ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY

[Accredited with ‘A+’ Grade by NAAC (CGPA:3.64) in the Third Cycle

and Graded as Category–I University by MHRD-UGC]
(A State University Established by the Government of Tamil Nadu)
KARAIKUDI – 630 003

Directorate of Distance Education

M.A. [English]
IV -
Semester 320
44

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

- THEORY AND PRACTICE
Dr. R. Vishwannthan, Assistant Professor in English, Thiyagarajar College of Preceptore, Theppakulam, Madurai-625
009
 SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE
English Language Teaching - Theory and Practice
Syllabi Mapping in Book

BLOCK I: Importance and Principles of English Unit 1: Importance and Scope of

Unit - 1: Importance of English in India - English Being an official Language English in India
Administration - Link Language - Library Language - Scope of English in India (Pages 1-18)
- Functions Unit 2: Pedagogical Analysis
of
Unit - 2: Pedagogical Analysis of English Teaching - Meaning - Characteristics English Teaching
- Aspects (Pages 19-40)
Unit 3: Principles of
Unit - 3: Principles of Language Teaching - Linguistic Principles - Concept of Language
Linguistics Teaching
(Pages 41-51)
BLOCK II: Methods and Approach
Unit - 4: Methods of Teaching English - Grammar cum Translation Method-
Direct Method - Substitution Method - Bilingual Method Unit 4: Methods of Teaching
English
Unit - 5: Approaches of Teaching English - Structural Approach - Situational (Pages 55-68)
Approach - Oral Approach - Audio Lingual Approach Unit 5: Approaches of Teaching
English
BLOCK III: Teaching Strategies (Pages 69-84)
Unit - 6: Teaching of English Prose - Definition - Characteristics - Objectives -
Methods Unit 6: Teaching of English Prose
(Pages 85-96)
Unit - 7: Teaching of English Poetry - Definition - Characteristics -Importance - Unit 7: Teaching English
Advantages - Procedures Poetry
(Pages 1-12)
Unit - 8: Teaching of English Grammar - Characteristics - Objectives - Types - Unit 8: Teaching of
Methods English
Grammar
Unit - 9: Team Teaching and Teaching of English - Procedure - Suggestions - (Pages 107-120)
Advantages Unit 9: Team Teaching
(Pages 124-134)
Unit - 10: Lesson Planning - Importance - Characteristics - Preparation of Unit 10: Lesson Planning
Lesson Plan of a Prose, Poetry and Grammar lesson (Pages 135-150)

BLOCK IV: Innovation and Evaluation in Teaching English

Unit - 11: Instructional Materials - Audio-Visual Teaching Aids - Advantages

Unit - 12: Programmed Instructional Material - Concept - Linear Programme -

Branching Programme - Construction of Achievement - Advantages of Self-
Unit 11: Instructional Materials
Instructional Material
(Pages 151-164)
Unit 12: Programmed Instructional
Unit - 13: Development of Creativity through English Teaching- Approaches -
Materials
Development - Reading - Composition Writing
(Pages 165-184)
Unit 13: Development of
Unit - 14: Concept of Evaluation - Concept of Test and Examination -
Creativity Through English
Importance
Teaching
- Characteristics - Types
(Pages 185-198)
Unit 14: Testing and Evaluation
(Pages 199-214)
 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION

BLOCK I: IMPORTANCE AND PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH

UNIT 1 IMPORTANCE AND SCOPE OF ENGLISH IN INDIA 1-18

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Importance of English in India
1.2.1 Role of English Language in the Indian Context
1.2.2 Position and Importance of English Language in India
1.3 English as the Official Language of Administration
1.3.1 Role of English in Present-Day India
1.3.2 English as a Link Language
1.3.3 English as a Library Language
1.4 Functions of English in India
1.5 Scope of English Langauage in India
1.5.1 Functions of Language
1.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
1.7 Summary
1.8 Key Words
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.10 Further Readings

UNIT 2 PEDAGOGICAL ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH TEACHING 19-40

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Pedagogical Analysis: Meaning, Characteristics and Aspects
2.2.1 Lesson Planning
2.2.2 Micro Teaching
2.2.3 Skill of Introducing a Lesson
2.2.4 Skill of Reinforcement, Explaining, Illustration, Stimulus Variation and Blackboard Writing
2.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
2.4 Summary
2.5 Key Words
2.6 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
2.7 Further Readings

UNIT 3 PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE TEACHING 41-51

3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Definitions of Language
3.2.1 General Principles of Language Teaching
 3.3 Linguistic Principles
3.4 Concepts of Linguistics
3.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
3.6 Summary
3.7 Key Words
3.8 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
3.9 Further Readings

BLOCK II: METHODS AND APPROACH

UNIT 4 METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH 55-68

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Methods of Teaching English: An Introduction
4.2.1 Major Components of a Method
4.3 Grammar Translation Method
4.4 Direct Method
4.5 The Substitution Method
4.6 Bilingual Method
4.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
4.8 Summary
4.9 Key Words
4.10 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
4.11 Further Readings

UNIT 5 APPROACHES OF TEACHING ENGLISH 69-84

5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Approaches: An Introduction
5.3 Structural Approach
5.4 Situational Approach
5.5 Oral Approach
5.6 The Audio-Lingual Approach
5.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
5.8 Summary
5.9 Key Words
5.10 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
5.11 Further Readings

BLOCK III: TEACHING STRATEGIES

UNIT 6 TEACHING OF ENGLISH PROSE 85-96

6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Definition, Characteristics and Objectives of Prose
 6.2.1 Characteristics of Prose
6.2.2 General Objectives of Teaching Prose
6.2.3 Various Forms of Prose
6.2.4 Steps of Teaching Prose
6.3 Methods of Teaching Prose
6.4 Effective Teaching Strategies for Prose
6.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
6.6 Summary
6.7 Key Words
6.8 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
6.9 Further Readings

UNIT 7 TEACHING ENGLISH POETRY 97-106

7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Teaching Poetry
7.3 Definition, Characteristics and Importance of Poetry
7.3.1 Characteristics of Poetry
7.3.2 Importance of Poetry
7.3.3 Advantages of Teaching Poetry
7.4 Procedure of Teaching Poetry
7.4.1 Pronunciation Drill
7.4.2 Comprehension Questions
7.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
7.6 Summary
7.7 Key Words
7.8 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
7.9 Further Readings

UNIT 8 TEACHING OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 107-120

8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Grammar: An Introduction
8.2.1 Characteristics of Grammar
8.2.2 Grammar and Our Schools
8.2.3 Objectives of Teaching Grammar
8.3 Types of Grammar
8.4 Methods of Teaching Grammar
8.5 Teaching Procedure
8.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
8.7 Summary
8.8 Key Words
8.9 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
8.10 Further Readings
UNIT 9 TEAM TEACHING 124-134
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Team Teaching and Teaching of English
9.2.1 Implementation of Steps in Team Teaching
9.2.2 Principles of Team Teaching
9.3 Procedure to Implement Team Teaching
9.3.1 The Team in Action
9.3.2 Making Decisions
9.4 Suggestions of Team Teaching
9.4.1 Advantages of Team Teaching
9.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
9.6 Summary
9.7 Key Words
9.8 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
9.9 Further Readings

UNIT 10 LESSON PLANNING 135-150

10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Lesson Planning: An Introduction
10.2.1 Meaning and Definition of Lesson Planning
10.2.2 Importance of Lesson Planning
10.2.3 Characteristics of a Good Lesson Plan
10.3 Preparation of Lesson Plan: Approaches
10.3.1 Prose Lesson
10.3.2 Poetry Lesson
10.3.3 Grammar Lesson Plan
10.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
10.5 Summary
10.6 Key Words
10.7 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
10.8 Further Readings

BLOCK IV: INNOVATION AND EVALUATION IN TEACHING ENGLISH

UNIT 11 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 151-164

11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Instructional Aids
11.2.1 Types of Instructional Aids
11.2.2 Importance and Use of Instructional Aids
11.3 Audio-Visual Teaching Aids
11.3.1 Types of Audio-Visual Aids
11.3.2 Identifying the Websites
 11.4 Advantages of Audio-Visual Aids
11.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
11.6 Summary
11.7 Key Words
11.8 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
11.9 Further Readings

UNIT 12 PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS 165-184

12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Programmed Instruction: Concept
12.2.1 Fundamentals of Programming
12.3 Linear Programming
12.4 Branching Programming
12.5 Construction of Achievement
12.5.1 Development of Programmed Instruction
12.5.2 Steps for Development of Programmed Instruction
12.5.3 Guide to Self- Instructional Material
12.6 Advantages of Self-Instructional Material
12.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
12.8 Summary
12.9 Key Words
12.10 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
12.11 Further Readings

UNIT 13 DEVELOPMENT OF CREATIVITY THROUGH ENGLISH

TEACHING 185-198
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Meaning and Development of Creativity
13.2.1 Features of Creativity
13.3 Approaches for Developing Creativity
13.3.1 Development of Creativity
13.4 Reading Skills
13.5 Compostion Writing Skills
13.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
13.7 Summary
13.8 Key Words
13.9 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
13.10 Further Readings

UNIT 14 TESTING AND EVALUATION 199-214

14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Concept of Evaluation and Assessment
14.3 Language Testing Techniques
14.3.1 Criterion Referenced Test
14.4 Concept of Tests and Examinations
14.4.1 Characteristics of a Good Test
14.4.2 Types of Tests
14.4.3 Importance of Test and Evaluation
14.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
14.6 Summary
14.7 Key Words
14.8 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
14.9 Further Readings
 INTRODUCTION

Among the various challenges India faces every day in education, English
NOTES
Language Teaching is one of the crucial ones for it has an impact on every
learner right from primary level to the tertiary level and even beyond in
research arena. India cannot be considered just like any other country in the
world because it is secular with a multi-lingual background. Even in its
geography, it is a land of striking contrasts. The job of a teacher becomes
crucial here as the teacher has to make the student understand the language
in both theory and practice.
The book English Language Teaching: Theory and Practice is
divided into fourteen units. It describes the importance of Teaching English
to students. It highlights the various methods and approaches of teaching
English. The history of English language along with the teaching strategies
and the process of teaching innovation and evaluation are also described in
this book.
This book is written with the distance learning student in mind. It is
presented in a user-friendly format using a clear, lucid language. Each unit
contains an Introduction and a list of Objectives to prepare the student for
what to expect in the text. At the end of each unit are a Summary and a list
of Key Words, to aid in recollection of concepts learnt. All units contain
Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises, and strategically placed Check
Your Progress questions so the student can keep track of what has been
discussed.

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 Importance and Scope of
BLOCK - I English in India
IMPORTANCE AND PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH

NOTES
UNIT 1 IMPORTANCE AND SCOPE
OF ENGLISH IN INDIA
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Importance of English in India
1.2.1 Role of English Language in the Indian Context
1.2.2 Position and Importance of English Language in India
1.3 English as the Official Language of Administration
1.3.1 Role of English in Present-Day India
1.3.2 English as a Link Language
1.3.3 English as a Library Language
1.4 Functions of English in India
1.5 Scope of English Langauage in India
1.5.1 Functions of Language
1.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
1.7 Summary
1.8 Key Words
1.9 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.10 Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, the importance and principles of English will be discussed in

detail. The role of English before and after independence will also be delved
into. The English language plays an important role in India and its role in
the Indian context is particularly significant.
Also, the aims of teaching English at the primary level, at secondary
level and at higher secondary level will be explained in this unit. English
occupies a prominent position in the present day India. Therefore, its
characteristics as a link language and library language will also be explained.

