Unit – 1:

Nature of Training and Development - Theories of management training and

development and practical application of these theories in today’s organisations, inputs
and gaps in training; Training and development as a source of competitive advantage;
Resistance to change.

Definition of Training

According to Edwin B. Flippo, “Training is an act of increasing the knowledge and skills of
an employee for doing a particular job”.

Meaning of Training

Training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skills of an employee for performing a
particular job.The major outcome of Training is learning.Training enables an employee to do
his present job more efficiently and prepare himself for a higher level job.

Features of Training

1) Specific Dimensions
Training is a procedure that has clear and definite dimensions. It has well-defined beginning
and endpoints. In such a manner, the training activities organize noticeable progressive
development and movement of the process itself. The training process coordinates all the
activities.
2) Planned Sequence of Events
Training is a planned series of activities that make it possible for the trainees to do things that
they have not done earlier. The program supports the whole process and has certain learning
objectives.
3) Makes Optimal Use of Opportunities for Learning
One can also regard it as the process of providing ample opportunities for employees to learn
and grow. It aims to increase the enthusiasm of the employees by polishing their skills to do a
particular task.
4) Promotes Behavioural Changes
Training helps in bringing a positive change in the behaviour of employees by imparting
special skills and helping them to perform better. It helps in improving the quality of the
social and personal of employees, which enhances their work quality and leads to
self-improvement. Thus, it expands its area of applicability much broader than the work
environment.
5) Enhancing Capabilities
Training may not be restricted to acquiring a particular skill for doing a particular assigned
task, but at the same time, it is related to the development of the overall capability to manage
complex situations and problems. A trainee should be aware of how to develop and by using
his wisdom, accomplish the given task efficiently.
6) Exploring the Inner Self
The most important aspect of the training is that it not only improves the existing skills but
also explores the hidden talent within the employees and motivates them to perform well. It
makes the employees aware of their strengths & weaknesses. It also aims to help the
employees to overcome their weaknesses and directs them to self-development and growth.
7) Removes mental blocks
Training helps in clearing the doubts and insecurities of trainees about their job so that they
can put in their best possible effort to make maximum utilisation of their potential abilities.
8) Gives intended as well as unintended results
Training not only helps in achieving those expected benefits but sometimes also yields many
unintended benefits. The benefit from the training may vary from organization to organisation
and individual to individual depending upon the type of training.
9) Establishes the Relationship between Theory and Practice
Training makes it possible for the trainees to link the acquired theoretical knowledge and
practical application of their knowledge. Training facilitates this by making the employees
aware of the processes through which they can apply their learned capabilities to their work.

Purposes of Training

The purposes of training are as follows:

1) To Increase Employee Efficiency
The training aims to increase the efficiency of the employee by imparting the skills needed to
perform the task in a better way. It reduces the gap between the actual and desired
performance.
2) To Upgrade Employee Skills
In this ever-changing environment of technical advancement, organisations are required to
keep a close watch on the different activities and changes occurring within their environment.
Here, the job of keeping the employee fully armed with the information and skill needed for
the performance of a specific task becomes more necessary. Training is essential to keep the
employee updated in advance and incorporate the technological changes in the systems and
procedures of the organisation.
3) To Avoid or Delay Managerial Obsolescence
If there is no initiative taken on the part of the managers in adopting the recent trends of
technology, it will be considered a failure of the management to cope with the changes within
the environment. This failure also reduces organisational performance. Hence, training aims
to avoid such situations in the organisation.
4) To Prepare Employees for Undertaking Higher Positions
Training generally aims to prepare the employees to handle more responsibilities by
imparting additional skills required for the performance of challenging tasks. It increases the
confidence of employees to perform in a better way.
5) To Reduce the Employee Turnover
The training aims to reduce the employee attrition rate by simply infusing enthusiasm and
motivating them to perform their job smoothly. At the same time, employees rest assured
about their career progress. Training stimulates and restores dedication among the employees
for the organisation. Thus, managers are supposed to facilitate proper training programmes,
especially for bright employees.
6) To Achieve Organisational Excellence
Training sharpens the existing skills of the employees which ultimately results in better
performance of the employees, reduced rate of accidents, lower breakdowns of the machines
and ultimately a more competitive organisation with a proficient workforce. All these factors
enhance organisational sustainability by creating a poor or educated and skilled workforce
who can help the organisation in managing the competitive edge.
The scope of training and development has expanded to include cross-cultural training, focus
on the development of the individual employee, and the use of new organization development
literature to frame training programs.

Development
Development refers to the overall growth of the employees. These are learning opportunities
that are designed for employees to grow. These include not only those activities which help to
improve employees’ performance but also help in employees’ growth.

Difference between Training and Development:

Basis Training Development

Development refers to the overall

Training refers to the process of
growth of the employees. These
Meaning increasing the knowledge, skills, and
are learning opportunities that are
abilities of employees for doing work.
designed for employees to grow.

Its main aim is to help the employee to Its main aim is the overall growth
Aim
do the job better. of employees.

Orientation It is job oriented. It is career oriented.

Scope of It has a narrow scope as it is a part of It has a broader scope as it

learning development. includes training.

It is more suitable for managerial

Suitability It is more suitable for technical staff.
staff.
 It involves teaching technical,
Skills It involves teaching technical skills.
human, and conceptual skills.

It is a long-term process as it is
Duration It is a short-term process.
career oriented.

Level of
trainees Trainees are non-managerial here. Trainees are managerial here.
involved

Depth of Knowledge is imparted for the

Knowledge is imparted for doing a
knowledge growth of an employee in all
specific kind of job.
imparted respects.

Individuals take initiative by

Initiative Employers take the initiative in
themselves for their growth and
in learning providing training to their employees.
development.

Theories of management training and development

Theory of Reinforcement
This theory emphasises on the learning behaviour of a person and suggests that the learner
will repeat that behaviour which is attached with a positive outcome or result. Skinner, an
economist of the behaviourist school of thought proposed the theory of reinforcement and
suggested that the training and development programs should be aligned with the
organisational objectives and a positive outcome should be expected with such training and
development programs. Further elaborating this concept suggested in reinforcement theory, it
can be argued that there are several techniques available in human resource practices which
can be associated with the training and development programs and the required suggestion by
this theory can be fulfilled. Different types of rewards in the form of bonuses, salary raises,
promotion and awarding of certificates after the training program can be associated with the
training and development activities and these rewards will definitely generate a positive
outcome. If this is done by an organisation then according to Skinner's theory of
reinforcement the trainer i.e. the employee will show more interest in the training and
development programs held by the organisation.

