Module 4: Science & Technology in the Philippines:

History, Indigenous Works and Modern works

Pre- Colonial Period

Even before the Spaniards colonized the Philippines, various people and
societies already practiced science. Some indigenous science and technology have
already existed with regards to agriculture like animal- raising, farming and
utilization of plants and herbs as medicines. They invented tools and built
structures, studied medicinal uses of plants, observed heavenly bodies to predict
seasons and weather. They also develop tools for planting, hunting, cooking,
fishing and fighting enemies during tribal conflicts. The use of technology is very
evident in the handicrafts, pottery, weaving and tools used by ancient Filipinos in
their everyday life.

The ancient practices in science and technology by our ancestors are

considered indigenous science or folk science which is one of the foundations of
modern science. The growth of science and its development as a field in the
Philippines is a hybrid of indigenous and foreign ideas. Spain and the United
States, being former colonizers, played an important role in building the foundation
of science in the country.

Stone Ages in the Philippines

Archaeological findings indicate that around 50,000 years ago, modern men
or Homo sapiens from the Asian mainland first came
over land and across narrow channels to live in
Palawan and Batangas. For about 40,000 years, they
made simple tools or weapons of stone flakes, but
eventually developed techniques for sawing, drilling
and polishing hand stones. This very long period,
considered as the Philippine Stone Age, was when the
Tabon Man (c. 67,000 BC) and the Callao Man (c.
24,000-22,000 BCE) were supposed to have lived.

The Austronesians around 5,000-2,000 BC, ancestors of most present-day

Filipinos, arrived in the islands. It is still unsure as to their exact direction of
movement to what is today the Philippines, and but southern Mainland China is
considered as their most plausible point of origin. These ancestors not only brought
most languages spoken by Filipinos today; they were also said to have brought
more sophisticated and organized agricultural technologies
and methods. This is where rice cultivation also flourished
with the 2,000-year-old Banaue Rice Terraces of the
Ifugao people as prominent evidence.

Bronze and Iron Ages in the Philippines

There is no distinct Bronze Age in the Philippines,

and that copper was found to have been used for adornments such as earrings
whilst stone remained more common for tools. As early as 3,000 BC people were
producing a range of materials from adzes to seashell ornaments to pottery of
various designs. The manufacture of pottery subsequently became well developed
and flourished for about 2,000 years until it came into competition with imported
Chinese ceramics. Fermentation in food processing could have been present earlier
than this period. Various types of alcohol were produced from coconuts (tuba,
lambanog, bahalina) and rice (pangasi). This method was later adopted to
sugarcane (basi) when Arab traders presumably brought the crop to Mindanao and
then spread northwards.

(On the left is the lantaka, used as a cannon in the

Philippines) similarly assuming that specific Iron Age in the
Philippines is still a matter of debate. Usage and small-scale
production of iron, however, is estimated to have occurred
around 500 to 200 BCE as iron manufacturing overlapped
with the arrival of limited bronze manufacturing. People
during this age engaged in the actual iron extraction, smelting
and refining. Crude metalwork processes were already
adopted through the hardening of metal through heat-induced
carbon absorption or carburization. Most materials found
were imported, which shows the existence of an extensive
trading network across Southeast Asia, China and the Indian subcontinent as early
as this period. By 1st century CE, cotton cultivation, textiles, mining, and jewelry
making were already practiced.

This period saw the appearance of various clay and copper-based materials
produced by the Sa Huynh Culture which existed around 1000 BCE to 200 CE.
Found to be concentrated in southern Vietnam, this society is presumed to have
had presence around Central Philippines, and possibly all the way to Mindanao.
Some notable archeological findings from this time are the Sa Huyun-Kalanay
Pottery Complex of Masbate (c. 400 BCE-1500 CE), and the Manunggul Jar of
Palawan (c. 890-710 BCE), which is depicted in the old design of the ₱1,000 bill.