1.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the importance of English language in
India
 Discuss English as a link language and library Self-Instructional
language Material 1

 Analyse the scope and functions of English in India

Importance and Scope of
English in India 1.2 IMPORTANCE OF ENGLISH IN INDIA

English language plays a significant role in India’s national life. English has its
NOTES unique importance in our country. It has played a very important role in
building modern India. It has become one of the major languages of the
world and Indians can neglect its study at their own peril. It is taught and
learnt with affection and love and enjoys a privileged position. People who
pursue a study of this language feel a sense of pride. English is not only a
national language of England, but is also an international language. It may be
called the language of the world civilization. No one should underestimate the
importance of English. C. Raiagopalacharya rightly said, ‘We, in our anger
and the hatred against the British people should not throw away the baby
(English) with the bath water (English people)’.
During the time of Lord Macaulay, ‘the foreign plant of English’ was
sown in the Indian soil. Thereafter, English was made a compulsory medium
of instruction in colleges. Later, it became a compulsory medium of
instruction in secondary schools as well.
The position of English in India has been discussed below:
 It is a medium of instructions at all levels.
 It is the official language of central government and state government.
 It is used as a language in finance, commerce and medical field.
 It is a medium for higher studies.
 Many think that speaking in English is a prestige.
1.2.1 Role of English Language in the Indian Context
Every language is a source of pride for those who are well-versed in it. No
doubt, English is the language of the English people. However, it is
significant to note that this language is used in most of the countries of the
world. In India, it occupies an important place. In every sphere of life,
whether social, political, academic, cultural or economic, it holds a
significant value.
English occupies an important place in India today. Wherever we go in
the country, it is used very much almost in every circle. On paging through
the bazars, we find that a majority of the boards hanging in front of the shops
are in English. In the cinema halls, hotels and restaurants, offices of
administration local, regional or central, almost every record is in English. At
home, in the street, in the bazar, in business, in studies or in routine talks,
English holds a good position.
English before Independence
‘A single shelf of a good European Library was worth the whole native
Self-Instructional literature of India and Arabia’. This statement was made by Lord Macaulay
2 Material who wanted to create through English Education ‘a class of persons, Indian
in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinion, in morals and in
intellect’. This takes us back to
Macaulay’s famous minute of 1835. English enjoyed a very prominent and Importance and Scope of
privileged position in Indian Educational system and life till the attainment of English in India
independence. It was taught as a compulsory subject both at the school and
college level. It was also the medium of instruction. Moreover, it was the
language of courts and administration and formed a link between different NOTES
states of the country.
After Independence
After the independence, there were natural reactions against English. It
was considered to be the language of the rulers who had oppressed the
Indian people for long. The first reaction was to dethrone it from its exalted
position that it had enjoyed during the British rule. In the true national spirit,
Indian Constitution (1950) declared Hindi Devanagiri script as the official
language of the union. English language continued as an associate language
for a period of fifteen years till 1965. During the period, the Indian
government wanted to consolidate the position of Hindi as the official
language and dethrone English.
Unfortunately, this dream could not be realized. The southern states
exhibited strong opposition which made the Parliament pass an Act, making
English as the Associate official language of India for an indefinite period.
Position of English as Second Language in India
India has a multi linguistic society. Leaving the Hindi belt area, each state
has a separate language. Some scholars blame linguistic and cultural
heterogeneity as the root cause of all developmental problems in developing
countries. Once again, the blame goes to politicians.
English as a Global Language
Due to the spread of English language, it has transcended all geographical
boundaries and already become a Global language. Latin was used as a
medium of education in Western Europe throughout the middle ages. French
was used as the language of international diplomacy from the 17th century to
20th century. Today, English has attained the world language status.
i. UNESCO Survey: English is used as an official or semi-official
language in over sixty countries and has a prominent place in at least
twenty countries. It either dominates or is well established in all the six
continents.
ii. English is the main language of books, newspapers, airports and air
traffic control, international business and academic conferences,
science, technology medicine, diplomacy, sports, international
competitions, pop music and advertising.
iii. Over two-thirds of the world’s scientists write in English.
iv. Three-quarters of the mail is written in English.
Self-Instructional
v. Of all the information in the world’s electronic retrieval system, eighty Material 3
percent is stored in English.
Importance and Scope of vi. English radio programmes are received by 150 million in 120 countries.
English in India
vii. Over fifty million children study English as an additional Language at
the primary level. Over eighty million study it at the secondary level.
NOTES viii. In one year, the British council helps a quarter of a million foreign
students to learn English in various parts of the world. In the USA
alone, as many as 3, 37,000 foreign students were registered in 1983.
These statistics illustrate more succinctly the significance of English
as a global language.
1.2.2 Position and Importance of English Language in India
The New Educational Policy [NEPA, 1986] remarked that ‘special emphasis
needs to be laid on the study of English’:
 As an official language of administration
 As a language of court
 As a language of international trade and industry
 In our day to day life
 As a major window on the modern world.
 As a link language
Aims of Teaching English at Primary Level
English is taught at the primary level to achieve the following purpose:
 To learn English alphabets
 To understand simple statements when spoken.
 To acquire knowledge to read English, at least simple words.
 To gain required vocabulary.
 To produce simple statements.
 To understand simple questions and to answer.
 To identify the objects by their names.
 To read and understand small stories and incidents.
 To write English and practice the four styles of writing.
Aims of Teaching English at Secondary Level
English is taught at the Secondary level to achieve the following purpose:
 To understand spoken English with ease and to understand English
from broadcasting.
 To speak simple English correctly and fluently.
 To read English comprehension at a reasonable speed.

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4 Material
  To pronounce the words correctly so that it can be decoded by others Importance and Scope of
English in India
 To produce simple and meaningful sentences.
 To engage in a conversation in English
 To write neatly and correctly at a reasonable speed.
NOTES
 To read and comprehend stories and incidents in social set up and to
understand the content from English newpapers.
Aims of Teaching English at the Higher Secondary Level
English is taught at the Higher Secondary level to achieve the following
purpose:
 To understand English with ease when spoken at normal
conversational speed
 To read Standard English newspaper regularly
 To have the ability of note-making and note-taking.
 To be able to convey one’s thought and feeling that can be understood
by others.
 To acquire the vocabulary to tune of all the situations that one
encounters.
 To be able to use reference materials like dictionary and thesaurus.
 To develop and enjoy the literary items.
 To develop aesthetic sense through poems in English.
 To understand advertisement and apply for higher studies and job.
 To learn the functional aspects of grammar.
 To gain ability to understand English from native speakers and to
respond reciprocally

Check Your Progress

1. State the five major positions of English in India.
2. Why is English considered as the global language?

1.3 ENGLISH AS THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGE OF

ADMINISTRATION

English is used for official purposes such as parliamentary proceedings,

judiciary, and communications between the Central Government and a State
Government. While the Indian Constitution had earlier planned in phasing
out English over a period of fifteen years to pave the way for Hindi, this plan
was not achieved. Plans to make Hindi the sole official language was met
with resistance in various parts of the country.As a result of this, the Indian
government enacted the Official Languages
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Material 5
Importance and Scope of
English in India
Act, 1963 and English continued to be used as an official language alongside
Hindi.
In 1964, another attempt was made to end the use of English, but
protests in states such as Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, West Bengal,
NOTES
Karnataka, Puducherry, Nagaland, Mizoram and Andhra Pradesh halted the
plan. As a result, the proposal was scrapped. The Act was amended in 1967
and it was established that English would continue to be the official language
until a resolution to change it was passed by the legislature of every state
that had not adopted Hindi as its official language, and by each house of the
Indian Parliament.

1.3.1 Role of English in Present-Day India

Language is an essential element in the culture of any society. We live in a
community and our living in a community is made meaningful mainly by the
language. In the words of Leonard Bloomfield, ‘Community is formed by the
activity of language, and speech utterances give us the most direct insight
into its working’.
Language is a tool to understand and appreciate the culture of a society
and we must learn its language to understand it clearly. When English
people started ruling India, it is not clear whether they tried to realize the
importance of Indian languages to learn and appreciate the Indian culture.
However, they ensured that Indians learnt their language for other purpose.
They had to spend a lot of money on clerical work as they had to recruit
clerks from Britain. So, Lord Macaulay thought that it was better to teach
English to Indian people in order to recruit them as cheap labour. This is a
kind of outsourcing that Britishers exercised more than three hundred years
ago. Now, English has become a part and parcel of people of India. It has
become an indispensable language.
English has played a vital role in our fight for freedom. As India is a
land of many languages, the unification of freedom fighters for national cause
seemed to be remote. But again, English only played the role of unifying the
freedom fighters from Kashmir to Kanyakumari. When we weigh the benefit
between what English got from India and what India got from English, it is
strongly felt that India benefited more from English. In lndia, English is used
for international trade and industry. Indians are compelled to use English for
their business communications. However, with the falling value of American
dollar against the Indian rupee, there is a shift of business dealing from
American dollar to European Euro. But, Brexit (Britain Exit) from European
Union rendered volatile both business and the English language. The
remaining twenty-seven countries in the European Union declared that they
would not use English as the language for communication in their official and
business situations.
Self-Instructional
6 Material English plays a very major role in our educational system. It is taught
as a compulsory subject in almost all the states in the country. Many
students find it difficult in getting pass mark in English. Still, English has
persistently been made a
compulsory subject in India. It is the medium of instruction in technical, Importance and Scope of
medical and law colleges. All PG courses are done through English. Only English in India
the Kothari Commission (1966) said,
‘Mother tongue has a pre-eminent claim as the medium of instruction
at the school and colleges. Moreover, the medium of instruction at the school NOTES
and higher education should generally be the same. The regional language
should, therefore, be adopted as the medium of instruction at the higher
stage’.
Though there have been many voices to give importance to promote
regional languages in place of English, the importance of English in India has
not reduced. Considering the importance of English, many Regional Institutes
of English have been started to train English teachers. English is the most
important language in the country’s national life and educational system. The
contribution of English in the growth of knowledge in Medicine, Science and
Technology is so great that we are able to live up to the international
standards in these fields. English has brought home to us the different
developments in the international scene and helped us understand the world
situations. The importance of English in India is felt stronger today than it
was during the rule of the British.
1.3.2 English as a Link Language
India is a multilingual country with eighteen major languages recognized by
the Constitution and more than 350 languages and dialects spoken all over the
country. All the States of the Indian Union use their own regional languages
for business and commerce, administration and internal correspondence. The
framers of the Constitution had envisaged that Hindi would be developed
sufficiently fast to be a link language in the country but that has not happened.
Also, there was an opposition to the introduction of Hindi in some States.
After the formation of linguistic States, regional languages have
developed extensively and the people in these States are making an
increasing use of their own languages for political, social and cultural
development. The regional language, which is the mother tongue of most
people in the State, is also a successful medium for increasing the literacy of
people. Hindi is barely understood in the Southern States. Also, a Bengali
cannot understand a Punjabi and a Kannadiga cannot follow a Keralite. The
only language which the educated people of different States can speak and
interact in is English. Business and trade across the country are carried on
through English. Tourism and other cross-country industries make use of
English on a large scale. The correspondence between the Union
Government and the State Governments is carried on mostly in English.
English is also the language of the Supreme Court of India.
In the Freedom Struggle, English played a vital role in bringing
together leaders from various parts of the country and helping them exchange
their thoughts and plan their strategy. Pandit Nehru’s words give impetus to
the invaluable linking role of English in the country and across the world.
‘The language link is a greater
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Importance and Scope of link between us and the English-speaking people than any political link or
English in India
Commonwealth link or anything else. If you push out English, does Hindi
fully
take its place? I hope it will. I am sure it will. But I wish to avoid the danger
NOTES of one unifying factor being pushed out without another unifying factor fully
taking its place. In that event there will be a gap, a hiatus. The creation of
any such hiatus or gap must be avoided at all costs. It is very vital to do so in
the interest of the unity of the country. It is this that leads me to the
conclusion that English is likely to have an important place in the foreseeable
future.’
India’s abiding connections with the UNO, UNESCO and other
World agencies, with the Commonwealth, SAARC, EEC, ASEAN and other
economic affiliations, her greater role in the recent context of globalization
and liberalization of the economy and for the free flow of technical
knowhow including Satellite technology around the world—all these growing
bonds should convince educational planners and administrators of the
importance of English as a powerful link language which will ensure a major
role for India in world development.
1.3.3 English as a Library Language
The Indian Education Commission, popularly known as the Kothari
Commission (1964-66) termed English as a Library language. Though the
mother tongue is agreed to be the best medium of instruction, the commission
insisted that no university degree should be awarded to anyone without the
pupil acquiring a certain proficiency in English. English is the key to the
storehouse of knowledge and books on all branches of knowledge are
available mostly in English. More than sixty per cent of the world’s
technical journals, newspapers and periodicals are published in English. To
keep themselves abreast of all the latest developments, our pupils have to
learn English.
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru once said, ‘English is our major window on
the world’. English gives us a glimpse of all that is happening around the
world in literature, science, technology, commerce, politics, sports and
culture. Nehru also said that no Indian can get into an intellectual prison
after getting political independence. As Morarji Desai said we should not
deny ourselves the cultural and practical benefits of the English language
which is by far the most eloquent and popular of all languages. After
Independence though English was shown the backseat, it could never be
totally banished. English was kept for the following three reasons:
 As a National link language
 As an international link language
 As a library language
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The Indian government wanted Hindi to be the official language and
8 Material English was to continue for another fifteen years. As that was opposed by
most of the Southern regions, the parliament enacted the Official Language
Act in 1963 and
Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru assured that English will continue as the Importance and Scope of
Associate Official Language of the country. The Indian Education English in India
Commission (I964-66) also recommended the continuance of English in the
interest of National Integration and high academic work. Exchange between
the states in all walks of life is possible only because of English. Today, IMII NOTES
and Indians have realized that we cannot afford to do away with English.