Theory of Learning Types

The theory presented by Gagne emphasised on learning of intellectual skills. These are such
skills which are found rare among the persons. He suggested different learning types in his
theory and each learning type contains some external and internal conditions. The five
categories of learning which Gagne defined in his theory include intellectual skills, verbal
information, attitudes, cognitive strategies and motor skills.

Theory of Social Learning

Social theory presents a new view of learning i.e. social. According to the presenter of this
theory, Albert Bandura, direct reinforcement cannot address all types of learning. Here direct
enforcement means the training and development programs that are organised to enhance the
skills. According to this theory such programs do not address all learning types as there are
some social elements which cannot be taught. Those elements are learned by the learner from
his/her surroundings. Such type of learning is called observational learning and this learning
is associated with the understanding of different human behaviours. The first type of learning
defined in this theory is through observation. In an organisation the environment and the
surroundings plays a very important role. The environment should be very professional and
the surroundings should be in such a way that the people (employees) learn from them. This
theory also suggests that it is not necessary that the behaviour is changed after learning
something. It is expected that a person’s behaviour changes after learning something, but it is
not in all cases. Furthermore the theory also explains about the mental states which play a
vital role in the learning process. If the mental status of the person is negative regarding any
learning activity then he will not take part in that learning process and even if he is forced to
do so, he will not gain any positivity from that process. In organisational training programs
the mental state can be made positive regarding the training and development programs by
associating the rewards and benefits with such programs which will motivate the employees
and help to build a positive mental state. The case company also follows this theory as it
allows the employees to learn from the surroundings and provides an environment where they
can learn from their supervisors/managers and coworkers.

Cognitive Learning Theory

Cognitive Learning Theory, also referred to as cognitivism, focuses on learners objectively
analysing their thoughts and feelings (metacognition) to gain information more effectively. In
other words, it asks them to ‘think about how they think’. According to the theory’s concepts
and practices, you can build strategies to use your brain to learn or teach more effectively
when you understand how thinking patterns work. You can also become more aware of the
ways that your mind connects facts to foster those links.

Many strategies in Cognitive Learning Theory involve active learning that connects incoming
information with past experiences. Rather than promoting rote memorization, cognitive
learning-based lessons encourage learners to use and apply their new knowledge. You can
implement more active learning in your workplace training through meaningful human
interaction.In fact, active learning’s practices and benefits come mainly from learners
interacting with each other. As opposed to passive (lecture-based) learning’s lack of student
engagement and interaction, active learning encourages students and teachers to work
together to build new social and cognitive connections
 Behavioral Learning Theory
Pioneered by researchers like John Watson and B.F. Skinner, Behavioral Learning Theory
(behaviourism) centres on the idea that people learn by interacting with their environments
through a system of stimuli and response. Plenty of concepts under the theory, such as
positive reinforcement, highlight how you can adjust the learning environment to encourage
new behaviours. By setting up an environment that rewards learning, you’ll encourage your
team to pursue and use new information.

In academia, Behavioral Learning Theory is often associated with passive learning, since
learners are seen as essentially responding to repetitive stimuli from the trainer. However,
there are opportunities to create more of an active learning environment based on
behaviourist principles. For instance, you can encourage learners to seek out training
resources or go through question and answer exercises — these forms of training fit nicely
within the behavioural learning framework.

You can also encourage employees to learn in the flow of work by proactively seeking out the
resources they need. Especially if they are ‘rewarded’ for such self-directed learning, they’ll
form positive associations with this type of behaviour — another tenet of Behavioral
Learning Theory. Positive reinforcement like this can take the form of gamification
techniques, or simple praise from a manager.

Self-Directed Learning Theory

Self-Directed Learning Theory gives learners control over their own learning pathways. This
theory was previously considered a component of Adult Learning Theory, or andragogy.
Self-directed learning is now a theory in its own right, supporting workplace learning where
employees declare their own knowledge gaps and learning needs.
This theory doesn’t mean learners are completely on their own. In fact, most learners want
their L&D department to provide resources, like a series of curated training materials or a
budget, to guide them on their journey.
L&D can apply this theory by embracing on-demand learning opportunities for employees to
use in the flow of their work. One useful tactic is to build learning libraries that employees
can access anytime. This type of knowledge management has a positive effect on employees’
decision-making skills and encourages in-house subject matter experts to share their
hard-earned knowledge with their team.

Training Gaps
A training gap exists when there is a variance between desired/required behaviour or
performance and actual behaviour or performance. This gap can occur on an individual, team
or organisational level. This gap can reflect a lack of hard or soft skills, a lack of
understanding of job expectations, industry knowledge, cultural norms or other issues. Hard
skills are job-specific or functional skills—for example, cloud-based computing skills or
knowledge of human resource-related laws and practices. Soft skills are bigger-picture
capabilities that range from adaptability, curiosity and empathy to communication and critical
thinking.

Training and development as a source of competitive advantage;

Training can help employees acquire new skills and knowledge, improve performance, and
increase job satisfaction. All of these factors can contribute to creating a competitive
advantage for a company.
In the current era of global development, intense competition, and thriving start-ups culture,
all companies are increasingly realising the importance of self-introspection to identify their
shortcomings and then using training to overcome these shortcomings. Today, overcoming
your shortcomings is not just about fixing your problems, but it’s also about fixing enough of
them that the business automatically puts itself in a position of competitive advantage.
Similarly, in recent years, companies have made a noticeable shift towards outcome-oriented
learning. As global organisations recognize the importance of training to address issues
related to upskilling and workforce development, they are also realising that upskilling and
developing their workforce is putting the company in a position of competitive advantage.

1. Helps you achieve a sustainable competitive advantage

One of the main challenges of a company is to stay ahead of its competitors. Developing a
competitive advantage can be a tedious task and involves implementing loads of different
strategies across all departments to make your business stand out from the crowd.
Training and development can play a big role in making a real difference to your competitive
advantage. By making sure that employees are constantly progressing, the company
automatically gains more value and continues to move forward with a strong position in the
market.If you can make your team stronger, more knowledgeable and a force to be reckoned
with – the strategies you have in place will be even more effective.

