• Law Enforcement Operations and Planning w/Crime Mapping

Planning - is a fundamental management function, which involves deciding beforehand, what is to be

done, when is it to be done, how it is to be done and who is going to do it. (Business Jargons, 2022)

Plan – can be defined as an organizational schedule or sequence of methodical activities intended to

attain a goal or objectives for the accomplishment of a mission or assignment.

Police planning - It is an attempt by police administrators in allocating resources to meet anticipated

service demands.

Operational planning – it is the preparation and development of procedures and techniques in the
accomplishment of each of the primary task and functions of an organization.

Police operational planning - Process of formulating coordinated sequence of methodical activities and
the allocation of resources to line units of police organization in order that it can attain its mandated
objective or mission.

Major Approaches In Police Planning

1. Synoptic approach - relies heavily on the problem identification and analysis of the planning
process and can assist police administrator in formulating goals and priorities.

2. Incremental approach – the problems are seen as too difficult when they are grouped together
and easier to solve when they are taken one at a time.

3. Transactive Planning – face to face interaction with the people who are to be affected by the
plan.

4. Advocacy Planning – it focuses on the negative effects and unintended results in planning.

5. Radical Planning

• The first mainstream involves collective actions to achieve concrete results.

• The second mainstream is critical of large-scale process and how to permeate the character of
social and economic life of all levels.

6. Systematic planning - is sometimes called traditional planning. It identifies a rational step – by – step
process that can be used to develop all types of plan.

The SARA process – is a specific planning process associated with problem solving. This process, referred
to as SARA, has four steps:

1. Scanning - it is the process in which planners and managers looks for problems in the department,
including the performance of individual officers and in the community.

2. Analysis – once the problem has been identified, additional data about the problem are gathered
and analyzed.

3. Response - it may involve other government agencies, private organization or private individuals. It
focuses on the offender, the victim, the environment or all three.
4. Assessment – discovering the impact of the response is the evaluation phase of the SARA process.
Were the goals and objectives achieved? What went right and what went wrong? What are the
reactions of the citizens and officers involved?

Types Of Plans

1. Reactive plans – these are plans that are developed as a result of a crisis. A particular problem may
occur for which the department has no plan and must quickly develop one, sometimes without careful
preparation.

2. Proactive plans – these are plans that are developed in the anticipation of problems. Although not all
police problems are predictable, many are, and it is possible for a police department to prepare a
response in advance.

3. Visionary plans – these are plans that are essential statement that identify the role of the police in
the community and the future condition or state to which the department can aspire.

4. Strategic plans - are designed to meet the long-range, overall goals of the organization. Such plans
allow the department to adapt to anticipated changes or develop a new philosophy or model of policing.

5. Operational plans – the preparation and development of procedures and techniques in

accomplishing each of the primary task and functions of an organization. (Patrol, Investigation, Traffic
control, Vice control, Juvenile control)

6. Management or administrative plans – include formulation of the department's mission statement,

goals, and policies; the structuring of functions, authority and responsibilities; the allocation of
resources personnel management; and other concerns whose character is that they are prevalent
throughout the entire agency.

7. Policy or Procedural Plan - These are standard operating procedures that guide members in the field
and routine operations and in some special operations.

a. Field procedures - Procedures intended to be used in all situations of all kinds shall be outlined as a
guide to officers and men in the field.

b. Headquarters procedures - Procedures that involves coordinated action on activity of several offices.

These are the duties of the dispatcher, jailer, matron and other personnel which may be reflected in the
duty manual.

8. Tactical plan – Procedure for coping with specific situations at known location.

Plans made for blockage and jail emergencies and for special community events like larger public
meeting, athletic contest, parade religious celebrations, carnivals and other street affairs.

9. Extra – office plan – Plans designed to guide the organization of the community to assist in
accomplishing the police objectives in the field of juvenile delinquency prevention, traffic control and
organized crime.

Classification of Police Plans

According to coverage

Local ( police stations and provincial police offices )

Regional

National

According to time

Strategic or long – range plan – it relates to plans which are strategic or long range in application and it
determines the organization’s original goals and strategies.

Intermediate – range plans - It refers to the plans, which determine quantity and quality efforts and
accomplishment.

Operational or short – range plan - It addresses specific immediate needs and shows how it can be
accomplished in time with available allocated resources.