Check Your Progress

3. What is the major reason behind considering English a library
language?
4. When did the Indian government enact the Official Languages Act?
1.4 FUNCTIONS OF ENGLISH IN INDIA

The English language, by virtue of being one of the most spoken languages
in the world, fulfills several utilitarian aims, linguistic aims and integrative aims,
while also imparting cultural values. Some of the functions of English are
discussed below:
Utilitarian Aim
English is world widely spoken language in the world. It is the mother
tongue of more than 320 million people and another 200 million use it as their
second language. English occupies a unique position of being the language
used by a large number of people in the world. The more significant aspect of
English is its distribution across the world. English is spread throughout the
globe. Even in India, it is not only a popular second language but also the
mother tongue of a small Indian community, the Anglo-Indians.
According to the 1977 census, nearly two hundred thousand Indians
use English as their mother tongue, including few Indian states and union
territories. Nagaland, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Sikkim
have adopted English as their official Language. Mr. M.C.Chagla, the chief
justice of the Bombay High court, once recognized English as an Indian
language and the Supreme Court upheld this judgment. The Sahitya Academy
of India recognizes English as one of the Indian languages. Pandit Jawaharlal
Nehru even wanted to include English in the eighth schedule of the
constitution, thus giving it statutory recognition as an Indian language.
Because of its great popularity and worldwide distribution, English has the pre-
eminent claim to be the medium international communication.
Linguistic Aim
Linguistics is defined as a scientific study of a language. Learning a language
means learning how to use the language. However, linguistics focuses on the
study of the mechanism of the language. It teaches the way a language
works. Linguistics comprises language in all its forms and manifestations. It
aims to seek a scientific

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Importance and Scope of understanding of language and the ways in which it is organized to fulfill the
English in India
needs it serves and the function it performs in human life. Linguistics is
concerned with the human language as a universal and recognizable part of
human behaviour. Thus, the study of an individual language is the grammar
NOTES of that language while the study of language in general is linguistics.
Linguistics teaches about four types of difference between languages.
They are pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and the relationship between
speakers. Linguistics aims at classifying the four aspects pronunciation,
vocabulary, grammar and relationship between speakers, the meaning and
use of language and hence provides terminology to talk about these matters.
It provides terminology which can be used by lexicographers, translators,
speech therapists, language teachers, scrabble enthusiasts, etc. Linguistics is
the science of language which has a scientific inquiry into the structures, uses
and the relationship of human language.
Integrative Aim
English has been playing an important role in our educational system as well
as in our national life. English helped the growth of nationalism which
ultimately freed the country from British yoke. English served as a great
unifying force in our struggle for independence. It is through this language
that leaders from the four corners of our vast country could communicate and
chalk out their common plans of action. Even now, English continues to play
this important role as the national link language for the purpose of inter-state
correspondence and as the language of trade and commerce between
different parts of the country. English has greatly contributed to the growth of
knowledge in India particularly in the field of science and technology. It has
brought home to us the different developments in the international scene and
helped us understand the world situations. Prime Minister Nehru also assured
the southern states that English would continue to be the associate official
language for interstate communication and communication between the states
and the centre. English is the only language which is understood by the
educated people all over the world. Without English, both official and private
communication between many parts of the country would be completely cut
off. The Indian Education Commission (1964-66) has recommended the
continuance of English in the interest of national integration and for higher
academic work.
Functional and Utilitarian
English is highly useful to Indians for various reasons:
 It is used for interstate and international communication. It is a
window to the world. It is a library language in higher education.
 English, in a way, has united the different states of India. It is a link
language. It is a language of trade, industry and commerce.
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  All scientific literature is available in English. Only with the help of Importance and Scope of
English, our scientists and technologists keep themselves abreast of English in India
the latest developments, discoveries and inventions that take place in
any part of the world.
 Indian culture, its rich literature, its philosophy and religion were NOTES
made available to the world only through English.
 Today, English is a passport for the job market. Knowledge of
English is essential for our students for performing well in different
jobs.
Cultural Values
English language also imparts cultural values. Some of the aspects are
discussed as follows:
 Books on all branches of knowledge are available in English and thus
it is educationally valuable.
 English has produced great literary giants and their works help one to
develop culturally.
 For many in India, reading books in English serves as a leisure time
activity. People read English novels and poems for enjoyment.
 Great literatures of the world are translated into English. Similarly, all
aspects of knowledge and wisdom of the world are at the hands of one
who knows English.
 The idea of freedom and democracy and the need for environmental
protection are propagated through English.

1.5 SCOPE OF ENGLISH LANGAUAGE IN INDIA

English is an international language. English has played an important role in

our educational system as well as in our national life. English was supreme in
the pre- independent India because of British rule over India. English still
occupies an important place and position in courts, trade, commerce,
industry, educational system and national life of India. Let us see the scope of
English briefly through the following points:
An Official Language
English was the official language of administration during the British period.
After the independence of India, English has been declared as the Associate
Official Language of the Union of India for an indefinite period by an Act of
Parliament in 1963. As such, it dominates the administrative business at the
centre as well as in the states. All the administrative work is done in English
throughout the country.

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Importance and Scope of Language of Court
English in India
English still continues to be the language of the courts. So far, there is no
other suitable language for legal business. Cases are presented and judgments
NOTES are given in English in Supreme, High and District courts of India.
Language of International Trade and Industry
English dominates the fields of trade and industry in the country. This is
because works such as maintenance of accounts, audit and correspondence
is carried on in English.
A Link Language
English is a national link language of India as well as an international link
language of the world. It is the only language which is understood in all states
of India and all the countries of the world. We can establish social, economic,
cultural and political relations with other countries and other states of India
only through English.
A Library Language
English is the key to the storehouse of knowledge. Most of this knowledge is
not yet available in Indian languages. It is in this context that the role of
English as a library language becomes important in India.
Importance in Education
English plays an important role in the field of education. It is taught as a
compulsory subject in most of the states in the country. It is the medium of
instruction in technical, medical, law, science, commerce and other institutions.
A large number of English medium schools are providing education through
English as a medium of instruction.
Window to the Modern World
Pandit Nehru had rightly said, ‘English is our major window on the modern
world.’ English is a window through which we can see the scientific,
technological, agricultural and commercial developments taking place in the
world. English is the only language through which we have distilled the
essence of modern knowledge in all fields of human activity.
Importance in Social Life
English plays an important role in the social life of the country. The highly
educated and sophisticated sections of our society find it more convenient to
talk in English. Invitation cards are mostly printed in English. People
generally put their signatures in English. People use thousands of English
words in their day to day language. Bills in almost all the shops are given
in English.
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Lingua Franca of India and World Importance and Scope of
English in India
Lingua Franca means the language of communication used by people
belonging to different languages. English is the Lingua Franca of not only
India but throughout the world.
NOTES
Language of Western Science and Arts
English was the key which opened the gates of western sciences and arts to
Indians. By learning English, they not only got a peep into the western
sciences and arts but some of them also acquired mastery over them. Scientists
like Raman, philosophers like Radhakrishnan, and poets like Tagore gained
mastery over western knowledge.
Language of Science and Technology
English is the language of science and information & communication
technology on which the management and administration of the entire world
is dependent. Without English, we cannot learn modern science and
information and communication technology.
Language of our Literary Development
The credit of developing the Indian languages goes to English. By reading
English books, Indian writers developed their own language and literature. The
development of modern Indian novel, short stories, drama and literary
criticism is entirely due to the impact of English on Indian languages. It helped
English to become an important language in not only India but throughout the
world.
1.5.1 Functions of Language
M. A. K. Halliday (1975) explained seven basic functions of language in his
book Exploration in the Functions of Language. These seven basic
functions can be summarized as follows:
The Instrumental Function
The word ‘instrumental’ means serving as an instrument or means. The
instrumental function refers to the use of language as an instrument to make
the recipient do something. For example:
Requesting (Please, give me a glass of water. Will you do me a
favour?) Commanding (Open the door Throw away this garbage) etc.
It serves the function of ‘I want’ the satisfaction of material needs.
The Regulatory Function
‘To regulate’ means to control or to direct by a rule, method or principle.
The regulatory function of language refers to the use of language to regulate
the behaviour of others.

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Importance and Scope of Instruction or teaching can be regarded as a type of communicative
English in India
behavior intended to cause the addressee to do something. It also includes
advising and suggesting. For example:
1. You should take some rest.(Advising)
NOTES
2. You must not take things that don’t belong to you. (Control
through warning)
3. If you steal again, I will smack you. (Control through threat)
4. You will make Mummy very unhappy if you steal again.
(Control through emotional appeal)
5. Parking is not allowed. (Control through rule)
The Interaction Function
‘To interact’ means to ‘to act one upon other or to talk with each other.’
The interactional function of language refers to the use of language in the
interaction between ‘self and others’. It is a ‘me and you’ function. It is the
contact-oriented function. It includes greetings (Good Morning, Happy
Diwali, Happy Eid, Congratulation), sympathy (I share your sorrow, Keep
patience, Allah will help you), gratitude (Thanks a lot, Thank you for your
guidance, we are grateful for your contribution), compliments (Your dress is
very good. How beautiful she is!), hostility (Go to hell, Get out of here),
etc.
The Personal Function
The word ‘personal’ means private or of a particular person. The personal
function of language refers to the use of language to express personal feelings
and meanings. It aims at a direct expression of the speaker’s attitude towards
what he is speaking about. For example: A poem, a speech, expression of
love and sorrow, etc. Thus, this function refers to the use of language either
to express the speaker’s feeling or to evoke feelings on the part of the
auditor.
The Heuristic Function
The term ‘heuristic’ is a theory in education based on the idea that a learner
should discover things himself. The heuristic function of language refers to
language as a means of investigating reality, a way of learning about things
that are using language to learn and to discover. It is the use of language for
inquiry or questioning.
The Imaginative Function
‘To imagine’ means to form a picture of something in the mind and think of
the probability of things. The imaginative function of language refers to
language used to create a world of the imagination. It is the use of language
for its own sake to give pleasure imaginatively and aesthetically.
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The Representational Function Importance and Scope of
English in India
‘To represent’ means to depict, to show, to describe or to present in words.
The representational function of language refers to language used to
communicate information. It is the use of language to convey a message
NOTES
which has specific reference to the processes, persons, objects, qualities,
states and relations of the real world around us. For example: books,
newspapers, magazines, novels, use of language in mass media, etc.