2. Ensures employee satisfaction and retention

Training has been found to link with improving job satisfaction and employee intention to
stay in a company. It has a direct impact on motivation which reduces employee turnover and
increases productivity. This leads to more profitability.Investing time and money in
employees makes them feel more valued, leading to a positive relationship between the
company and employees. It is essential to keep employees engaged at work. Higher retention
rates and less labour turnover is crucial for the success of your business.
All this can happen with a good training and development plan to keep the employees
motivated. Besides, the cost of retaining existing employees is much less than replacing them.

3. More internal promotion opportunities

We all know too well that the cost of recruiting new employees often involves a lot of hidden
additional costs. With the implementation of training, your existing employees become more
eligible for internal promotions, therefore cutting down the need for recruitment in the first
place.
Another advantage of internal promotions is that, unlike new employees, your existing
employees have better insights about the business as well as the required skills for the new
role. They are people who you have already built trust with, and they already know how the
company operates.
So it’s a win-win for your business recruitment funds and development plans.

4. Increases productivity
It is no surprise that training and development naturally lead to more productivity in the
workplace. By making sure that necessary training is given to employees to improve their
skills, the company is, in turn, ensuring a higher productivity rate.
Well-trained employees show both quality and quantity in performance – leading to less
wastage of time, resources and money.When highly engaged employees are challenged and
given the skills to grow and progress within their chosen career path, they are more likely to
be energised by new opportunities at work and satisfied with their current company.
Therefore, they work harder, meaning you can get more than just your to-do list done. You’ll
go above and beyond your competitors in no time!

5. Attracts the best employees using learning and development

Every company wants the best employees for a greater chance of success and innovation.
And what’s the best way to attract top talent? Training and development.
To attract new talent to the business you want to make sure that candidates are fully aware of
any training and development plans you have set up – since it is a key feature people usually
look for during their job search. Your employer brand can showcase this.
Training incentives create a positive image for the company, and this has an impact on
potential candidates for future job vacancies. So if you want the best people in your business,
you need to show them that you care about their progression before they’ve even started their
job.

7. Keeping up with industry changes

It is essential to make sure that your employees are up-to-date with any industry changes or
developments. Ongoing training can help you do this.
This kind of training helps your entire workforce stay aware of what’s happening in the
industry around them, therefore keeping you one step ahead of your competitors at all times.
So instead of having a workforce full of employees who are stressed and constantly playing
catch up with your competitors like this guy.

What is Resistance to Change?

Change is constant and unavoidable. However, human behaviour has repeatedly shown a
resistance to change in the existing methods and ways of doing work. Organisations, for the
advancement of business processes, require constant adaptation to changes. However,
organisational resistance to change acts as a major hindrance in the path of development and
success of an organisation. Such resistance to organisational change brings in the need for
defined change management.
Resistance to Change Meaning in Organisational Context
The resistance to change meaning can be defined as a major obstacle in the way of
development with new technology and methodologies. Change in the techniques and
organisational structure comes at regular intervals. However, with pre-existing methods,
individuals become reluctant to learn and implement the new techniques bringing in a
resistance to change. Resistance can be in the form of protests and strikes by employees, or
even in the form of implicit behaviour. The organisation with its managers must take up
initiatives in managing resistance to change and in the process develop a gradual adaptation
to change ensuring productivity as well as efficiency at work.

Reasons for Resistance to Change

The common causes of resistance to change in all organisations are stated below:
People are not willing to go out of their comfort zones defined by some existing methods for
learning something new.
Changes in methods and techniques come with a change in power, responsibilities as well as
influence. Organisational resistance to change comes in from people negatively affected by
the changes implemented.
Insecurity, laziness and lack of creative approach make people cling to the pre-existing
customs there by resisting changes.
Types of Resistance to Change

The types of resistance to change are stated below:

1. Logical Resistance: Such resistances come in with the time genuinely required in
adaptation and adjustment to changes. For example, with the advent of talkies, the movie
production houses had to shift techniques in the change from silent movies to talkies. This, in
a very logical sense, took time for the sound engineers and even the filmmakers to adapt.
2. Psychological Resistance: Often resistance to change in change management comes with
the psychological factor of fear of embracing the unknown, or even from hatred for the
management and other mental factors like intolerance to changes.
3. Sociological Resistance: Sometimes resistances come not for particular individuals but
from a group of individuals. In such cases, individuals do not allow their acceptance with the
fear of breaking ties with the group.

Managing Resistance to Change

An organisation’s effort in managing resistance to change should come with proper education
and training of the employees of the changes implemented. For a smooth change to facilitate,
the organisation has to take care of the considerations stated below:
Changes should come in stages. A one-time major change would straightaway put operations
into a stop.
Changes should not affect the security of workers.
Leadership qualities in managers with initial adaptations would gradually encourage
employees to do so.
An opinion must be taken from the employees who will ultimately be subject to the changes.
Educating the employees and training them with the new methodology will boost up their
confidence and build their efficiency.
The basic resistance to change theory defines the resistance to change meaning as the
reluctance of people to adapt to the changes and to cling to the pre-existing customs and
methods, mostly due to the fear of facing the unknown and its possible negative effects. The
management of an organisation must be well aware of the various aspects of resistance to
organisational change and be trained if the need arises, in methods of managing resistance to
change. This is crucial for a smooth transition and restoration of organisational harmony.
 Unit – 2:
Designing Training Programmes - Training process and practical application of
designing programs in today’s environment, methods of training; Human
re-engineering, managing change, workmen training, re-training, government
initiatives, self-directed work teams, learning curves, managing a diverse workforce.

Designing Training Programmes

Training process
The following are the steps necessary in the strategic training and development process:
Organisational Objectives
Needs Assessment
Is There a Gap?
Training Objectives
Select the Trainees
Select the Training Methods and Mode
Choose a Means of Evaluating
Administer Training
Evaluate the Training.

1.Organisational Objectives
The business should have a clearly defined strategy and set of objectives that direct and drive
all the decisions made especially for training decisions. Firms that plan their training process
are more successful than those that do not. Most business owners want to succeed, but do not
engage in training designs that promise to improve their chances of success. Why? The five
reasons most often identified are:
Time: Small businesses managers find that time demands do not allow them to train
employees.
Getting started: Most small business managers have not practised training employees. The
the training process is unfamiliar.
Broad expertise: Managers tend to have broad expertise rather than the specialised skills
needed for training and development activities.