Steps in Police Operational Planning

1. Frame of reference - this is based on the careful view of matters relating to the situation of which
plans are being develop. Opinions or ideas of person who may speak with authority on the subjects and
views police commanders, other government officials and professional are considered.

2. Clarifying the problems – this calls for the understanding the problem, and identifying the possible
solutions. A situation must exist for which something must and can be done.

3. Collecting all pertinent facts - a plan could only be developed if all pertinent facts have been
carefully reviewed to determine the modus operandi, suspects, types of victims, and such other
information as may be necessary.

4. Developing the facts - a careful analysis and evaluation on all gathered data shall be made. This
provides the basis from which the plan evolve. Only relevant facts are considered.

5. Developing alternative plans – in the phase of the plan development, several alternative measures
shall appear to be logically comparable to the needs of a situation. As the alternative solutions are
evaluated, one of the proposed plans shall prove more logical than the others.

6. Selecting the most appropriate alternative – a careful consideration of all facts usually leads to the
selection of the best alternative solution.

7. Selling the plan - a plan, to be effectively carried out, must be accepted by the persons concerned at
the appropriate level of the plan’s development.

8. Arranging for the execution of the plan - the execution of a plan requires the issuance of orders and
directives to units and personnel concerned, the establishment of the schedule and the provision of
manpower and equipment for carrying out the plan.

9. Evaluating the effectiveness of the plan – the result of the plan shall be determined. This is
necessary to know whether the correct alternatives was chosen, whether the plan was correct, which
phase was poorly implemented, and whether additional planning may be necessary.
 • SWOT analysis is a strategic planning technique used to help a person or organization identify
the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats related to business competition or
project planning. While similar to a competitive analysis, it differs because it evaluates both
internal and external factors.

Here are some importance of a SWOT analysis (Raeburn, 2022)

1. Identifies areas of opportunity – it’s a great starting point for startup and teams that know they
want to improve but aren’t exactly sure how to get started. Opportunity for growth can come
in different avenues, capitalizing on opportunities in an excellent way to grow as organization .

2. Identifies Areas that could be improved – identifying weaknesses and threats during a SWOT
analysis can pave the way for a better planning strategy.

3. Identifies areas that could be at risk – its always crucial to identify risks before they become a
cause for concern.

SMART METHOD – SMART is a acronym that Stands For Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant
And Time – based. Each element of the SMART framework works together to create a goal that is
carefully planned, clear and trackable

(Indeed editorial team, 2021).

Specific – well defined, clear, and unambiguous.

- make the goals specific and narrow for more effective planning.

Measurable

- with specific criteria that measure your progress toward the accomplishment of the goal.

- Define what evidence will prove that the organization is making progress, and reevaluate when
necessary.

Achievable

- attainable and not impossible to achieve.

- make sure that the organization can reasonably accomplish its goals within a certain timeframe.

Realistic

- within reach, realistic, and relevant to your life purpose

- the organization’s goal should align with the organization’s values and long term objectives.

Timely

- with a clearly defined timeline, including a starting date and a target date. The purpose is to create
urgency.

- Set a realistic, ambitious end date for task prioritization and motivation.
Custodial investigation is the practice of issuing an “invitation” to a person who is investigated in
connection with an offense he is suspected to have committed, without prejudice to the liability of the
“inviting officer for any violation of law (RA 7438, 1992, Section 2).

When does Custodial Investigation begins?

A: It begins to operate as soon as the investigation ceases to be a general inquiry into an unsolved
crime and begins to focus on a particular suspect.

Rights of the persons arrested, detained or under custodial investigation

Here are the following rights under RA 7438 ( An act defining certain rights of the person arrested,
detained or under custodial investigation as well as the duties of the arresting officer, detaining and
investigating officers and providing penalties for violation thereof) AND RA 9745, (anti torture act of
2009)

1. He/ she has the right to remain silent. If he/she waives his/het right to remain silent, anything
he/she says can be used in evidence against him/her in court;

2. He/she has the right to counsel of his/her own choice. If he/she cannot afford one, he/she shall
be provided with an independent and competent counsel;

3. He/she has the right to demand physical examination by an independent and competent doctor of
his/her own choice, before and after interview/questioning. If the person arrested is a female, she shall
be attended to preferably by a female doctor. If he/she cannot afford one, he/she shall be provided with
a competent and independent doctor to conduct physical examination;

Sec. 12, Art. III of 1987 Philippine Constitution

1. Any person under investigation for the commission of an offense shall have the right to be informed
of his right to remain silent and to have a competent counsel, preferably of his own choice. If the person
cannot afford the services of counsel, he must be provided with one. These right cannot be waived
except in writing and in the presence of counsel.