Check Your Progress

5. What is Lingua franca? Why is English considered to be so?
6. What does the term ‘heuristic’ means? How is it related with
language?
1.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS

1. There are five major positions of English in India. It is used as:

(a) Medium of instructions in all levels.
(b) Official language of central government and state governments.
(c) Finance, commerce and medical language.
(d) Higher studies only through English.
(e) Many think that speaking in English is a prestige.
2. English has become the global language with its spread, defeating
all geographical boundaries. This is because English is considered to
be the main language of books, newspapers, airports and air traffic
control, international business and academic conferences, science,
technology medicine, diplomacy, sports, international competitions,
pop music and advertising, all around the world.
3. English is the key to the storehouse of knowledge and books on all
branches of knowledge which are available mostly in English. More
than sixty per cent of the world’s technical journals, newspapers and
periodicals are published in English. Thus, it is considered as the
library language.
4. The Indian government enacted the Official Languages Act in the year
1963.
5. Lingua franca means the language of communication used by people
who speak different languages. English is the Lingua franca of not only
India but throughout the world.
6. The term ‘heuristic’ is a theory in education based on the idea that a
learner should discover things himself. The heuristic function of
language refers to language as a means of investigating reality, a way Self-Instructional
of learning about things that are using language to learn and to Material 15
discover. It is the use of language for inquiry or questioning.
Importance and Scope of
English in India 1.7 SUMMARY

 English has played a very important role in building modern India. It

NOTES has become one of the major languages of the world.
 Before independence, English was taught at the behest of the
Britishers who wanted cheap labour. After independence, there was
some opposition to using English as the official language.
 Due to the spread of English language, it has transcended all
geographical boundaries and already become a Global language.
 The New Educational Policy [NEPA, 1986] remarked that ‘special
emphasis needs to be laid on the study of English’ as an official
language of administration, as a language of court, as a language of
international trade and industry, as a language used in our day to day
life, as a major window on the modern world, and as a link language.
 English is taught at the primary level, secondary level and the higher
secondary level to improve proficiency of learners and achieve other
goals.
 Though, there have been many voices to give importance to promote
regional languages in place of English, the importance of English in
India has not reduced.
 English has played a vital role in bringing together leaders from
various parts of the country and helping them exchange their thoughts
and plan their strategy.
 The Indian Education Commission, popularly known as the Kothari
Commission (1964-66) termed English as a Library language. English
is the key to the storehouse of knowledge and books on all branches
of knowledge are available mostly in English. More than sixty per cent
of the world’s technical journals, newspapers and periodicals are
published in English.
 English occupies a unique position of being the language used by a
large number of people in the world. The more significant aspect of
English is its distribution across the world. English is spread
throughout the globe. Even in India, it is not only a popular second
language but also the mother tongue of a small Indian community, the
Anglo-Indians.
 English continues to play this important role as the national link
language for the purpose of inter-state correspondence and as the
language of trade and commerce between different parts of the
country.
 Books on all branches of knowledge are available in English and thus
it is educationally valuable. English has produced great literary giants
Self-Instructional and their works help one to develop culturally.
16 Material
  M. A. K. Halliday (1975) explained seven basic functions of language Importance and Scope of
in his book Exploration in the functions of language. These seven basic English in India
functions are the instrumental function, the regulatory function, the
interaction function, the personal function, the heuristic function, the
imaginative function and the representational function. NOTES

1.8 KEY WORDS

 Linguistics: Linguistics is defined as a scientific study of a language.

 Lingua franca: Lingua franca refers to the language of
communication used by people who speak different languages.
 Regulatory function: The regulatory function of language refers to
the use of language to regulate the behaviour of others.
 Heuristic function: The heuristic function of language refers to
language as a means of investigating reality, a way of learning about
things that are using language to learn and to discover.

1.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. List out the basic principles of English language.
2. Write any three aims of teaching English at the primary level.
3. What was the role of English language before independence?
4. Why is English called as the link language?
5. What are the linguistic aims for teaching English?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Explain the role of English as a global language.
2. Discuss the various functions of English language in detail.
3. Explain the cultural aims and utilitarian aims of English.

1.10 FURTHER READINGS

Celce-Murcia,Marianne et al. 2001. Teaching English as a Second or

Foreign Language. Boston: Cengage Learning.
Cohen, A.D. 2011. Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language.
New Delhi: Taylor and Francis.

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Importance and Scope of Jesa, M. 2005. Efficient English Teaching. New Delhi: APH Publishing
English in India
Corporation.
Kumari, A.V. 2014. Methods of Teaching English. Guntur: New Era Publications
NOTES Mowla, Shaik. 2009. Techniques of Teaching English. Hyderabad: Neelkamal
Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Paliwal, A.K. 2002. Perspectives on English Language Teaching. Jaipur:
Surabhi Publications.

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 Pedagogical Analysis of

UNIT 2 PEDAGOGICAL English Teaching

ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH
NOTES
TEACHING
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Pedagogical Analysis: Meaning, Characteristics and Aspects
2.2.1 Lesson Planning
2.2.2 Micro Teaching
2.2.3 Skill of Introducing a Lesson
2.2.4 Skill of Reinforcement, Explaining, Illustration, Stimulus Variation
and Blackboard Writing
2.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
2.4 Summary
2.5 Key Words
2.6 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
2.7 Further Readings

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Pedagogical analysis means the logical and systematical breaking up of

the curriculum from the point of view of a pedagogue for the purpose of its
effective transaction.
Pedagogical analysis plays an important role in creating the attitude in
teacher trainees for deciding the training strategy according the different levels
of students. Teacher trainees, with the help of pedagogical analysis become
aware of the use of correct teaching method according to the variations of
the content.

2.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Analyse the meaning of pedagogical analysis
 Describe the different aspects of pedagogical analysis
 Discuss the characteristics of pedagogical analysis