2.Identifying Training Needs

Training needs can be assessed by analysing three major human resource areas: the
organization
as a whole, the job characteristics and the needs of the individuals. This analysis will provide
answers to the following questions:
Where is training needed?
What specifically must an employee learn in order to be more productive?
Who needs to be trained?
Begin by assessing the current status of the company how it does what it does best and the
abilities of your employees to do these tasks. This analysis will provide some benchmarks
against which the effectiveness of a training programme can be evaluated. Your firm should
know where it wants to be in five years from its long-range strategic plan. What you need is a
training programme to take your firm from here to there.
Second, consider whether the organization is financially committed to supporting the training
efforts. If not, any attempt to develop a solid training programme will fail.
Next, determine exactly where training is needed. It is foolish to implement a companywide
training effort without concentrating resources where they are needed most. An internal audit
will help point out areas that may benefit from training. Also, a skills inventory can help
determine the skills possessed by the employees in general. This inventory will help the
organization determine what skills are available now and what skills are needed for future
development.

3. Selection of Trainees
Once you have decided what training is necessary and where it is needed, the next decision is
who should be trained? For a small business, this question is crucial.Training programmes
should be designed to consider the ability of the employee to learn the material and to use it
effectively, and to make the most efficient use of resources possible. It is also important that
employees be motivated by the training experience. Employee failure in the programme is not
only damaging to the employee but a waste of money as well. Selecting the right trainees is
important to the success of the programme.

4.Training Goals
The goals of the training programme should relate directly to the needs determined by the
assessment process outlined above. Course objectives should clearly state what behaviour or
skill will be changed as a result of the training and should relate to the mission and strategic
plan of the company. Goals should include milestones to help take the employee from where
he or she is today to where the firm wants him or her in the future. Setting goals helps to
evaluate the training programme and also to motivate employees. Allowing employees to
participate in setting goals increases the probability of success.

5.Training Methods
Methods of Training

On-the-job Training Methods: 1 . Coaching 2 . Mentoring 3 . Job Rotation 4 . Job

Instruction Technology 5 . Apprenticeship 6 . Understudy

B. Off-the-Job Training Methods: 1 . Lectures and Conferences 2 . Vestibule Training 3 .

Simulation Exercises 4 . Sensitivity Training 5 . Transactional Training

A. On-the-job training Methods :

Under these methods new or inexperienced employees learn through observing peers or
managers performing the job and trying to imitate 3/8 their behaviour. These methods do not
cost much and are less disruptive as employees are always on the job, training is given on the
same machines and experience would be on already approved standards, and above all the
trainee is learning while earning. Some of the commonly used methods are:

1. Coaching: Coaching is one-on-one training. It helps in quickly identifying the weak areas
and tries to focus on them. It also offers the benefit of transferring theory learning to practice.
The biggest problem is that it perpetuates the existing practices and styles. In India most
scooter mechanics are trained only through this method.

2. Mentoring: The focus in this training is on the development of attitude. It is used for
managerial employees. Mentoring is always done by a senior inside person. It is also one-to-
one interaction, like coaching.

3. Job Rotation: It is the process of training employees by rotating them through a series of
related jobs. Rotation not only makes a person well acquainted with different jobs, but it also
alleviates boredom and allows to develop rapport with a number of people. Rotation must be
logical.

4. Job Instructional Technique (JIT): It is a Step by step (structured) on the job training
method in which a suitable trainer (a) prepares a trainee with an overview of the job, its
purpose, and the results desired, (b) demonstrates the task or the skill to the trainee, (c) allows
the trainee to show the demonstration on his or her own, and (d) follows up to provide
feedback and help. The trainees are presented the learning material in written or by learning
machines 4/8 through a series called ‘frames’. This method is a valuable tool for all educators
(teachers and trainers). It helps us: a. To deliver step-by-step instruction b. To know when the
learner has learned c. To be due diligent (in many work-place environments)

5. Apprenticeship: Apprenticeship is a system of training a new generation of practitioners of

a skill. This method of training is in vogue in those trades, crafts and technical fields in which
a long period is required for gaining proficiency. The trainees serve as apprentices to experts
for long periods. They have to work in direct association with and also under the direct
supervision of their masters. The object of such training is to make the trainees all-round
craftsmen. It is an expensive method of training. Also, there is no guarantee that the trained
worker will continue to work in the same organisation after securing training. The apprentices
are paid remuneration according to the apprenticeship agreements.

6. Understudy: In this method, a superior gives training to a subordinate as his understudy

like an assistant to a manager or director (in a film). The subordinate learns through
experience and observation by participating in handling day to day problems. Basic purpose
is to prepare subordinates for assuming the full responsibilities and duties.

B. Off-the-job Training Methods:

5/8 Off-the-job training methods are conducted separate from the job environment, study
material is supplied, there is full concentration on learning rather than performing, and there
is freedom of expression. Important methods include:

1. Lectures and Conferences: Lectures and conferences are the traditional and direct method
of instruction. Every training programme starts with lectures and conferences. It’s a verbal
presentation for a large audience. However, the lectures have to be motivating and creating
interest among trainees. The speaker must have considerable depth in the subject. In colleges
and universities, lectures and seminars are the most common methods used for training.

2. Vestibule Training: Vestibule Training is a term for near-the-job training, as it offers access
to something new (learning). In vestibule training, the workers are trained in a prototype
environment on specific jobs in a special part of the plant. An attempt is made to create
working conditions similar to the actual workshop conditions. After training workers in such
conditions, the trained workers may be put on similar jobs in the actual workshop. This
enables the workers to secure training in the best methods to work and to get rid of initial
nervousness. During the Second World War II, this method was used to train a large number
of workers in a short period of time. It may also be used as a preliminary to on-the job
training. Duration ranges from a few days to a few weeks. It prevents trainees from
committing costly mistakes on the actual machines.

3. Simulation Exercises: Simulation is any artificial environment exactly similar to the actual
situation. There are four basic simulation techniques used for imparting training: management
games, case study, role playing, and in-basket training.