2. No torture, force, violence, threat, intimidation, or any other means which vitiate the free will shall be
used against him. Secret detention are prohibited.

3. Any confession or admission obtained in violation of this or Section 17 (Sec 17 No person shall be
compelled to be a witness against himself.) thereof shall be inadmissible in evidence against him.

4. The State shall endeavor to provide him/her with psychological evaluation if available under the
circumstances (RA9745, 2009, Section. 12);

5. He/she including his/her immediate family, have the right immediate access to proper and adequate
medical treatment; and

6. He/she has the right to be informed of such rights.

Duties of the Police during Custodial Investigation (RA 7438 sec. 2)

 1) The arresting officer, or the investigator, as the case may be, shall ensure that a person arrested,
detained or under custodial investigation shall, at all times, be assisted by counsel, preferably of his own
choice;

2) The arresting officer, or the investigator, as the case may be, must inform the person arrested,
detained or under custodial investigation of the following rights under RA 7438 and RA 9745 in a
language or dialect known to and understood by him/her, that:

a) He/she has the right to remain silent. If he/she waives his/her right to remain silent, anything
he/she says can be used in evidence against him/her in court;

b) He/she has the right to counsel of his/her own choice. If he/she cannot afford one, he/she shall be
provided with an independent and competent counsel;

c) He/she has the right to demand physical examination by an independent and competent doctor of
his/her own choice, before and after interview/questioning. If the person arrested is a female, she shall
be attended to preferably by a female doctor. If he/she cannot afford one, he/she shall be provided with
a competent and independent doctor to conduct physical examination;

d) The State shall endeavor to provide him/her with psychological evaluation if available under the
circumstances (RA 9745 sec. 12).

e) He/she, including his/her immediate family, have the right to immediate access to proper and
adequate medical treatment; and

f) He/she has the right to be informed of such rights.

3) If the person arrested, detained, or under custodial investigation opted to give a sworn statement
(Annex “PP”), the arresting officer, or the investigator, as the case may be, must reduce it in writing and
in the presence of his/her counsel.

4) The arresting officer must ensure that, before the sworn statement is signed, or thumb marked, if
there is inability to read and to write, the document shall be read and adequately explained to the
person arrested, detained or under custodial investigation by his/ her counsel of choice, or by the
assisting counsel provided to him/ her, in the language or dialect known to him/her;

5) The arresting officer, or the investigator, as the case may be, must ensure that any extrajudicial
confession made by a person arrested, detained or under custodial investigation shall be:

a) In writing;

b) Signed by such person in the presence of his/her counsel; or

c) In the latter’s absence, upon a valid waiver, and in the presence of any of the parents, elder brothers
and sisters, his/her spouse, the municipal mayor, the municipal judge, district school supervisor, priest,
imam or religious minister chosen by him/her.

Failure of the arresting officer, or the investigator, to observe the above-mentioned procedures shall
render the extrajudicial confession inadmissible as evidence in any proceeding; and
6) The arresting officer, or the investigator, as the case may be, must, under established regulations,
allow the person arrested, detained, or under custodial investigation visits by or conferences with any
member of his/her immediate family, any medical doctor, priest, imam or religious minister chosen by
him/her or by any member of his/her immediate family or by his/her counsel, or by any local NGO duly
accredited by the Commission on Human Rights (CHR) or by any international NGO duly accredited by
the Office of the President. His/her “immediate family” shall include his/her spouse, parent or child,
brother or sister, grandparent or grandchild, uncle or aunt, nephew or niece, guardian or ward, and
fiancé or fiancée (RA 7438 sec. 2 f) ;

Crime Mapping is associated with the simple display and querying of crime data using a
Geographic Information System (GIS). It is a general term that encompasses the technical aspects of
visualization and statistical techniques, as well as practical aspects of geographic principles and
criminological theories (Wilson and Filbert K, 2008) The term is a combination of visualization and
statistical techniques is shared between mapping, spatial analysis. Mapping is simply a visualization tool
that is used to display raw geographic data and output from analysis, which is done through a GIS
(Wilson and Filbert K, 2008)