2.2 PEDAGOGICAL ANALYSIS: MEANING,

CHARACTERISTICS AND ASPECTS

Pedagogical analysis gives an exposure to the teacher

about:
 What to teach? (i.e. content) Self-Instructional
 How to teach? (i.e. methodology) Material 19
Pedagogical Analysis of  Why to teach? (i.e. objectives)
English Teaching
 Whom to teach? (i.e. learners)
It provides scientific base for the teaching learning process. Dividing
NOTES the contents of the selected unit into suitable sub-units and arranging the
selected sub- units into a number of required periods is an important aspect
of pedagogical analysis.
Characteristics of Pedagogical Analysis
Let us discuss the characteristics of pedagogical analysis.
 Pedagogical analysis motivates the teacher to study the content minutely.
 It helps the teacher to decide the right method/technique/approach to
teach the content.
 Pedagogical analysis reveals the principles behind selection of the
content and provides philosophical and moral base to teach in the
classroom.
 It reveals the place of subject in all the educational process.
 It an insight to the teacher to plan his teaching.
 It distinguishes the objectives of teaching subject at different levels,
and in different medium from each other. Through pedagogical
analysis, a teacher also comes to know about the different objectives to
be achieved by teaching different content in a classroom.
 Pedagogical analysis is a tool to achieve the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor development of a student.
2.2.1 Lesson Planning
Lesson planning forms a very essential part of the training given to the
pupil- teachers. A teacher may not be in a position to deliver a good lesson
without proper planning. Before planning a lesson, a teacher has to keep in
mind various things. Material aids to be used, class to be taught, ability of
the students to understand the lesson, motivation of the students, are a few
out of them.
Meaning of lesson plan
The term lesson plan or lesson planning has been defined by various
educationists. A few definitions are given below:
(i) According to N.L. Bossing, ‘Lesson plan is the title given to a
statement of the achievements to be realized and specific meaning by
which these are to be attained as a result of the activities engaged
during the period.’
(ii) According to Bining and Bining, ‘Daily lesson planning involves
defining the objectives, selecting and arranging the subject-matter and
determining the method and procedure.’
Self-Instructional
20 Material (iii) Prof. Lester B. Sands defines lesson plan in the following words, ‘A
lesson plan is actually a plan of action. It, therefore, includes the
working philosophy
 of the teacher, her knowledge of philosophy, her information about Pedagogical Analysis of
and understanding of her pupils, her comprehension of the English Teaching
objectives of education, her knowledge of the material to be taught,
and her ability to utilize effective methods.’ In fact, lesson plan is a
statement of the achievements to be realised and the specific means NOTES
by which these are to be attained as a result of activities engaged in,
during the period, the class spends with the teacher.
(iv) According to Good’s Dictionary of Education, a lesson plan is “a
teaching outline of the important points of a lesson arranged in the
order in which they are to be presented. It may include objectives,
points to be made, questions to be asked “references to materials,
assignments, etc.”
Present system of planning
The present system of planning schemes of work in schools is unsatisfactory
and hopeless. Many teachers do not plan their lessons at all and those who
plan the schemes of work simply do it as an eyewash. It is a matter of great
regret that even the trainees are hardly careful to plan their lessons for a
day’s work in spite of the best guidance available to them. The present lesson
Plans are based on Herbartian steps which is called a skill subject. The aims
mentioned in the lesson plans are hardly achieved by the activities
mentioned in the present plan. No skill of the language is strengthened in
any way with the help of present system of planning.
Importance or advantages of lesson planning
(i) Planning prevents wastage and helps the teacher to be systematic and
orderly
(ii) It delimits the field of the teacher in which he is working. It helps
him to decide what to deal what and how to deal with it.
(iii) Planning draw our attention to the goals and objectives, to the
selection of subject matter and procedures choice of activities and
preparation of tests.
(iv) It helps in the proper organization of the subject matter and activities.
(v) It ensures steady progress by making the teacher work along the line
of the syllabus at a suitable rate.
(vi) It provides awareness of teaching objectives and structure of content
and teach, has to perform his activities in the direction to achieve the
objectives.
(vii) The Learner is motivated or encouraged by linking the new knowledge
with his previous knowledge.
(viii) The use of teaching aids, techniques, strategies and tactics is
predetermined in the presentation of the content.
(ix) The teaching activities are related to learning structures with the help
of scientific lesson plan.
(x) It maintains the sequence of content presentation and prevents the
teacher to deviate from the topic.
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Material 21
Pedagogical Analysis of (xi) Lesson plan stimulates the teacher to ask striking questions.
English Teaching
(xii) It helps the teacher to develop sound linguistic habits in his students.
Types of lesson plans
NOTES
We can classify the lesson plans into three categories on the basis of learning
objectives:
(i) Lesson plans related to knowledge.
(ii) Lesson plans related to appreciation
(iii) Lesson plans related to skill
(i) Lesson plans related to knowledge: The aim of knowledge lesson is
to give the students information regarding the subject matter. The
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis and synthesis
objectives may be achieved by using this type of lesson. These types
of lesson plans are used for teaching social sciences and teaching
prose and languages.
(ii) Lesson plans related to appreciation: The main purpose of
appreciation lesson is to develop the affective aspect of students. The
appreciation lessons are prepared for developing attitudes, feelings and
values among pupils. Teaching of English poetry comes under the
head of this type of lesson plan.
(iii) Lesson plans related to skill: The skill lessons are taught to achieve
the psychomotor objectives. These types of lesson plans are prepared
usually for teaching language and not literature. Skill lessons can also
be prepared for teaching drawing music, home science, agriculture,
technical subjects and crafts etc.
It is very difficult to prepare a lesson plan for achieving only one
type of learning objectives. Every lesson plan has the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor objectives in it. Therefore, language lessons are highly loaded
by psychomotor objectives poetry lessons by affective objective
(appreciation) social studies and science lessons by cognitive objectives
(knowledge).
Various forms of lesson planning
There are many forms of written plans which are used in our country.
However, the following three are commonly used:
1. Bloom’s or Evaluation Approach to Lesson Planning
2. RECM Approach to Lesson Planning
3. Herbartian Approach to Lesson Planning, “John Fredrik Herbart is a
German philosopher and great educationist. He has divided teaching
unit activities into five steps. His approach is theoretically based on a
perceptive mass theory of learning. Therefore, he gives more
Self-Instructional
22 Material emphasis on teacher presentation.” This approach has given the
following five steps:
 1. Preparation Pedagogical Analysis of
English Teaching
2. Presentation
3. Comparison and Association
4. Generalization NOTES
5. Application or Recapitulation
Outline of lesson plan: The following outline is drawn from the five steps
mentioned above. This outline will help the teacher to prepare and teach a
lesson properly:
 Subject, topic, class with section, period and date.
 General objectives of the teaching subject.
 Specific objectives related to the topic.
 Introduction, and statement of aim.
 Presentation including developing questions.
 Explanation and black board summary.
 Review questions or recapitulatory questions, and
 Homework or assignment.
2.2.2 Micro Teaching
For the first time, the term micro teaching was coined by Dwight W. Allen
and his co-workers in 1961 at Stanford University, USA.
The concept of micro teaching was introduced in India in I967. Prof.
D.D. Tiwari of Govt. Central Pedagogical Institute, Allahabad, N.C.E.R.T.
and some universities of India started propagating the concept of micro
teaching. According to Encyclopaedia of Education (Ed, Deighton), “Micro
teaching is a real, constructed, scaled down teaching encounter which is
used for teacher training, curriculum development and research. “
1. According to Allen (1966), “Micro teaching is a scaled down
teaching encounter in class size and class time.”
2. According to Allen and Eve (1968), “Micro teaching is defined
as a system of controlled practice that makes it possible to
concentrate on specific teaching behaviour and to practise
teaching under-controlled conditions.”
3. According to Prof. R.N. Bush (1968), “Micro teaching is a
teaching technique which allows teachers to apply clearly defined
teaching skills to carefully prepared lessons in a planned series of
five to ten minutes encounters with a small group of real students,
often with an opportunity to observe the result on video tape.”
4. According to BR. Passi (1976), “Micro teaching is a training
technique which requires pupil-teachers to teach a single concept,
using specified
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Pedagogical Analysis of teaching skills to a small number of pupils in a short duration of
English Teaching
time.”
5. According to Peck and Tucker, “Micro teaching is a combination
of a conceptual system for identifying precisely, specified
NOTES teaching skills with the use of video-tape for feedback to
facilitate growth in these teaching skills.”
Concept of micro teaching
Micro teaching is one of the teaching innovations for teacher-education. It is
an attempt to modify teacher’s behaviour according to specified
objectives. It provides an opportunity to practise one teaching skill at a time.
It aims at modifying teacher’s behaviour in terms of specific skill of teaching.
In traditional teaching, a teacher-trainee does not understand its exact error
he is committing or the exact skills, which are involved in teaching effectively.
Micro teaching defines and identifies all the various skills in teaching and
imparts training to teacher-trainee through feedback.
Teaching learning process is not a simple activity. In fact, it is a
complex phenomenon. The activity of teaching is a challenging activity. It
poses a challenge for those who want to take up the profession of teaching.
A teacher has rightly said, Teaching is my worship students my treasure and
books my companions. I love the very fragrance of books.” If we observe
the lesson of a teacher during one period of 40 minutes, we shall find many
interesting things there. We find that while delivering the lesson the teacher is
explaining the things by giving examples. He is asking the questions, is
writing on the blackboard is revising the lesson with the help of the students,
is giving them home work is checking the home work given to them the
previous day. We also find that he/ she is motivating them and trying to
maintain this motivation. All these skills and techniques cannot be learnt in one
day. A continuous and special training is needed for acquiring these skills.
During the training period, the teacher trainee tries to learn these skills.
He/ she is supposed to put into practice what he/she has learnt in theory. In
fact, during the period of training, the teachers’ trainees are supposed to
help the trainees to acquire these skills: Micro-teaching is a procedure which
helps the pupil- teachers to learn these skills. In micro-teaching the number
of pupils and duration of the period is reduced. The complexities of the
usual classroom teaching are reduced by reducing the number of students and
the duration of the lesson. Micro-teaching tries to make teaching a simple
and interesting process. In short, learning a few skills of teaching by the
teacher will make the teaching learning process an interesting affair.
Main characteristics
1. Teaching: Micro teaching is the real teaching. It takes place in real
class room situation, in which student-teacher and some students are
Self-Instructional involved.
24 Material
 2. Scaled down teaching: It is scaled down teaching : (a) to reduce the Pedagogical Analysis of
class size to 5 to 10 students.(b) to reduce the duration of period English Teaching
from 5 to 10 minutes. (c) to reduce the size of the topic. (d) to reduce
the teaching skill.
3. Provides feedback: It is highly individualized training device which NOTES
provides feedback knowledge of result for trainee’s performance.
4. It is a device for preparing good and effective teachers.
Micro teaching procedure
The procedure for teaching a micro lesson consists of the following steps:
1. Modeling the skill: A particular skill is explained to trainees in
terms of teaching behaviour to provide the knowledge and awareness
of the teaching skill. This step is called modeling. Models are of two
types.
(i) Perceptual model: This model is presented by way of
demonstration. It is virtually perceived by the trainee.
(ii) Conceptual model: Conceptual model is usually presented in the
form written material. It is conceptualized by the trainee.
Generally, the micro-teaching technique uses the perceptual
model. The specific skill which is to be explained to the trainees
can be demonstrated by an expert. It can be shown to the
trainees through a video-tape or a film also.
2. Planning the lesson: The trainee plans a short (micro) lesson in which
he/ she can practise a particular skill. The duration of this short lesson
is usually 5 to 7minutes.
3. Teaching the lesson: This lesson is taught to a small group of
students. The lessons are observed by a supervisor or peer trainees.
4. Discussion (feedback session): At this stage the performance of the
trainee is discussed by the supervisor and peer trainees. Some
suggestions are made by the supervisor or the expert. This is called
feedback. It should be noted that the feedback should be given in such
a way that it does not hurt the feelings of the pupil teacher.
5. Re-plan: In the light of the discussion and suggestions (feedback)
given by the Next, the pupil-teacher replans the lesson. This replanned
lesson is an improved version of the previous lesson which was
taught by the pupil- teacher.
6. Re-teach: In this teaching session the same procedure is followed as
was done at the teaching stage.
7. Re-feedback: At this stage the same procedure is followed as was
adopted at the discussion stage.
8. Re-discussion.
Self-Instructional
9. Repeating the cycle up to the desired level of the skill is achieved. Material 25
Pedagogical Analysis of
English Teaching
What is a teaching skill?
A teaching skill is an activity or action which is repeated at number of times
NOTES during the course of teaching. Prof. N.L. Gage has defined a teaching skill
as follows, “Teaching skills are specific instructional activities and
procedures that a teacher may use in class room. These are related to the
various stages of teaching or in the continuous flow of the teacher
performance.”
A teacher while facing the class is engaged in a number of activities to
achieve the aim of teaching. These activities are either in verbal or non-verbal
form, positive or negative form. All these activities of the teacher are known
as teaching activities or teaching behaviour. The teaching behaviours which
are measurable, observable, demonstrable and can be developed through
training are known as Teaching skills.
SKILL COMPONENTS
i. Writing instructional objectives Clarity, relevance to the content,
adequacy with reference to the
domains and level of objectives,
attainability in terms of pupil
outcomes.
ii. Organising the content Logical organisation according to
content and psychological
organisation as per need of the pupil.
Greeting, accepting greeting,
securing attention and giving
instructions.
Linking with past experiences, link
between introduction and main parts,
use of appropriate devices/techniques
like questioning, examples exhibits
arousal.
iii. Creating set for introducing the lesson
iv. Introducing the lesson Structuring questions at different
levels which are grammatically
correct, precise and relevant to
content.
v. Structuring classroom questionsvi. Questions delivery and distribution
Questions ‘delivered with
appropriate speed.
Management of pupil responses
using techniques like prompting,
eliciting further information,
refocusing and asking
vii. Response management awareness questions according-
rejecting, redirection.
Clarity, continuity, relevance to the
content, using beginning and
concluding statements, covering
essential points.
viii. Explaining Simple, interesting and relevant to
the point being explained.
Self-Instructional
26 Material
ix. Illustrating with examples Relevant to content, appropriate to Pedagogical Analysis of
the pupils’ level, proper display and English Teaching
appropriate use.
x. Using teaching aids Body movements, gestures, change
in intonation and pitch, change in
interaction pattern and pausing. NOTES
xi. Stimulus variation Use of praise words and statements,
accepting and using pupil ideas,
repeating and rephrasing pupil ideas.
Use of pleasant and approving
gestures and expressions, writing
pupil answers on blackboard.
xii. Reinforcement Adjusting the speed of the lesson to
the level of the pupils and difficulty
level of the content.
xiii. Pacing of the lesson Providing opportunity to pupils to
increase participation through asking
questions, creating climate of
participation, use of silence and non-
verbal cues.
xiv. prompting pupil participation
xv. Use of blackboard
xvi. Achieving closure of the lesson
xvii. Giving assignments
xviii. Evaluating the pupil’s progress
xix. Diagnosing pupil learning
difficulties and taking remedial
measures
xx. Management of the class Legible, neat, adequate with
reference to the content covered
Summarization, establishing link
between the present learning with
easier as well as future learning,
creating a sense of achievement in
pupils.
Relevant to the content covered and
level of pupils.
Relevant to the instructional
objectives, use appropriate questions
and observations.
Identifying learning difficulties along
with causes, remedial measure suited
to the type of the learning difficulties
and the level of pupils.
Attention behaviour reinforced and
directions given to eliminate non-
attending behaviour, clarity of
Self-Instructional
directions, appropriate handling of Material 27
pupil’s disruptive behaviour.
Pedagogical Analysis of
English Teaching Advantages of micro-teaching
Micro teaching has the following advantages:
1. Micro teaching is a very useful device for the modification of the
NOTES
behavior of the teacher.
2. It decreases the complexities of teaching because it is a scaled down
teaching in terms of class size and class time.
3. It helps the teacher to understand teaching in a better way. This is
possible because micro teaching breaks the whole teaching into
teaching skills.
4. It makes teaching individualized because every pupil-teacher makes
progress in developing the teaching skills at his/her own pace
depending upon his/ herability.
5. It is a good research tool for observing the behaviour of teachers.
Nowadays micro teaching is used all over the world in the field of
research.
6. Micro teaching is based on feedback mechanism. When the pupil
teacher is delivering the lesson, an observer is observing it. After the
lesson is over, the observer, who is an expert, gives his suggestions for
improving the lesson.
7. It enables the pupil teacher to master these skills. This will prove very
helpful to him/her when he/she takes up the profession of teaching.
8. Micro teaching is a better teaching than the traditional teaching
practice programmes. In it the pupil teacher concentrates on
practising a specific teaching skill.
9. It helps the pupil teacher in increasing his/herself-confidence.
10. Micro teaching can take the shape of simulated teaching. Its session
can include real students or even peers. It can be called simulated
teaching when peers act as students.
Limitations of micro teaching
In spite of its advantages and merits, micro teaching has certain limitations.
A few of them are given below:
l. Micro teaching is a time consuming process because it is not a real
teaching situation. In real teaching the teacher has to control the whole
class.
2. It is a costly practice. If we want to get its full benefits, the video
recording should be done. Video recording is a costly affair for Indian
schools.
3. There is a lack of expert observers for observing the micro lesson.
Self-Instructional Every observer has to provide feed- back which is not an easy job
28 Material for every observer.
4. Micro teaching is a technique which is used for training the teacher-
trainees. It cannot be used in the real classroom situations because
there are a large number of students in the class.
 5. It kills the creativity of a teacher because he/she has to follow certain Pedagogical Analysis of
definite steps in it. English Teaching