(a) Management Games: Properly designed games help to ingrain thinking habits, analytical,
logical and reasoning capabilities, importance of teamwork, time management, to make
decisions lacking complete information, communication and leadership capabilities. Use of
management games can encourage novel, innovative mechanisms for coping with stress.
Management games orient a candidate with practical applicability of the subject. These
games help to appreciate management concepts in a practical way. Different games are used
for training general managers and the middle management and functional heads – executive
Games and functional heads.

(b) Case Study: Case studies are complex examples which give an insight into the context of
a problem as well as illustrating the main point. Case Studies are trainee centred activities
based on topics that demonstrate theoretical concepts in an applied setting. A case study
allows the application of theoretical concepts to be demonstrated, thus bridging the gap
between theory and practice, encourage active learning, provides an opportunity for the
development of key skills such as communication, group working and problem 7/8 solving,
and increases the trainees” enjoyment of the topic and hence their desire to learn.

(c) Role Playing: Each trainee takes the role of a person affected by an issue and studies the
impacts of the issues on human life and/or the effects of human activities on the world around
us from the perspective of that person. It emphasises the “real- world” side of science and
challenges students to deal with complex problems with no single “right” answer and to use a
variety of skills beyond those employed in a typical research project. In particular,
role-playing presents the student a valuable opportunity to learn not just the course content,
but other perspectives on it. The steps involved in role playing include defining objectives,
choosing context & roles, introducing the exercise, trainee preparation/research, the roleplay,
concluding discussion, and assessment. Types of role play may be multiple role play, single
role play, role rotation, and spontaneous role play.

(d) In-basket training: In-basket exercise, also known as in-tray training, consists of a set of
business papers which may include email SMSs, reports, memos, and other items. Now the
trainer is asked to prioritise the decisions to be made immediately and the ones that can be
delayed.

4. Sensitivity Training: Sensitivity training is also known as laboratory or T-group training.

This training is about making people understand about themselves and others reasonably,
which is done by developing in them social sensitivity and 8/8 behavioural flexibility. It is the
ability of an individual to sense what others feel and think from their own point of view. It
reveals information about his or her own personal qualities, concerns, emotional issues, and
things that he or she has in common with other members of the group. It is the ability to
behave suitably in light of understanding. A group’s trainer refrains from acting as a group
leader or lecturer, attempting instead to clarify the group processes using incidents as
examples to clarify general points or provide feedback. The group action, overall, is the goal
as well as the process. Sensitivity training Program comprises three steps (see Figure 18.7)

5.Transactional Analysis: It provides trainees with a realistic and useful method for
analysing and understanding the behaviour of others. In every social interaction, there is a
motivation provided by one person and a reaction to that motivation given by another person.

6.Trainers
Who actually conducts the training depends on the type of training needed and who will
be receiving it. On-the-job training is conducted mostly by supervisors; off-the-job
training, by either in-house personnel or outside instructors.
In-house training is the daily responsibility of supervisors and employees. Supervisors
are ultimately responsible for the productivity and, therefore, the training of their
subordinates.These supervisors should be taught the techniques of good training. They
must be aware of the knowledge and skills necessary to make a productive employee.
Trainers should be taught to establish goals and objectives for their training and to
determine how these objectives can be used to influence the productivity of their
departments.
There are many outside training sources, including consultants, technical and
vocational schools, continuing education programmes, chambers of commerce and
economic development groups. Selecting an outside source for training has
 advantages and disadvantages. The biggest advantage is that these organizations are
well versed in training techniques, which is often not the case
with in-house personnel.

7.Evaluation of Training
Training should be evaluated several times during the process. Determine these
milestones when you develop the training. Employees should be evaluated by
comparing their newly acquired skills with the skills defined by the goals of the
training programme. Any discrepancies should be noted and adjustments made to the
training programme to enable it to meet specified goals. Many training programmes
fall short of their expectations simply because the administrator failed to evaluate its
progress until it was too late. Timely evaluation will prevent the training from
straying from its goals

An effective training programme administrator should follow these steps:

Define the organisational objective.
Determine the needs of the training programme
Define training goals
Develop training methods
Decide whom to train
Decide who should do the training
Administer the training
Evaluate the training programme.

Human re-engineering

Change Management
Change management is a systematic approach to dealing with the transition or transformation
of an organisation's goals, processes or technologies. The purpose of change management is
to implement strategies for effecting change, controlling change and helping people to adapt
to change.

To be effective, the change management strategy must take into consideration how an
adjustment or replacement will impact processes, systems and employees within the
organisation. There must be a process for planning and testing change, communicating
change, scheduling and implementing change, documenting change and evaluating its effects.

Popular models for managing change

Best practice models can provide guiding principles and help managers align the scope of
proposed changes with available digital and nondigital tools. Popular models include the
following:

ADKAR
The ADKAR model, created by Prosci founder Jeff Hiatt, consists of five sequential steps:
Awareness of the need for change;
Desire to participate and support the change;
Knowledge on how to change;
Ability to implement desired skills and behaviours; and
Reinforcement to sustain the change.

Bridges' Transition Model.

Change consultant William Bridges' model focuses on how people adjust to change. The
model features three stages: a stage for letting go, a stage of uncertainty and confusion and a
stage for acceptance. Bridges' model is sometimes compared to the Kübler-Ross five stages
of grief -- denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.

Kotter's 8-Step Process for Leading Change

Harvard University professor John Kotter's model has eight steps:
Create a sense of urgency.
Build a guiding coalition.
Form a strategic vision and initiatives.
Enlist a volunteer army.
Enable action by removing barriers.
Generate short-term wins.
Sustain acceleration.
Institute change.

McKinsey 7-S
Business consultants Robert H. Waterman Jr. and Tom Peters designed a model to look
holistically at seven factors that affect change:
shared values
strategy
structure
systems
style
staff
Skills

What are the benefits of change management?

As laid out in other sections of this definition, taking a structured approach to change
management helps organizations mitigate disruption, reduce costs, reduce time to
implementation, improve leadership skills, drive innovation and improve morale.
In addition, here are some ways that change management can help add structure to IT and
operations:

● improved documentation of enterprise systems;

● greater alignment between suggested change and what gets implemented;
● better starting point for automation initiatives;
● understanding of why systems were made;
● ability to reverse-engineer changes made to existing business processes and
infrastructure; and

● better ability to identify what can be safely eliminated or updated.

What are the challenges of change management?

