gets attenuated very rapidly inside a perfect conductor.
β is also very large, so velocity h⁄÷is extremely small at a very lower values of ω.
o R Ro S< S<
h ⇔
ü oP P P P

oP oP oP oP
Wave impedance ´ + 45
î o R R
oP
´ 45 (E leads B (or H) by angle of 450.

Q1. Determine: i) propagation constant, ii) attenuation constant, ii) phase constant
(shift), iii) wave (intrinsic) impedance, iv) velocity of propagation, for a forward
travelling wave in a large block of copper at 1 MHz given that σ = 5.8×107, εr = 1,
& µr = 1).
A1. i) Î+ ÷ h ” + h8 h ” + R hR 8 h ” − hR 8
−h R 8 + h ” −h R 8 + h ”
− 6.284 × 10ƒ R × 12.568 × 10r’ × 8.85 × 10r R + 6.284 × 10ƒ × 12.568 × 10r’ × 5.80 × 10’
−4.39 × 10r + 4.58 × 10£ 4.58 × 10£ 90 2.14 × 10 45 2.14 × 10 cos 45 + sin 45
1.15 × 10 + 1.15 × 10 Î+ ÷α 1.15 × 10 Np/m, ÷ 1.15 × 10 rad/m

R¡ Rׇ. R
wavelength ù 4.15 × 10r m
ü . ‹× •
o Rׇ. R× #
velocity " 415.3 m/s
ü . ‹× •
oP oP ƒ.R£ × # × R.‹ƒ£× Œ¢
impedance ´ î o î o ‹.£ × ¢ î ƒ.R£ × # ×£.£‹× Œ¤•
3.69 × 10r 45 Ω  ´ 3.69 × 10r Ω

62
Exercise
Q1. A 10 GHz plane electric field E wave travelling in free space has amplitude 15 V/m.
Determine:
i) Write down an exponential expression for the solution in phasor version of E
ii) propagation constant, attenuation constant and phase constant
iii) velocity of the propagation and wavelength
iv) characteristic impedance,
v) amplitude of the magnetic field strength.
vi) average rate of energy flow per unit area
Q2. For a non-magnetic material having σ=10-4 S/m (Ω/m), εr=2.5, µr=1, find for a frequency of
2.5 MHz: i) loss tangent, ii) attenuation constant, iii) phase constant, iv) intrinsic impedance
Q3. For a uniform plane wave in a lossless medium with εr = 7.8, µr = 1,
. 10 cos 18.85 × 10£ i − ÷ e.
i) what is the direction of propagation of the
d
wave, ii) What is the value of propagation constant, attenuation constant, phase
constant, intrinsic impedance, velocity, and wavelength, iii) Find H.

63