6. There is no scope for integration of teaching skills. Micro teaching

tries to train pupil-teacher in individual skills. Integration of skills is a
very difficult job. NOTES
7. Motivation is a must in education but there is no scope for motivation
in microteaching.
2.2.3 Skill of Introducing a Lesson
Skill of introducing a lesson is a very important skill of teaching. It is said
that first impression is the last impression. It is also said that well begun is
half done. Therefore, this skill has a great importance for the teachers under
training. The pupil teachers prepare the lesson keeping in mind the fact that
this will help them to begin the lesson.
The trainee enters the class and says, “Good morning students, today I
shall put some questions to you, please try to answer them properly.” Then
the teacher puts three or four questions to the class one by one. All these
questions are asked by the teacher to test the previous knowledge of the
students. Out of these questions the first three questions are answered by the
students correctly. These questions are generally based on the lesson which
was taught the previous day. The last question leads to the creation of a
problem for the students. When the last question is not answered by the
students, the pupil teacher introduces the lesson. Thus the skill of questioning
is used for introducing the lesson.
Example of the skill of introducing a lesson:
(a) Questioning Subject
:English Topic: Paragraph
‘Diwali’
Teacher: Why is India called the land of festivals?
Pupil: India is called the land of festivals because many festivals
are celebrated here. Teacher: Give the names of different festivals
celebrated in India.
Pupil: Holi, Lohri, Diwali, etc.
Teacher: Who is she? (by showing them a picture of goddess
Lakshmi) Pupil: She is goddess Lakshmi.
Teacher: When do you light the candles and worship the
goddess Lakshmi? Pupil: On Diwali Festival.
Teacher: Compose, a paragraph on ‘The Diwali Festival’. Pupils:
No Response from the class.
At the last question the students do not speak anything. They
remain silent. Then the teacher asks them, “Please speak a few
Self-Instructional
sentences on The Diwali Festival.” One or two students try to Material 29
speak one or two
Pedagogical Analysis of sentences but they are not able to continue the topic. Then the
English Teaching
pupil teacher says, “Well students! Today we shall learn to write a
paragraph on The Diwali Festival.”
Thus the lesson has been introduced in an effective manner. This
NOTES
can be seen from the verbal and non- verbal behaviours of the
pupils. The teacher has been successful in grabbing the interest of
the pupils in the lesson. In this way the teacher has tested the
previous knowledge of the students. The last question which
puts a problem before the students has helped the teacher to
start the lesson.
In the above given example the skill of questioning has been
used to introduce the lesson. There are a few other skills which
can be used for introducing a lesson. These are:
(b) Lecturing/describing/narrating/illustrating is also used for
introducing a lesson. This is a very effective device which can be
used in higher classes.
(c) Story telling: It is a very useful device for introducing a lesson in
lower classes. In order to capture the attention of the pupils, a
story which is somewhat related to the lesson can be told.
(d) Role-playing/dramatization: This device can be used for
introducing a lesson to lower classes. It will arouse the curiosity
of the students to know about the lesson which is to be
introduced.
(e) Use of audio-visual aids: Audio-visual aids are very important
tools in the hands of the teacher for introducing a lesson. This
will help the teacher to get the pupils’ attention more easily than
any other device.
(f) Experimentation/demonstration: Another device for introducing
the lesson is experimentation/demonstration. Through an
experiment or a demonstration, a lesson M be introduced in an
interesting manner.
Skill of fluency in questioning
Questioning is one of the most important devices of teaching. Socrates has
advocated the question-answer method of teaching. In this skill the teacher
puts the questions to the class. Students give the answers. This leads to the
active participation of the students in teaching-learning process. In this
connection Prof.
Colvin has observed, “The efficiency of instruction is measured in a
large degree by the nature of the questions that are asked and the care with
which they are framed. No teacher of elementary or secondary subjects can
succeed in his instruction who has not a fair mastery of the art of
Self-Instructional questioning. “ Prof.
30 Material
Raymont says, “The acquisition of a good style of questioning may be
laid down definitely as one of the essential ambitions of younger teachers.”
The purposes of questioning skill are as follows:
l. Prompting
2. Seeking
further
informa
tion
 3. Refocusing Pedagogical Analysis of
English Teaching
4. Redirection
5. Increasing critical awareness
The skill of questioning can also be used for the following purposes: NOTES
(i) To test the previous knowledge.
(ii) To stimulate interest.
(iii) To ascertain whether the students have followed what has been
taught.
(iv) To stimulate mental activity by guiding, directing and encouraging
their thoughts.
(v) To secure their co-operation.
(vi) To recapitulate the lesson learnt.
(vii) To develop new ideas.
(viii) To promote understanding.
(ix) To apply information.
(x) To develop appreciation.
(xi) To discover the status of group or individual learning.
(xii) To test for objectives taught.
(xiii) To attract attention.
(xiv) To remove the shyness.
(xv) To introduce variety.
(xvi) To discover the interests of the students.
(xvii) To develop the habit of enquiry and research.
Conclusion: While concluding we can say that the skill of questioning is
very important in the Teaching of English as a foreign language. The skill of
questioning is a very important skill for a teacher to learn. Prof. F. Theodore
Struck observes, “Good questions by their very nature, are educative, and they
have a very prominent place in all kinds of learning.” Mr. Ryburn says, “It is
no exaggeration to say that the success of a teacher in any particular lesson,
and in teaching in general, depends upon his ability to question well.
2.2.4 Skill of Reinforcement, Explaining, Illustration,
Stimulus Variation and Blackboard Writing
Let us analyse the various skills mentioned above.
Skill of reinforcement
Skill of reinforcement is a very significant skill in the teaching-learning
process. This technique belongs to the area of psychology of learning. It helps
in influencing the behaviour of the learner. There can be two types of
reinforcement: positive reinforcement, and negative reinforcement. The use
Self-Instructional
of the positive reinforcement strengthens the desirable responses or Material 31
behaviours. On the other hand, the use of
Pedagogical Analysis of the negative reinforcement is made for weakening the undesirable responses
English Teaching
or behaviours. Therefore, we can define the skill of reinforcement as the art of
learning the judicious and effective use of reinforcers by a teacher. This use
is made for influencing the behaviour of the pupils in the desired direction
NOTES for getting the maximum participation of the pupils. This is done for getting
the better results in the teaching-learning process.
Anything that reinforces or strengthens can be called
reinforcement.Ateacher must learn the skill of reinforcement if he wants to be
a good teacher. In the process of teaching-leaming a good teacher always
tries to encourage his students. As far as possible, he tries to make use of the
positive reinforcers. Every effort is made by him to avoid the use of
negative reinforcers because these discourage the students.
Components of the reinforcement skill
The components of the skill of reinforcement are given below:
(i) Positive reinforcers
(ii) Negative reinforcers Positive reinforcers
Positive reinforcers of the skill are:
(i) The teacher praises the behaviour/answers of the students by saying,
‘good’, ‘very good’, ‘fine’, ‘very fine’, ‘nice’, ‘very nice’, and
‘excellent’, ‘very excellent’, etc.
(ii) The teacher accepts the answers of the students and says, “Please
repeat it.”
(iii) The responses of the students are spoken by the teacher himself in
the same words or these are rephrased by him with a little change.
(iv) The responses of the students are written on the blackboard by the
teacher without any change.
(v) The teacher uses gestures and other non-verbal actions conveying
pleasant feelings or approval of pupil responses like nodding of head or
smiling, etc.
(vi) Sometimes extra verbal reinforcers like Aha ! ooh! Aaha! are used by
the teacher.
Negative reinforcers
The negative reinforcers of the skill are those verbal behaviours of the
teacher which bring about negative reinforcement. A few of them are given
below:
(i) In different class room situations, the use of discouraging words like
‘no’, ‘wrong’, ‘incorrect’, ‘stop it’, ‘nonsense’, etc. is made by the
teacher.
(ii) Sometimes the use of discouraging statements such as ‘I don’t like
Self-Instructional
your answer’. ‘That is not good’, etc. is made by the teacher.
32 Material (iii) The use of discouraging gestures is made by the teacher. For
example, raising the eye-brows, nodding the head, walking around,
etc.
 (iv) Reinforcers are used by the teacher when they are not needed. These Pedagogical Analysis of
have negative effect on the students. English Teaching

(v) Sometimes reinforcers are used by the teacher when they are not
required.
NOTES
(vi) The teacher uses the reinforcers in a too less or too much amount
than desired.
Conclusion: While concluding it can be said that the skill of reinforcement
is an important skill for learning the art of teaching. The proper use of the
possible reinforcers will bring encouraging results. If the uses are not made
properly, the reinforcers may become negative reinforcers. It is essential for
the teacher to practise the occurrence of all the desired behaviours. He should
avoid the use of undesirable reinforcers.
Skill of explaining
Explaining means to expound, to elucidate, to clear the ambiguity and to
develop understanding. In the words of Panton, “Explanation forms a kind of
bridge between telling and revealing knowledge to the learners, and it
involves a number of other techniques as well as narration and description.
Throughout the process the teacher must keep in close touch with the minds
of his pupils, suggesting lines of thought, questioning them, answering their
questions, setting them on practical work, examining the results obtained,
discussing significant problems etc. “
In short, the skill of explaining may be defined as the art of learning
the use of interrelated appropriate statements by the teacher for making the
pupils understand the desired concept, phenomenon or principle.
The teacher should keep in mind the following points while making
use of this skill:
(i) There should be a definite aim before the teacher and the
students.
(ii) There should be a logical sequence in explanation.
(iii) The teacher should make use of simple language while making
use of this skill.
(iv) The theme should be divided into different well-arranged
sections.
(v) During explanation, the children should be encouraged to ask
questions to clear their doubts if any.
(vi) There should be a stress on the important points. The teacher
should write essential points on the blackboard.
(vii) The teacher should make free use of illustrations, pictures and
other audio-visual aids to make explanation effective and
interesting.
(viii) The questions may be asked by the teacher in order to test
whether explanation has been well- understood.
Self-Instructional
(ix) The teacher should avoid over-loading of the lesson. Material 33

(x) It is essential that the explanation should be rapid.

Pedagogical Analysis of (xi) It should come at the proper time so that the students should be
English Teaching
given opportunities to ask questions.
(xii) The teacher should give a summary of the whole discussion at
the end of the lesson. It will make the things more clear to the
NOTES students.
Skill of illustration with examples
Illustration is important for making the meaning clear to the students. It will
help the students to acquire proper knowledge. Dictionary meaning of
illustration is, “To make clear; intelligible, comprehensible, to elucidate,
explain or exemplify as by means of figures, comparisons and examples. “
Illustration means such things- models, pictures, charts etc. as help in the
explanation of difficult ideas and processes by throwing light upon them.
They make an appeal to the senses and the imagination of the learners,
make the idea clear and enable the children to grasp correct knowledge.
Importance of illustration
(1) Illustration as a device of teaching is very important for the teaching
of language. It attracts the attention of the pupils.
(2) It makes the lesson clear and interesting.
(3) It is a good antidote to the disease of verbalism.
(4) It decreases the mental tension of the students by making the lessons
interesting.
(5) Illustration makes concrete description to the abstract ideas and thoughts.
Types of illustration
Illustration can be divided under two categories:
(a) Verbal Illustrations: Verbal illustrations are those which affect the
mind of the child through the medium of ideas expressedin words.
Under this category we have:
(i) Analogies and comparison (ii) Similes and words (iii) Pictures and
stories
(b) Non-verbal or concrete illustrations: These types of illustrations
have direct influence through the senses. These are more important
and more powerful than the verbal illustrations.
Under this category we have:
(a) Concrete materials such as actual objects or specimens.
(b) Models or solid representation of objects.
(c) Pictorial or photographic representation of objects.
(d) Blackboard sketches, diagrams, paintings, etc.
(e) Graphs, maps and charts.
Self-Instructional Practical Suggestions
34 Material
1. Illustration should be accurate and exact.
2. Illustration should be simple and comprehensible.
 3. Illustration should be relevant to the topic. Pedagogical Analysis of
English Teaching
4. These should be interesting and according to the interest of the
children.
5. The teacher should not use too many illustrations in a single lesson.
NOTES
6. The teacher should use simple and correct language in verbal
illustration.
7. Illustration to be used in the class should be prepared in advance.
8. Illustration should be properly handled and exhibited so that every
child is able to see them clearly and easily.
9. There should be a variety in illustrations.
10. The teacher should keep the concrete illustration before the students
for sufficient time. So that they should be able to observe, feel and
draw out their conclusion.
Skill of stimulus variation
It is a very important skill in the teaching of a lesson. The lesson becomes
dull and boring if the teacher does not make use of this skill during teaching.
The skill of stimulus variation may be defined as a set of behaviour for
bringing desirable change or variation in the stimuli used to secure and sustain
pupils’ attention towards class room activities. A good teacher goes on
varying the stimulus in order to bring in variety in his teaching. The skill of
introducing change or variation in the attention capturing stimuli in a class
room can have the following components:
(i) Movements
(ii) Gestures
(iii) Change invoice
(iv) Focusing
(v) Change in the interaction styles
(vi) Pausing
(vii) Aural-visual switching
(viii) Physical involvement of the students
A good teacher does not stand like a statue in the class room. He
makes movements which are meaningful. Sometimes he uses gestures during
his narration or explanation of a topic to the class. These gestures of the
body add to his style of teaching. In this manner his way of teaching becomes
more effective. Sometime he starts writing on the blackboard. This proves
to be another variation in the stimulus. Another way to have a variety in his
teaching, the teacher can change his intonation. Intonation may be defined as
the rise and fall of the pitch in a speaker’s voice. It is a very significant feature
of English language. Through intonation he can provide a stimulus to students.
Sometimes he brings a change in his style of interaction with the class. Putting Self-Instructional
questions to individual students can be another stimulus. Sometime he may Material 35