Companies developing a change management program from the ground up often face
daunting challenges. In addition to a thorough understanding of company culture, the change
management process requires an accurate accounting of the systems, applications and
employees to be affected by a change. Additional change management challenges include the
following:

● Resource management. Managing the physical, financial, human, informational,

and intangible assets and resources that contribute to an organization's strategic
plan becomes increasingly difficult when implementing change.

● Resistance. The executives and employees who are most affected by a change
may resist it. Since change may result in unwanted extra work, ongoing resistance
is common. Transparency, training, planning and patience can help quell
resistance and improve overall morale.

● Communication. Companies often fail to consistently communicate change

initiatives or include employees in the process. Change-related communication
requires an adequate number of messages, the involvement of enough
stakeholders to get the message out and multiple communication channels.
 ● New technology. The application of new technologies can disrupt an employee's
entire workflow. Companies can improve adoption of new technology by creating
a network of early learners who champion the new technology to colleagues.

● Multiple points of view. In any change initiative, success factors differ for people
based on their roles in the organization and incentives. Managing these various
priorities is challenging.

● Scheduling issues. Deciding whether a change program will be long or short term
and clearly defining milestone deadlines are complicated. Some organizations
believe that shorter change programs are most effective. Others believe a more
gradual approach to change reduces resistance and errors.

Meaning of retraining

Training is often provided to recruits at the beginning of their employment so that they
become adept at handling organizational duties. With time the company might deem
necessary to offer further training to its employees so that they might learn to manage new
devices that have arrived in the market.

This is retraining that is described as a process of refreshing one’s abilities and developing
skills to keep up with new changes in the workplace. Some of the most common industries
that need frequent retraining programs because of changing policies and laws in their sector
are

● Finance
● Healthcare
● Banking

Retraining is often given to employees in an organisation that has been with them for a long
time. It is to make them equipped with future needs and requirements once again to prevent
complacency in the job. Retraining as the name suggests means training once again.
With time there are technological changes taking place, and this often results in changes in
the operational processes of a firm. Employees are offered to retrain so that they become
equipped to handle all the ongoing changes in the organisation. In some cases, employees
selected for job rotation are also retrained because they need new skills and technical
knowledge to handle the intricacies of the new job profile.

When should a company offer retraining?

Retraining is an expensive and time-consuming business that disrupts the smooth flow of the
company for time-being. It is imperative to think beforehand of the circumstances when it is
considered appropriate to retrain employees. Some of the best situations are as follows-

● If the organisation finds a lack of necessary skills in the employees during

performance reviews

● When new and advanced technology is implemented in the workplace about

which employees do not have sufficient knowledge

● When the company sets up a new regulation or policy in the workplace

● If the company finds that team morale is very low
● When the business entity tries to adopt a new strategy in the workplace and
needs trained personnel for the job

● Advantages of retraining
● Retraining has proved beneficial for the organizations and this is why they are
willing to bear the additional costs that come with the process. The various
advantages of retraining are as follows-

● Updated skills – It is a fact that if an organization does not provide the

opportunity for retraining to its employees then it would not be able to acquire
new technological know-how and skills necessary to meet the current demands
in the workplace. The organization aids an employee in updating their skill via
continuous learning and training programs so that it proves a blessing in their
chosen profession
● Qualitative products and services – Most retraining programs are specific in
nature and aids in improving the quality of services and products in an
organization. The learning and retraining program is a move towards product
excellence, advanced production methods and ultimately customer satisfaction
via improved and better products and services

● Eliminate safety concerns – Retraining is an opportunity to minimize mistakes

because of a lack of knowledge. It also helps to tackle safety concerns with new
and modern options.

● Enhanced performance – Employee retraining amplifies the skills and

knowledge of an employee and enhances his performance in the workplace

● Improved productivity – Retraining helps the employees to focus on the use of

new technologies and this helps in enhanced productivity because employees
can abandon outdated ones

● Tackle shortcomings – It is not necessary that an employee will be adept at a

particular skill that is requisite of his job. Retraining aids the employee in
tackling his shortcomings so that he can become better

● Fresh outlook – Retraining provides the employee with a fresh outlook to do

things in a different but best-possible way

● Better morale – Retraining programs bring consistency in the overall

performance of an employee and this results in better morale

● Improved working environment – Retraining gives employees a feeling of

satisfaction, and this improves the working environment as he can spread his
happiness

● Improve career prospects – Retraining helps in looking for better options and
thus enhances the chances of better career prospects

● Increased job satisfaction – Retraining is a chance to educate oneself. They gain

a real respect for their job, and this increases their satisfaction

● Retains competitive edge- Retraining gives the organization the means to stay
ahead of its competitors and gain a competitive advantage in the market
 ● Improves employee loyalty – when an employee is given the chance of
retraining, it provides him further opportunities in life as part of career growth.
This is why his loyalty towards the company offering him retraining increases

● Retain best employees – with the help of retraining an organisation can retain
some of its best employees and give them additional years in the company that
prove productive for themselves as well as the firm.

Disadvantages of retraining

● Expensive – One of the disadvantages of providing a retraining program to the

employees is that it is a burden on the company because of additional expenses
that it has to bear

● Time-consuming – Retraining is time-consuming as the employee will have to

take time out from his busy schedule to undergo this program. Sometimes it is a
waste of time if the employee is unable to grasp the proper intricacies of the
retraining

● No guarantee of results – It is a fact that retraining program is initiated to

improve the efficiency and productivity of an employee and through him the
organization but it is also a reality that the retraining program does not
guarantee success in learning and implementation of the learned skill and
know-how

● Lack of fresh talent – Retraining program is generally offered to the existing

workforce, and it proves a disadvantage for the company in the long-run as it is
unable to hire fresh talent that might bring something unique and new to the
table.

● Lack of innovation – No new recruitment means no knowledge of innovative

skills as the older employees are willing to slide along the way as they have for
the past years
 ● Discourages modernization – retraining existing employees can be a cause for
the lack of modernization in the organization. There is no fresh blood to take
viable risks and sacrifice stability for innovation and change

What are self-directed work teams?