As descendants of seafaring people who subsequently settled near the sea,

social structures in ancient Philippines were also tied to seafaring. An example
would be ancient barangay societies, which would later expand as flourishing,
powerful localities trading with nearby states and territories up until the 16th
century. These social organizations were derived from the concept of the balangay,
ancient boats used by their predecessors to travel across the Philippines and nearby
islands. The oldest to be discovered is called the Butuan Boat One presumed to be
used around 300 CE.

The Austronesians were also the ancestors of Polynesians whose boat-

building and navigation prowess were unmatched anywhere in the world even by
mercantile powers of ancient Mediterranean. Only until the European Age of
Exploration that such skills are said to have been surpassed by the emergence of
more modern naval technologies. In ancient Philippines sophisticated boat-building
techniques such that for the balangay were passed onto generations. Other
seafaring technologies were present. Small boats which can still be found today are
the paraw which is common in the Visayas, and the vinta or lepa-lepa found across
the Sulu Archipelago, the Zamboanga peninsula, and some parts of Southern
Mindanao.

There is also the karakoa, or large outrigger ships used for both trade and
warfare mostly in the Visayas. The lanong is a variant within the Sulu area. These
larger vessels were said to be attached with at least one bronze cannon called a
lantaka. Today this cannon technology has evolved into the typical bamboo
cannons used as noisemakers during fiestas and New Year’s Eve.

Given the presence of iron as a valuable resource, sociopolitical institutions

should have developed like anywhere else. And like any complex society,
medicine was central to preserving the health of people. At this point there existed
knowledge and methods dealing with medicinal and therapeutic properties of
plants such as herbs. This early form of medicine or pananambal is associated with
ancient systems of Animist beliefs characterized by the anito, which comprise of
various nature spirits, diwatas, and ancestors. In line with religion, early societies’
agricultural activities were presumed to have been guided by a Hindu-Buddhist
influenced lunar calendar.
 Developments in language are also signs of both sociopolitical and
technological advancements. Among the oldest writing systems (Baybayin) found
in the Philippines with variations from Pampanga down to the Visayas. This is
presumed to have evolved from the Kawi Script originally developed somewhere
in Java, Indonesia, and spread all over what are now Malaysia and the Philippines.
Its most renowned evidence in the Philippines is the Laguna Copperplate
Inscription, dated around 900 CE, which is an Old Malay writing mixed with either
Old Javanese or Old Tagalog. Kawi itself evolved from an older writing system
originating in Southern India. Many Baybayin writings did not survive since most
were carved on leaves and bamboo, except for a very few when the Spaniards
brought the printing press to the islands.

Spanish Colonization

The beginnings of modern science and technology in the Philippines can be

traced to the Spanish Regime. The Spaniards established schools, hospitals and
started scientific research and these had important consequences to the rise of the
county’s profession

The Filipino disinterest in science could be traced to the Spanish colonial

period. While the Spaniards practiced some aspects of science (e.g. agriculture,
botany, medicine, meteorology), Filipinos rarely had the opportunity to develop a
serious competence to these, due to racism and wealth inequality within the
colonies. Moreover, certain aspects of scholarship such as ethnography,
humanities, and theology, were comparatively developed yet science and
technology were generally neglected. This imbalance reflected their poor state of
science in the motherland itself.

Toward the end of the Spanish period (1850-1896, a very

small group of Filipinos particularly men who are wealthy and
landed (ilustrados) or exceptionally talented were eventually
allowed to engage in advanced studies in local schools or
abroad. Access to adequate training, though, was limited to the
University of Santo Tomas, the oldest university in Asia. Like
their colonizers, these Filipinos generally preferred humanistic
training over and above technical expertise. This preference to
understand the human condition more than nature has continued
to this day. Rizal, however, criticized this lack of interest in natural science on the
part of Spanish colonial officials when he was a medical student at said university
in the 1880’s.
 Formal education in science and technology was introduced by the Spaniards
through scientific institutions. At the beginning, parish schools were opened to
teach religion, reading, writing, mathematics, and music. The people were taught
sanitation and improved methods of agriculture. Later, higher institutions of
learning were established among which were:
 Colegio de Cebu (1597), now the University of San Carlos
 Colegio de Nuestra Señora del Rosario (1611), now the University of Santo
Tomas
 Colegio de San Juan de Letran (1706)
 Ateneo Municipal de Manila (1859)
 Escuela Nautica (1820)
 Manila School of Agriculture (1887)