Types of Mapping

Here are the types of mapping being employed in law enforcement, particularly that of crime
mapping (Boba, 2001):

1. Manual Pin Mapping – Wall maps have long been a simple and useful way to depict crime incidents
or hot spots. Many police departments still have large maps tacked to the wall of the briefing room with
the most recent crimes represented by pins. Although useful, manual wall maps, offer limited utility
because they are difficult to keep updated, keep accurate, make easy to read, and can only display a
limited amount of data.

2. Computer Mapping – Computer map is similar to a wall map, in that the computer is used to place a
point at a specific location just as a person would put a pin on a wall map. Thus, computer maps have
limitations similar to wall maps. While visually appealing and easy to use, computer mapping does not
allow any more effective analysis than manual pin mapping (Boba, 2001, p.19).

3. Geographic Information System (GIS) – A GIS is a powerful software tool that allows the user to
create anything from a simple point map to a three-dimensional visualization of spatial or temporal
data. A GIS is different from manual pin maps and computer maps in that it allows the analyst to view
data behind the geographic features, combine various features, manipulate the data and maps, and
perform statistical functions (Boba, 2001, p.19).

4. Crime Analysis Mapping – It is the process of using a geographic information system in combination
with crime analysis techniques to focus on the spatial context of criminal and other law enforcement
activity (Boba, 2001, p. 20). In this report, the term crime analysis mapping is used to describe this
process because using a GIS to analyze crime is not just the act of placing incidents on a map but also of
analysis.

Theoretical Explanations of Crime and Place

 Theories of crime and place understand crime in a physical or spatial environment. They explain
crime patterns by the location of targets, offenders’ choice of travel routes, use of space for various
activities, and the innate ability of a place or target to defend itself (what-when-how.om, n.d.). Theories
of crime and place can be described as belonging together under the umbrella of what is called
Environmental Criminology (Brantingham and Brantingham, 1981).

Level of Theories of Crime

Macro-level

Theories of crime and place at this level of spatial aggregation explain(all) crime patterns
across larger areas. Examples of macro-level crime and place theories include routine activity theory,
crime pattern theory.

Meso-level

Explanation of crime at the meso-level explain crime at an intermediate level of spatial

aggregation. Examples of crime and place theories at the meso-level include territorial functioning, and
collective efficacy.

Micro-level

Theories at the micro-level focus on explanations of crime at the individual level or at the
actual location of the crime. An example of these theories is rational choice theory.

Environmental Criminology

Environmental criminology is the study of crime as it occurs within a geographical area, and it’s a
positivist theory that suggest crime is influenced, if not caused, by a person’s spatial environment.

Routine Activities Theory

Developed by Marcus Felson and Lawrence E. cohen (1979), routine activities theory requires
three elements be present for a crime to occur: 1) a motivated offender with criminal intentions and the
ability to act on these inclinations, 2) a suitable victim or target, and 3) the absence of a capable
guardian who can prevent the crime from happening. These three elements must converge in time and
space for a crime to occur.

Crime Pattern Theory

Crime pattern theory posits that criminal events are most likely to occur in areas where the
activity space of offenders overlaps with the activity space of the potential victim/targets (Boba, 2005.
p.62). It considers how people’s everyday activities influence their spatial decision-making when it
comes to offending.

Types of GIS Data

 A geodatabase is a database composed of spatial data and attribute data (Dempsey, 2021).
Spatial data is any type of data that directly or indirectly references a specific geographical area or
location (Zola and .Fontecchio, n.d.). Data quality is the degree of data excellency that satisfies the given
objective. In other words, completeness of attributes in order to achieve the given task can be termed as
Data Quality is a pillar in any GIS implementation and application as reliable data are indispensable to
allow the user obtaining meaningful results (Dempsey, 2008). Spatial Data quality can be categorized
into:

Types of Spatial Data

In GIS spatial referenced data group can be further classified into two different types (Dempsey,
2021):

1. Vector data – It is composed of individual points stored as coordinate pairs that indicate a physical
location in the world. It is extremely useful for storing and representing data that has discrete
boundaries, such as borders or building footprints, streets and other transport links, and location points
(Romeijn, n.d.). There are three types of vector Data, namely:

• Point data (feature) – It is commonly used to represent non adjacent features and to represent
discrete data points. Points have zero dimensions, therefore you can measure neither length or
area with this dataset. Examples would be schools, points of interest, and in the example below,
bridge and culvert locations. Points For instance, point locations could represent city locations
or place names (Dempsey, 2021).