make use of pause here and there during the course of his teaching. This
helps the class a lot. Speaking without pauses makes the lesson dull and dry.
In short, in the present age of science and technology the use of different
Pedagogical Analysis of audio-visual aids makes the lesson interesting and effective.
English Teaching
So the teacher should master the skill of stimulus variation if he wants
to be a successful teacher.
NOTES Skill of blackboard writing
Skill of blackboard writing is a very important skill in the teaching learning
process. A teacher should try to master this skill if he wants to be a good
teacher. We are giving below a brief description of the skill and its
usefulness for the teacher:
The blackboard: “Among the various audio-visual aids which can be
used to transcend the narrow limits of the class room, the cheapest and the
best is the blackboard. But very few teachers make full use of its vast range
of possibilities in a language teaching. “ Even in the modem age of television
and teaching machines, it remains as the most trusted and powerful
companion of a teacher. The blackboard can be of different types—wall,
standing, revolving or reversible and rolling. It can be used for the following
purposes:
(i) In the early stages of language teaching, the blackboard can be
the centre of pupil’s activity in speech and free expression. For
instance, the teacher can ask the pupils to make simple drawing
of objects they have seen outside the classroom.
(ii) In the teaching of reading, the blackboard can be used in
different ways. In the preparatory stage the experience chart,
can be built up on the blackboard with the active co-operation
of the class. The experience chart is built up on a simple
experience, such as a visit to a place of interest in the locality. As
the pupils describe their experiences in simple statements, the
teacher selects suitable sentences and writes them on the
blackboard one below the other.
(iii) Use of sentence patterns and structures can also be taught
through simple blackboard illustrations.
(iv) It can be used for teaching simple grammatical forms, such as
singular and plural, the various tenses, active and passive voice,
etc.
(v) For teaching writing, it can be used very effectively. The teacher
can demonstrate the formation of letters through it. He can help
the pupils in improving their handwriting.
(vi) The rules of spelling can also be illustrated with the help of the
blackboard. Prof. C.S. Bhandari observes, “Reading from the
board helps to fix in the mind the spelling of word said their
order in phrases and sentences.”
(vii) It can be used for testing. For example, the teacher relates a
Self-Instructional story and the students are asked to illustrate it. Students may go
36 Material in groups or one by one and illustrate the story on the
blackboard.
Rules for use of blackboard:
Keep it neat and clean everything put upon it must be written or drawn with
care.
(i) Not too
much, not
too little.
 (ii) See that it is in the right place; walk round the class to make sure Pedagogical Analysis of
that sunlight is not shining upon it and hiding what is written upon it English Teaching
from some pupils.
(iii) Know what you are going to put on it before you begin.
NOTES
(iv) Draw picture, diagrams, tables, etc.
(v) Use coloured chalks, but not too many for they are expensive.
(vi) Let your pupils use the board as alien as you see it yourself. Let them
write and draw on it, sometimes for the class, sometimes for you.
Limitations
(i) It can serve limited audience.
(ii) We cannot show motion on it.
(iii) Chalk dust poses a nasty problem.

Check Your Progress

1. What according to N.L. Bossing is a lesson plan?
2. State the meaning of teaching skill.
3. What are the five main purposes of questioning skill?
4. What are the main components of the skill of stimulus variation?

2.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. According to N.L. Bossing, ‘Lesson plan is the title given to a

statement of the achievements to be realized and specific meaning by
which these are to be attained as a result of the activities engaged
during the period.’
2. The teaching behaviours which are measurable, observable,
demonstrable and can be developed through training are known as
teaching skills.
3. The five main purposes of questioning skill are:
 Prompting
 Seeking further information
 Refocusing
 Redirection
 Increasing critical awareness
4. The main components of the skill of stimulus variation are:
 Movements
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 Gestures Material 37
 Change invoice
Pedagogical Analysis of
English Teaching
 Focusing
 Change in the interaction styles
NOTES  Pausing
 Aural-visual switching

2.4 SUMMARY
 Pedagogical analysis means the logical and systematical breaking up of
the curriculum from the point of view of a pedagogue for the
purpose of its effective transaction.
 Pedagogical analysis plays an important role in creating the attitude in
teacher trainees for deciding the training strategy according the
different levels of students. Teacher trainees, with the help of
pedagogical analysis become aware of the use of correct teaching
method according to the variations of the content.
 Lesson planning is the technique to teach through proper methods and
using the sub skills for teaching learning process.
 Lesson planning forms a very essential part of the training given to the
pupil- teachers. A teacher may not be in a position to deliver a good
lesson without proper planning. Before planning a lesson, a teacher
has to keep in mind various things.
 For the first time, the term micro teaching was coined by Dwight W.
Allen and his co-workers in 1961 at Stanford University, USA.
 The concept of micro teaching was introduced in India in I967. Prof.
D.D. Tiwari of Govt. Central Pedagogical Institute, Allahabad,
N.C.E.R.T. and some universities of India started propagating the
concept of micro teaching.
 A teaching skill is an activity or action which is repeated at number of
times during the course of teaching. Prof. N.L. Gage has defined a
teaching skill as follows, “Teaching skills are specific instructional
activities and procedures that a teacher may use in class room. These
are related to the various stages of teaching or in the continuous flow
of the teacher performance.”
 Skill of introducing a lesson is a very important skill of teaching. It is
said that first impression is the last impression. It is also said that well
begun is half done. Therefore, this skill has a great importance for the
teachers under training. The pupil teachers prepare the lesson keeping
in mind the fact that this will help them to begin the lesson.
 Questioning is one of the most important devices of teaching. Socrates
has advocated the question-answer method of teaching. In this skill the
teacher puts the questions to the class. Students give the answers. This
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38 Material
process.
  Skill of introducing a lesson is a very important skill of teaching. It is Pedagogical Analysis of
said that first impression is the last impression. It is also said that well English Teaching
begun is half done. Therefore, this skill has a great importance for the
teachers under training. The pupil teachers prepare the lesson keeping
in mind the fact that this will help them to begin the lesson. NOTES
 Skill of reinforcement is a very significant skill in the teaching-learning
process. This technique belongs to the area of psychology of learning.
It helps in influencing the behaviour of the learner. There can be two
types of reinforcement: positive reinforcement, and negative
reinforcement.
 Skill of blackboard writing is a very important skill in the teaching
learning process. A teacher should try to master this skill if he wants
to be a good teacher.

2.5 KEY WORDS

 Instructional planning: Instructional planning is a process of the

teacher using appropriate curricula, instructional strategies, resources and
data during the planning process to address the diverse needs of
students.
 Microteaching: Microteaching is a technique aiming to prepare
teacher candidates to the real classroom setting.
 Reinforcement: It refers to any stimulus which strengthens and
encourages the designated behavior or increase the probability of
specific response(s)/ participation

2.6 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. What is a lesson plan and what are its types?
2. Provide a proper definition of microteaching.
3. What is the skill of explanation?
4. What are the advantages of micro teaching skill?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Define lesson plan and write down its advantages and disadvantages.
2. Explain in detail about the various skills of micro teaching along with
its components?
3. What are the merits and demerits of micro teaching?
4. Explain the process of micro teaching with the micro teaching cycle.

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Pedagogical Analysis of
English Teaching 2.7 FURTHER READINGS

Grand Strand D.J. 2017. Pedagogy of English Part-I. Chennai: Sri Krishna
NOTES Publications.
Jesa, M. 2005. Efficient English Teaching. New Delhi: APH Publishing
Corporation.
Jain Praveen. M. 2014. Methodology of Teaching English Tools,
Techniques and Methods. Jaipur: Aavishkar Publishers.
Kumari, A.V. 2014. Methods of Teaching English. Guntur: New Era Publications.

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40 Material
UNIT 3 PRINCIPLES OF Principles of
Language Teaching

LANGUAGE TEACHING
NOTES
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Definitions of Language
3.2.1 General Principles of Language Teaching
3.3 Linguistic Principles
3.4 Concepts of Linguistics
3.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
3.6 Summary
3.7 Key Words
3.8 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
3.9 Further Readings

3.0 INTRODUCTION

Language comprises arbitrary vocal symbols with the help of which a social
group communicates. Effective learning of a language relies on the effective
teaching of it. For effective teaching, general principles of language teaching
need to be applied.
In this unit, the principles which govern English teaching will be
discussed in detail. Furthermore, the linguistic principles of language
teaching will also be discussed in detail. Concepts such as synchrony and
diachrony, form and substance, description and prescription, and
competence and performance will further accentuate our understanding of
linguistics.

3.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Define language and the general principles of teaching
 Understand the linguistic principles of language teaching
 Explain the concepts of linguistics

3.2 DEFINITIONS OF LANGUAGE

According to Sapir (1921), ‘Language is primarily human and non-

instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means
of system of voluntarily produced symbols’.

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Material 41
Principles of According to Trager and Bloch (1949), ‘a language is a set of
Language Teaching
arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which social group communicates.’
According to Chomsky (1968), ‘Language development is a result of
the progressive gain of maturity- the unfolding of child’s genetic capability for
NOTES
language.’
3.2.1 General Principles of Language Teaching
In our country, different states have different regional languages. People
living in those states use their own languages for conversation, discussion,
etc. However, English is a language which links them together. The leaders
from different states meet sometimes formally over a common platform. By
using this language, they can convey to one another their heartfelt desires and
share the views of one another.
To put it in Nehru’s words, ‘The language link is greater link between
us and the English speaking people than any political link or commonwealth
link or anything else. It is so because we can see how their thoughts are
functioning, much more than in other European languages.’
Principles of language teaching
A scientific approach to language teaching uses scientific information. It is
based on theory and a set of principles which are internally
consistent.Ascientific approach measures results. It is impersonal so that it can
be discussed and verified objectivity. It is open because it permits new facts
and experience.
According to Robert Lado (1964), language teaching involves the
following general principles.
Speech before writing: Listening and speaking should be taught first.
Reading and writing should come next. Speech cannot be invented by the
student. It has to be imitated. Teacher should serve as a good model to
authentic speech. He can also use tape recordings to provide good models
and a variety of authentic native speakers.
Basic sentences: The teacher should help the students memorize basic
conversational sentences as accurately as possible. Short statements and
patterns must be taught earlier; conversational dialogues are preferable to
poetry or prose. So, the language teacher should help his students acquire
mastery of basic sentences in English language.
Pattern as habits: The language teacher should establish the patterns as
habit pattern of practice, knowing words, individual sentences and rules of
grammar. The student must learn to use it.
Sound system for use: The language teacher must teach the sound system
structurally by using demonstration, imitation, aids and fluency.
Vocabulary control: The language teacher should keep the vocabulary load
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42 Material to a minimum, while the students are mastering the sound system and the
grammatical pattern. The language teachers need not concentrate teaching
more vocabulary in
the beginning. However, the teacher should expand the vocabulary to an Principles of
adequate level among students. Language Teaching