In these institutions, science subjects like astronomy, physics, chemistry,

natural history, and mathematics were taught as parts of the curriculum for college
programs being offered. An important institution established during this time was
the Observatorio Meteorológico or the Manila Observatory (1865) at the Ateneo
Municipal de Manila. It helped in studying typhoons and climatology within the
colony and across Asia. The Spanish government then made the observatory the
official weather forecasting and time keeping institution for the colony in 1884 and
1885, respectively. This institute issued the first typhoon warnings in Philippine
history, at the advantage of merchant shipping.

In the latter part of the Spanish period, major health institutions were
established. Among these were the San Lazaro Hospital (1578), the oldest in East
Asia, the Hospital de Los Baños (1590), and the Hospital de Cebu (1850). The
University of Santo Tomas started offering programs in medicine and pharmacy in
1872. Later in 1877, the Laboratorio Municipal, which was later to become the
Bureau of Science, was established to undertake the pathological studies of
infectious diseases. There were also private pharmaceutical firms engaged in this
activity such as the Botica Boie, and the Botica de Santa Cruz.

In terms of transportation, the most important development brought by the

Spaniards is the Philippine National Railway (PNR) through a royal order from
Spain in June 1875. The wood-burning steam locomotive ran through the first line
from Tutuban in Manila to Dagupan and San Fernando, La Union. Its first
operation was in November 1892 and was concessioned by the British. But before
the PNR, there was the tranvia owned by the Compania de las Tranvias de Manila
of 1888 consisting of German-made light electric locomotives which ran from
Manila to Malabon. This can be considered as the distant predecessor of Metro
Manila’s LRT and MRT.

In communications, the telegraph was introduced in the Philippines in 1876

with the first line between Manila and Corregidor. The first foreign-owned
overseas submarine telegraph cable was put up in 1881. It linked Bolinao in
Pangasinan and Hong Kong, then a British crown colony. Manila was also linked
to Iloilo, Cebu and Bacolod. At the height of the Philippine Revolution, there were
65 telegraph stations operating in the islands (49 in Luzon, 16 in the Visayas).

American Colonization and World War II

The Americans have more influence in the development of science and

technology in the Philippines compared to the Spaniards. They established the
public education system, improved engineering works, and public health facilities.
They established a modern research university, the University of the Philippines,
and created more public hospitals more than the former colonizer. Transportation
and communication systems were improved, though still not accessible throughout
the country.

The Americans did everything to Americanize the Philippines. They

reorganized the learning of science and introduced it in both private and public
schools. In basic education, science education focuses on nature studies and
science and sanitation, until it became a single, formal subject area. The teaching
of science in higher education has also greatly improved and modernized.
Publication of scientific journals and organization of scientific societies were
brought. Among these local scientific publications focused on agriculture and plant
industries, water resources, pharmaceuticals, and general natural and applied
sciences. Some of the first scientific societies in the Philippines were:
 Manila Medical Society (1901)
 Philippine Islands Medical Association (1908)
 Philippine Scientific Society (1923)
 Society for the Advancement of Research (1928)
 Philippine Society of Parasitologists (1930)
 Philippine Public Health Association (1932)
 Philippine Society of Civil Engineers (1933)
 The Americans likewise continued science development from the Spanish
regime. Government departments, bureaus, and boards were established to help the
new colonial administration, and among these were the Bureau of Agriculture and
the Board of Health, which later became the Bureau of Health. American efforts at
the beginning were geared towards the promotion of public health. In 1901, the
Philippine Commission created the Bureau of Government Laboratories under the
Department of Interior. This bureau was established for the study of tropical
diseases and laboratory projects effectively replacing the Laboratorio Municipal.