Self-directed work teams are groups of employees who combine their talents to work
without the influence of traditional manager-based supervision. They work towards
company goals just as teams run by a manager do. Typically, self-directed work teams
have anywhere from five to 25 members. Because there is not a managerial leader in
place, members of a self-directed work team make decisions for the project together,
such as setting deadlines and rules regarding the project.Many teams create a set of
rules before the project begins. As challenges arise, team members work together to
find solutions and make progress. A self-directed work team works best when
management equips them with the right tools and sufficient support. Ultimately, the
self-directed team is responsible for their own success.

Advantages of a self-directed work team

Employees have more accountability

Employees in a self-directed work team have more accountability for a project's success than
in a traditionally manager-led team, especially if the team is small. This can work as an
advantage, as employees may work harder in response to having more personal
accountability for the project's success

Employees may feel a greater sense of satisfaction

Because a limited amount of employees are responsible for the project, they each may feel a
greater sense of satisfaction when they complete parts of the project. This is especially true
for a smaller self-directed team, as each employee may feel a more potent sense of
satisfaction if there are only a few members taking responsibility for a project's progress.

Employees have more freedom to be intuitive

Because a lead manager does not manage the team, employees within have the freedom to
take initiative during the project. This decreases limitations in each employee's ability to
build on ideas and propose solutions.
Employees can more effectively use their skills
As members of a self-directed team, employees are free to use their expert skills to move a
project forward, sometimes more effectively than in a managed team. For example, assume
you've built a small team that focuses on programming and quality checking code for a
project. One member of this small team has an expert ability in quality checking code,
meaning they are able to quality check code much faster than any other employee in your
department.

Disadvantages of a self-directed work team

Role-awareness may decrease

While some team members may feel naturally inclined to lead, with no confirmed leader in
the system, some employees may find their roles in the project a little unclear. Consider
helping establish leadership positions in the team before the project to help prevent any
confusion later.
Decision making may take longer
Regardless of team size, some newly formed teams may take longer to decide on major
project decisions. Establishing leadership positions before the project begins can help
decision-making later go smoothly. Team sociability and communication are two key
elements that can help in decision-making, so consider evaluating your team's efficiency
before giving them a major project to handle.

What is workforce diversity?

Before you can start managing diversity in the workplace, you have to know what it is. And
the definition may surprise you.

Diversity is anything that makes people different from one another. I’m sure you know you
shouldn’t discriminate based on race, gender, national origin or disability. But there’s more.

Religion, age, sexual orientation, citizenship, political affiliation or opinions, military service,
mental and physical conditions, personality, education, favorite sports team – all of these fall
under the umbrella of diversity, which, if not managed correctly, can open the door to charges
of discrimination or employee relations matters.

What are the benefits of managing diversity in the workplace?

Building a diverse environment and team has some challenges, but the advantages far
outweigh them. Employing people with various backgrounds has the potential to give your
company a leg up because it can:

Spark creativity with an infusion of new ideas and perspectives

Give you a head start on innovation because you’re drawing ideas from different types of
people
Help you relate better to your target audience

Align your culture more closely with the reality of our nation

Broaden the appeal of your sales pitch and provide insight into client demographics

Improve how your team interacts with clients and the public, and increase customer
satisfaction

HOW TO MANAGE DIVERSITY IN THE WORKPLACE

1. COMPELLING COMMUNICATION

Building good communications at all levels is critical to maintaining a diverse team engaged
and everyone on the same page while managing diversity in the workplace.

HR management must prioritize communication, consider feedback, and make use of the data
to foster diversity and positivity in the work environment.

Ensure that the employee is aware of the procedures, policies, security standards, and other
relevant information.

Focus on overcoming linguistic and cultural obstacles.

Have important documents, like security information, translated if necessary. Ensure that
everyone understands a warning, including images and icons on the sign.

2. FOSTER OPEN-MINDEDNESS

A company that wants to promote employee diversity and inclusion must help staff members
accept one another for who they are while managing diversity in the workplace.

Each employee in your company has a unique background, skin tone, and other
characteristics. They also all identify with a specific ethnic group. To fully utilize the
distinctive contributions that they make, it is crucial to embrace their originality.

Diversity is real, but don’t let it split your company apart. Instead, emphasize how unique
each individual is in their way and how their differences don’t matter.
When interacting with one another at work, let all employees maintain an open mind. In this
approach, they view their diversity as a tool that should be seized and used to promote
corporate development.

3. LEADERSHIP

It will be impossible for every employee to acquire diversity if the leadership team doesn’t
actively model and promote diversity from the start.

Leadership must grasp what diversity means for their business and how it affects the
organization’s actions, attitudes, and outlook.

Workforce diversity in management can be booming if top leadership adopts a common aim,
as the creation of policies falls under the purview of the organization’s leaders.

Based on that, they can implement policies that either encourage or discourage workplace
diversity. The diversity project will be severely constrained if management does not show
initiative to action while managing diversity in the workplace.

4. MAINTAIN TRANSPARENT POLICIES

Make sure your staff policies are in line with your equality documentation, which should
cover recruiting, compensation, and promotions. The employee handbook should place a
strong emphasis on diversity and cover the following topics:

● The company’s diversity strategy must get outlined in the code of conduct.
● Non-discriminatory communication must get covered in the communication plan.
● A non-discrimination policy helps individuals understand the law and what is
prohibited.
● Salary and incentive policies.
● Regulation of unemployment and termination based on behavior.

5. TAKE A CUE FROM THE BUSINESSES THAT ARE DOING IT WELL

It becomes simpler to understand when we put it into practice, just like with any new learning
material. There are countless books on managing diversity in the workplace, but until you
understand how the ideas translate actually, it can be demanding to put them into practice.

So, take a cue from the businesses dedicated to and committed to workplace diversity.

Do not be reluctant to get in touch with educational organizations that can offer training to
the business and instruct employees on how to cultivate a culture that celebrates diversity
rather than runs from it.

6. ENCOURAGE EMPLOYEES TO REPORT INSTANCES OF BIAS AND

DISCRIMINATION AT WORK

Any concerns sensitive to a particular tribe or culture must be taken with zero tolerance by
the organization while managing diversity in the workplace.

Promoting diversity at work requires proper sanctions. It seems there will be a decrease in the
frequency of such situations if employees are encouraged to report discrimination and
workplace biases.

Every employee has the right to an office environment free from prejudice. Therefore, it is
necessary to outlaw any jokes that use demeaning verbal or nonverbal clues based on race.

7. EQUALITY

Treat each organisation member fairly and with respect.