• Line (or arc) data (feature) – it is used to represent linear features. Common examples would
be rivers, trails, and streets. Line features only have one dimension and therefore can only be
used to measure length. Line features have a starting and ending point. Common examples
would be road centerlines and hydrology. Symbology most commonly used to distinguish arc
features from one another are line types (solid lines versus dashed lines) and combinations
using colors and line thicknesses (Dempsey, 2021).

• Polygon data (feature) – it used to represent areas such as the boundary of a city (on a large
scale map), lake, or forest. Polygon features are two dimensional and therefore can be used to
measure the area and perimeter of a geographic feature. It is commonly distinguished using
either a thematic mapping symbology (color schemes), patterns, or in the case of numeric
gradation, a color gradation scheme could be used (Dempsey, 2021).

Crime analysis – is defined as asset of systematic analytical processes providing timely and useful
information on crime patterns and trends. It is used to improve the operations and administration of
police department, to improve the job satisfaction of police officers, to permit the patrol deployment
system to correspond with the service demand, and to augment patrol activities in crime prevention.

Types of crime analysis

1. Tactical crime analysis – this type of crime analysis that looks at the short – term in order to
stop what is currently taking place, it deals with immediate criminal offenses for example, a
 crime spree. It is used to identify one perpetrator with many targets or one target with many
perpetrators and provide immediate response.

2. Strategic crime analysis – this type of crime analysis looks for the long – term and on ongoing
issues. It is primarily concerned with operational strategies and seeks solutions to ongoing
problems. It focus is often on identifying areas with high crime rates and problem solving ways
to decrease the overall crime rates.

3. Administrative crime analysis – this type of crime analysis looks at the administration and
deployment of police and resources. It deals with long - range comparisons. Examples of administrative
crime analysis task include: providing economic, geographic, and law enforcement information to
police management, city administration, city council, and neighborhood/ citizens groups.

• Types of Crime Mapping

• Single Symbol Mapping

 Uses individual symbols to represent point, line, and polygon features.

 Allows for a detailed analysis of small amounts of data.

• Buffers

 A buffer is a zone of a specified (defined) distance around a feature.

 Points, lines, and polygons can be buffered.

 Buffers are useful for proximity analysis and can be designated at one or many intervals (e.g.,
500 feet, 1,000 feet, 1 mile).

• Buffers help in crime analysis by illustrating the relative distances between features on a map.
The example map below, which could be used to show whether drug arrests were made within
500 feet of the bus stop.

• Buffers: Point Example

Chart Mapping

 A chart map allows for the display of the values of many data attributes at once with either a pie
or a bar chart.

 The mapping program takes the values for numerous variables and displays them in a pie or a
bar chart on the designated location on the map.

• Chart Mapping: Pie Chart Example

Graduated Size Mapping

 Data are summarized so that symbols (point or line features) are altered in size to reflect the
frequencies in the data.
  Reflect more incidents at a given location with a larger symbol or a thicker line .

Graduated Color Mapping

 Point, line, or polygon features are shaded according to a statistical formula, custom setting, or
unique value. Also called choropleth mapping.

 Most Commonly Used: Unique Value, Natural Breaks (default), Custom.

 Others: Quantile, Equal Area, Equal Interval, Standard Deviation.

Density Mapping

In density mapping, analysts use point data to shade surfaces that are not limited to area boundaries. In
their most basic form, density maps are shaded according to the concentration of incidents in
particular areas. In the map below, the darker colors represent areas in which the incidents are more
concentrated, and the lighter colors represent those in which the incidents are less concentrated.

Interactive Crime Mapping

Rather than a type of mapping, the term interactive crime mapping refers to simplified geographic
information systems made available to novice users over the Internet. Many police departments have
interactive Web sites where citizens and police officers can conduct basic crime mapping themselves.
These applications typically are not flexible or sophisticated enough to be useful to crime analysts.