New developments in transportation and communications were also brought

during the American period. Other than acquiring ownership of PNR and
extending its railroad lines, the Commonwealth government also built other steam
locomotive railways in other parts of the country. These are the Panay Railway,
which ran from Iloilo City to the town of Capiz (now Roxas City), and the Cebu
Railway, which ran from Danao through Cebu City until Argao. A shorter line was
built in Negros, but this primarily served sugar plantations and mills, not
commuters. The first automobile in the Philippines arrived in Manila in 1900. By
1916 the ordinary car became a common feature of traffic. As per aviation, the first
airplane to land in the Philippines is the Avierto Gallarsa in 1924. However,
locally-owned commercial air travel only became possible by 1941. This was when
Philippine Air Lines (now ‘Airlines’), the first Asian commercial aviation
company, was incorporated for domestic and international flights.

The Americans expanded the telegraph and telephone capacity, and became
available to the Filipino public with the establishment of the Bureau of Post.
Before World War II, they were able to operate 108 radio stations and 495
telegraph offices interconnected by 14,607 kilometers of wires and 328 nautical
miles of submarine cables throughout the archipelago. In 1922, the first radio
broadcasts took place in Manila and Pasay. The radio stations were initially owned
by Americans but were soon purchased by Filipino businessmen who extended
their media investments from newspapers to radio, and later to television. The
radio quickly became a staple so that even before World War II, news programs
were regularly broadcast. After the war, the number of radio stations increased
rapidly and broadcasts soon became available throughout the country. The radio
became the main source of entertainment and news for millions of Filipinos until
the 1970’s when it was supplemented by the television.

Issues in science and technology in the Philippines

 Since the aftermath of World War II and independence, the Philippines had
struggled to maintain and expand its science and technology capacity. Institutions
and possibly many physical documents of scientific and technological knowledge
were turned to ashes; many lives were destroyed. While reparation funds from
Japan were meant for rebuilding, much were focused on basic infrastructure such
as schools, hospitals, and transportation systems. Resources are limited in
improving science. The Philippine government has explored the use of Overseas
Development Allocations (ODA) from different countries to help in improving its
scientific productivity and technological capability. Human resource development
is at the heart of these efforts focusing on producing more engineers, scientists,
technologists, doctors, and other professionals. However, these are not enough for
the Philippines to provide quality science education to the population, and much
more catch up with developed nations in terms of capacity and innovation.

The brief account of the acceptance of modern technology in the Philippines

indicates its ready absorption into national and local life. With the arrival of the
steamboat in 1849, the telegraph in 1876, the railway in 1888, the telephone in
1890, the automobile in 1900, and the electric tranvia in 1905, the launching of
modern communications and transportation technologies in the country became
apparent. Most of these technologies were only recently invented in the West, but
their effects were quickly felt in the societies that accepted them. Japan was among
the most quickly transformed by these technologies, and were able to fully harness
them amidst their rapid industrialization after the World War II. At a much recent
period, South Korea was able to accomplish this through their phenomenal
economic development in the 80’s up to the 90’s. They made this possible by
integrating internet technologies. These two countries have not only taken
advantage of scientific and technological developments, but in some cases became
leaders and pioneers themselves.