Put an end to stereotypes, both positive and negative. Please refrain from concluding
someone’s class or cultural background. Put your biases to the side.

Respond to employee biases or preconceptions right away and decisively. Recognize that
your laws forbid discrimination. Encourage employees to evaluate coworkers based on their
performance on the job rather than on their attributes while managing diversity in the
workplace.
Our unconscious prejudices and opinions can frequently cause us to misinterpret a scenario.
As a result, the management must be sincere and careful.

9. ENCOURAGE DIVERSE TEAMS

Making your mixed employees collaborate in diverse teams will help to foster their
individuality. Teams with a diversity of backgrounds foster respect and camaraderie among
the members.

Additionally, diverse groups broaden the team’s perspectives and convictions and value the
power of their innate talents and insights.

Businesses must take advantage of the beauty and strength of having an assorted workforce in
managing diversity in the workplace. And it all begins with inclusivity and providing equal
opportunities to all employees.

Schemes & Initiatives by Government

● Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY)

● Rozgar Mela
● Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Kendras (PMKK)
● Capacity Building Scheme
● Udaan
● School Initiatives and Higher Education
● India International Skill Centres (IISCs)
● Pre Departure Orientation Training (PDOT)

learning curves

Learning Curve

A learning curve is a graphic representation of improvement in employee performance over a

period. It reflects a direct relationship between time spent in learning and performance shown
at work. The more an employee learns, the better is their performance at work and lesser is
the time taken to finish tasks.

What is Learning Curve Theory?

Learning Curve Theory is based on the concept that the more an individual repeats a process
or activity, the more adept they become at that activity. This translates to lower input costs
and higher overall output. Learning Curve Theory is used to track, model, and predict
learners’ performance and improvement over time.

But, the relationship between the amount of time an individual spends learning and practicing
an activity and their overall performance is not linear. There will be specific periods for each
activity where a small amount of practice will yield massive improvement in output and
others where even minor improvements will require many hours of hard work.

This variance in the relationship between practice and proficiency over time is called the
‘learning curve.

Learning Curve Example

The learning curve has many applications within the realm of business. It can help assess the
true cost of undertaking a project.

For example, the learning curve can play a fundamental part in understanding production
costs and cost per unit. Consider a new hire who is placed on a manufacturing line. As the
employee becomes more proficient at their job, they will be able to manufacture more goods
in a smaller amount of time (all else being equal). In this example, a 90% learning curve
would mean there is a 10% improvement every time the number of repetitions doubles. In the
long run, a company can use this information to plan financial forecasts, price goods, and
anticipate whether it will meet customer demand.

Learning Curve Theory concepts

Not all learning curves are the same, of course. Some tasks take a lot of effort initially but are
easy to master once the basics have been learned (such as learning to ride a bike). For other
tasks, learning the basics may be straightforward, but true mastery requires much more
practice and effort (such as learning to play the guitar).

Four primary learning curves are used to describe the relationship between input (time
invested in practising) and output (productivity, efficiency, and performance).

The increasing returns learning curve

This curve is used to illustrate activities that are more difficult to learn, but performance
increases rapidly once the basics have been mastered. Due to inherent physical and cognitive
limitations, very few activities follow a true increasing returns learning curve for more than a
short period. This model is primarily theoretical and is almost always used to describe a
subsection of a larger learning curve.
The diminishing returns learning curve
This curve is used to illustrate activities that are easy to learn but where performance gains
level off relatively quickly. These tasks are often repetitive or straightforward actions such as
rudimentary assembly line or data entry tasks.Activities that follow a diminishing returns
learning curve are the most straightforward when measuring and predicting how the
performance and output of a workforce will change over time.

An L&D manager may use this curve when developing a training plan to teach their Quality
Control team how to use a new reporting tool where the employee only needs to enter the ID
number of was tested and the results of each test. Since this is a fairly straightforward activity
with few steps, employee productivity with the tool can be expected to rise sharply at the
beginning before leveling off as employees become proficient and approach the limits of how
fast they can correctly type the numbers into the program.

The S-curve
The S-curve model is used to illustrate activities that combine aspects of both the
increasing-returns and diminishing-returns learning curves. These activities require a
significant amount of effort early on to understand, followed by a rapid increase in
performance as the learner becomes more proficient (similar to what we see in the increasing
returns learning curve). However, once the learner has attained a certain level of mastery,
they reach a performance plateau (similar to what we see in the diminishing returns learning
curve).
These tasks are often made up of multiple complex actions or require learning many
unfamiliar concepts. When the learner is first introduced to the task, they may need to learn
each step and each concept before they are able to complete the task successfully. Once this
initial learning period has been completed, performance will increase steadily as the learner
becomes more comfortable with the task. At that point, the learner’s performance will level
off, after which point they will likely see only slight increases over time.An L&D manager
might encounter this type of curve when a new productivity tool is introduced to employees
in their office, for example. The first time employees see the tool, they will likely have no
idea how to use it, and overall performance output with the tool will be near zero. The L&D
manager may need to help the learners understand the essential functions of the tool, what
each button and menu item is used for, or how to find help when they get stuck.

Once the employees have learned the basics of the platform, however, productivity with the
tool will begin to increase rapidly over time before starting to level out once the majority of
employees have become proficient with the tool.

The complex learning curve

Very few activities follow a single, simple learning curve for more than a short period in the
real world, however. The complex learning curve is used to illustrate more complex learning
journeys over a longer timeframe.

The complex learning curve model will look different for each activity and potentially each
individual or group. Learners will encounter multiple peaks and plateaus when learning tasks
with complex learning curves.
These are often highly complex tasks or require higher degrees of creative or strategic
thought. Performance may increase steadily at the beginning before reaching a plateau once
learners have mastered the basics. This productivity plateau may lead to additional
performance increases as they learn more advanced concepts.

L&D managers should expect to encounter complex learning curves when a tech organization
adopts a new programming language, for example. There may be an initial spike in
programmers’ performance with the new programming language as the software developers
get acquainted with the language, using previous programming knowledge to help them
master the basics of the language.

Once they have learned enough to be proficient with the syntax and formatting of the new
language, employees may reach a temporary plateau as they confront the unique aspects of
the new language and begin familiarizing themselves with the language’s libraries and data
structures.

As employees continue using the programming language, there will be periodic peaks and
plateaus, which may be unique to each individual.