Unfortunately, the Philippines failed to take advantage of these opportunities

as most of their benefits were confined to the national capital region, and were
unable to stimulate the development of the overall economy. In effect, they often
confirmed, widened, or solidified social divisions between rich and poor, urban
and rural. The aforementioned technologies as they evolved in the contemporary
period in the form of smartphones and tablets, overseas travel, car ownership, or
affording car services like Grab, became hallmarks of privilege rather than
necessities of modern living.
Indigenous Knowledge System
 Indigenous knowledge is embedded in the daily life experiences of young
children as they grow up. They live and grow in a society where the members of
the community prominently practice indigenous knowledge in their minds. The
lessons they learned are intimately interwoven with their culture and the
environment. These lessons comprised of good values and life stories of people on
their daily life struggles. Their views about nature and their reflections on their
experiences in daily life are evident in their stories, poems, and songs.

Some examples of indigenous knowledge that are taught and practiced by the
indigenous people are:

 Predicting weather conditions and seasons using knowledge in observing

animals’ behavior and celestial bodies;
 Using herbal medicine;
 Preserving foods;
 Classifying plants and animals into families and groups based on cultural
properties;
 Preserving and selecting good seeds for planting;
 Using indigenous technology in daily lives;
 Building local irrigation systems;
 Classifying different types of soil for planting based on cultural properties;
 Producing wines and juices from tropical fruits;
 Keeping the custom of growing plants and vegetables in the yard.

Indigenous Science

Indigenous science is part of the indigenous knowledge system practiced by

different groups of people and early civilizations (Gribbin, 2001; Mkapa, 2004;
Sibisi, 2004). It includes complex arrays of knowledge, expertise, practices, ad
representations that guide human societies in their enumerable interactions with the
natural milieu: agriculture, medicine, naming and explaining natural phenomena,
and strategies for coping with changing environments (Pawilen, 2005). Ogawa
(1995) claimed that it is collectively lived in and experienced by the people of a
given culture.
 According to Cajete (2004), indigenous science includes everything, from
metaphysics to philosophy and various practical technologies practiced by
indigenous peoples both past and present. Iaccarino (2003) elaborated his ideas by
explaining that science is a part of culture, and how science is done largely
depends on the cultural practices of the people.

Indigenous beliefs also develop desirable values that are relevant or

consistent to scientific attitudes as identified by Johnston (2009), namely: (1)
motivating attitudes; (2) cooperating attitudes; (3) practical attitudes; and (4)
reflective attitudes. These cultural beliefs therefore can be good foundation for
developing positive values toward learning and doing science and in bringing
science in a personal level.

Pawilen (2005) explained that indigenous science knowledge has developed

diverse structures and contents through the interplay between the society and the
environment. According to Kuhn (1962), developmental stages of most sciences
are characterized by continual competition between a number of distinct views of
nature, each partially derived from, and all roughly compatible with the dictates of
scientific observation and method. Sibisi (2004) also pointed out that indigenous
science provides the basics of astronomy, pharmacology, food technology, or
metallurgy, which were derived from traditional knowledge and practices.

Pawilen (2006) developed a simple framework for understanding indigenous

science. Accordingly, indigenous science is composed of traditional knowledge
which uses science process skills and guided by community values and culture.

1. Indigenous science uses science process skills such as observing, comparing,

classifying, measuring, problem solving, inferring, communicating, and predicting.

2. Indigenous science is guided by culture and community values such as the

following:
 The land is a source of life. It is a precious gift from the creator.
 The Earth is revered as “Mother Earth”. It is the origin of their identity as
people.
 All living and non-living things are interconnected and interdependent with
each other.
 Human beings are stewards or trustee of the land and other resources. They
have a responsibility to preserve it.
  Nature is a friend to human beings - it needs respect and proper care.

3. Indigenous science is composed of traditional knowledge practiced and valued

by people and communities such as ethno-biology, ethno-medicine, indigenous
farming methods and folk astronomy.

Indigenous science is important in the development of science and

technology in the Philippines. Like the ancient civilizations, indigenous science
gave birth to the development of science and technology as a field and as a
discipline. Indigenous science helped the people in understanding the natural
environment and in coping with everyday life. UNESCO’s Declaration on Science
and the Use of Scientific Knowledge (1999) recognized indigenous science as a
historical and valuable contribution to science and technology.