Problems in teaching: Problems are those units and patterns that show
structural difference between the first language and the second. Since the
problems differ according to each native language, different emphasis in NOTES
teaching are required for different language backgrounds.
Writing as representation by speech: Reading and writing should be taught
on the basis of the language units and patterns that the student already
knows. It implies that teaching reading and writing are distinct from
teaching speech, and they should not be confused.
Graded patterns: The language patterns must be taught gradually in
cumulative graded steps. To learn a language is to acquire a new system of
habits and habits are acquired slowly. For example, the teacher must:
 Begin with sentences, not words and sequence them
 Introduce sub-sentences elements such as parts of speech,
structure, words, etc
 Add each new element or pattern to previous one as ‘cumulative
steps’
 Adapt the learning difficulty to the capacity of the students
Language practice versus translation: Translation is not a substitute for
language practice. Therefore, the language should be taught first and
translation can be taught as a separate skill.
Authentic language standards: The language should be taught as it is; the
language style to be taught is that of educated native speakers.
Practice: Practice increases the amount of learning. So the student must be
engaged in practice most of the learning time.
Shaping of responses: When a student gives a partial or incorrect response,
the teacher can help the student by giving a full response by the method of
partial on props.
Immediate reinforcement: While teaching, the student should know
immediately the correctness or incorrectness of his response. This improves
learning.
Content: The second language should be taught as it has developed in
culture where the language in spoken natively.
Teaching for learning outcome: The teacher must teach primarily to
produce learning outcome rather than to please or entertain.
Effective learning of a language depends on the effective teaching of it.
But effective teaching, in turn, depends on the application of general
principles of language teaching. An English teacher may have the knowledge
of several methods and approaches for teaching the language. But he should
follow and apply the scientific principles in order to improve his teaching. Self-Instructional
Material 43
Principles of
Language Teaching 3.3 LINGUISTIC PRINCIPLES

A good teacher of the subject teaches well and even then he is not satisfied
NOTES with it. He is always after evolving new ways of teaching English. He
remains in search of some innovations and new principles of teaching in
order to make his teaching more fruitful. Both aims and principles make the
teaching-learning programme effective. Teaching-learning of a language is a
matter of practice. The language teacher can teach the language any way he
likes. But the knowledge and application of certain principles help him to
teach the same language effectively. Effective teaching of a language is
based on certain principles. The main linguistic principles of teaching are
explained below:
Imitation
Learning of any language is based on the principle of imitation. In fact,
imitation is natural to man. From childhood, language is best learnt through
imitation. It is very true in the case of children. Whatever they see all around
them, they imitate those things in the same way. Sometimes, even the
wrong habits of the teacher are picked up by children. If a teacher has poor
pronunciation, his students will pick up the same poor standard of
pronunciation from him at the early stages of learning the language. The bad
handwriting of the teacher may also have adverse effect on the learners. It
has been seen if teachers are in the habit of writing with left hand, the
students under his charge also acquire that habit of writing with left hand.
So the teacher who is given the charge of teaching the small children
must be good through and through. He should have a model type of
pronunciation. His handwriting should be very good. He must possess good
habits. All this will have very good impact on the growing personalities of the
small children. It is, therefore, very strongly recommended that really good
teachers should be recruited for teaching the small children in the schools.
Practice and Drill
Learning of a language is a habit formation process. Habits are formed
through repetition. Continuous practice and drill work are needed for it. All
aspects of language learning, i.e., listening, speaking, reading and writing
can be acquired after a lot of practice. They should learn to use the language
correctly though they may not know the rules of grammar. Robert Lado says,
‘To know the language is to use its patterns of construction with appropriate
vocabulary at normal speed for communication.’
Practice makes a man perfect. Learning a language is more a matter of
skill rather than knowledge. Robert Lado rightly says, ‘The student must be
engaged in practice most of the learning time. This principle has a
psychological justification since other things being equal, the quantity and
permanence of learning are in direct proportion to the amount of practice.’
Self-Instructional
44 Material In this regard, Fries recommended
that eighty-four per cent of time should be devoted to practice and fifteen per Principles of
cent time should be utilized for explanation and commentary. Language Teaching

Thompson and Wyatt write in their book, The Teaching of English

in India, ‘The power of expression in a language is a matter of skill rather
than of merely meaning or rules.’ In the learning of a language, the students NOTES
require a lot of practice and drill work. Only then, they will be able to learn it
properly. Language learning or teaching is not a knowledge subject; it is
rather a skill subject like swimming, dancing, painting, etc. So, the learner
will have to repeal and revise things in order to have mastery over the
language. The various skills of language learning, i.e. listening, speaking,
reading and writing will be properly learnt through practice and drill work.
Otto Jesperson says, ‘He who gets the tip of his finger dipped in the water
three times in twenty weeks will never learn how to swim.’ There is need of
continuous practice for acquisition of every skill.
Oral Approach
Language is more connected with ears and tongue than with eyes. So in the
teaching of English, oral work should be given top most priority. If a
student is good at spoken language, he will automatically be good in
reading and writing of the language. Moreover, whatever is learnt orally is
remembered better. So, due emphasis should be laid on this aspect of the
language.
The oral way is the surest way to language learning. In this regard,
Kittson says, ‘Learning to speak a language is always the shortest road to
learning to read and write it.’ Palmer also writes, ‘We should refrain from
reading and writing any given material until we have learnt to use its spoken
form.’
Selection and Gradation
In the teaching of a language, selection and gradation of language items are
very important. Selection may be done by the teacher, in respect of
grammatical items, vocabulary and structures. Selection and gradation should
be based on frequency, teachability, range of applicability, usefulness, etc.
Selection
The selection of language items should be based on the following principles:
1. Frequency of language item and its occurrence
2. Range of applicability, i.e., in how many contexts it is applicable
3. Coverage, which refers to a word conveying a number of meanings.
For example, meals stand for dinner, breakfast, etc.
4. Availability- This refers to the items which can be conveniently taught.
For example, actual objects available in the classroom like table, chair,
chalk, etc.
5. Teachability- This refers to the items which are easy to teach about.
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6. Learnability- This refers to the items which are easy for the students to Material 45
learn should be taken up first.
Principles of
Language Teaching
Gradation
Gradation means putting the language items in order of presentation. Thus,
NOTES simple items having more utility and better teachability will be taken care of.
Gradation involves grouping and sequence. The basic principle of grading,
according to W.R. Lee is: ‘Teach first those sentence structure the use of
which can be made clear by means of visible actions in the class room.’
(a) Grouping
i. Grouping according to the sound such as pay, bat, say, sat, etc is called
phonetic grouping.
ii. Grouping according to words used in the same situation is called
lexical grouping. For example, words connected with post office
such as post master, postman, dak, letters, etc.
iii. Patterns of sentences which are similar should be taught together.
For example, ‘This is, that is my book, your book, etc.’, also called
grammatical grouping, should be taught together.
iv. Semantic grouping words that convey similar meanings are grouped
together. For example, shelter, hut, house, tent, etc.
v. Structure grouping-how the selected items fit with each other sounds
into words, words into phrases, phrases into sentences and sentences
into contexts.
(b) Sequence- What comes after what
(i) Lexical sequence-which words follow which e.g. sit, stand, come, go.
(ii) Grammatical Sequence-means which structure follows which.
S.V.O. For example,
I am throwing a ball.
I am throwing a ball to you.
(iii) Semantic sequence- Every word has a number of meanings. They are
put in order and are taught at different occasions. For example, the
word ‘there’.
The pen is there. (Place)
There are many pens. (Introduction)
Motivation
Motivation is of great importance in the teaching-learning of a foreign
language. Language is learnt quickly if the students are interested in it. That is
why a language teacher makes use of different types of aids in his class. He
also applies interesting methods like activity method, play way method, etc.
In this way, learners are able to learn things better and they are able to retain
these things in their minds for a long time.

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46 Material
 The general poor standard of students in English is due to the lack of Principles of
interest. Many students learn English half-heartedly. They consider it a Language Teaching
necessary evil. The teachers themselves are seen criticizing English in their
class rooms. A teacher who cannot make his teaching interesting should quit
the teaching profession. He should be able to deal with situations in such a NOTES
way that the learners should become interested both in the teacher and the
subject matter.
Natural Way of Teaching-Learning
Every language should be taught in a natural way. Thus, listening and
speaking should precede reading and writing. The teacher should lay more
emphasis on the first two aspects i.e. listening and speaking. Then, learners
will automatically be good at reading and writing of the language. Some
people are of the opinion that listening to some other language, unless mother
tongue is fully learnt, is dangerous. But, it is not true. Jesperson suggests,
‘The very first lesson in a foreign language ought to be devoted to initiating
the pupil into the world of the sounds.’
Language to Be Learnt In Context and Situation
Language is taught so that the learners are able to make use of it in their day
to day life situations. The fundamental language items are vocabulary,
structures and grammar. Vocabulary items should be taught with the help
of structures. New structures should be taught with the help of old
vocabulary already known. The different sentence patterns should be taught
by creating meaningful situations. In this regard, Eugene A. Nida says,
‘Language learning means plunging head long into a series of completely
different experiences. It means exposing oneself to situations where the use
of language is required.’ So, it is very essential that vocabulary items
should be learnt in the context of a paragraph. All this should be allowed to
happen in meaningful life situations. Grammar aspect should be dealt with
side by side. Only then, teaching-learning will be more effective and
meaningful.
Adoption of Multiple Line of Approach
In the teaching of a foreign language, the multiple line of approach is of
unique importance. It should be followed as it helps the learners and
teachers in many ways. Suppose a class of students is taught about an
essay on postman. The students are given oral practice and writing practice
on this topic. The students undertake spelling practice by taking up words
from the same topic. For translation exercise, sentences are taken up from
the essay itself. For teaching some grammatical items, the contents of the
above essay are used.
Thus, our approach to language is many sided. By co-relating the
different aspects of the language, the teacher can make his teaching of the
language easy, interesting and useful for the learners.
Balanced Approach Self-Instructional
Material 47
While teaching the language, the teacher should see that its different aspects
are fully taken care of. Listening, speaking, reading and writing should be
equally emphasized. Each aspect has its own importance. It is not proper if
a teacher
Principles of
Language Teaching
teaches grammar and ignores other things. In the same way, emphasis on
written work alone does not help much. In this regard, Palmer says, ‘The
principle of proportion does not necessarily imply quality of treatment nor
NOTES even a fixed standard of ratio; it simply means that all items in the whole
range of subjects and aspects must receive an appropriate degree of attention
so that the student’s knowledge of them may ultimately form a harmonious
whole.’ There should be a proper co- ordination in teaching different aspects
of the foreign language. In teaching a prose lesson, grammar aspect may be
discussed side by side. While doing written composition, oral aspect should
also be covered. Thus, a sort of balance between the different aspects of
language should be maintained.

3.4 CONCEPTS OF LINGUISTICS

Before dealing with the details of phonetics, it is important to consider some

major concepts in linguistics. An idea of them helps us come to grips with
more complex issues. One must get a sound footing in these concepts and
have a clear understanding. Mostly, they are described in pair of terms
denoting sets of distinctions such as synchrony and diachrony, form and
substance, description and prescription, competence and performance, and
so on.
Synchrony and Diachrony
The distinction synchrony and diachrony refers to the difference in treating
language from different points of view. When we take a synchronic point of
view, we are looking at a language as we find it at a given period in time.
The diachronic point of view, on the other hand, gives us the historical angle;
we look at a language over a period of time along with changes that occurred
in it. According to Wilkins, the principles that introduce this dichotomy
enable us to obtain ‘particularly accurate information about a language in its
current usage’. The synchronic linguistics studies how a language works at a
given time, regardless of its past history or future blueprint. This has also
been called descriptive linguistics.
The historical character of a language cannot be ignored; its present
form is the result of definite historical processes, changes and transformations.
It is necessary for a complete understanding of it to concentrate on the units
of its structure at the present moment. Some scholars do not see the two
approaches apart: ‘It is a mistake to think of descriptive and historical
linguistics as two separate compartments, each bit of information belonging
exclusively in the one or in the other. There are certain matters at a given time
and also in connection with linguistic change.’ (Hockett: 303).
However, on the whole, the two areas are kept apart and one is
studied to the exclusion of the other. Synchronic statements make no reference
to the previous stages in the language. Linguistic studies in the nineteenth
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century were historical in character; they were part of the general historical
48 Material investigations into the origins and development of cultures and communities,
especially West Asia, Egypt and
India. Such philological researches viewed language at different stages of its Principles of
progress and attempted to understand relations among different languages. Language Teaching
Language families and genetic affinities were discovered and identified.
Diachronic linguistics was a great discovery of the nineteenth century which
developed powerfully and fruitfully from the 1820s to the 1880s. This NOTES
discovery enabled linguists to explain modern languages as a result of law-
governed historical development. (Zhirmunsky: 17). The task, therefore, of
linguistic study was at that time understood exclusively in genetic terms, in
the spirit of the Neogrammarian’s diachronic atomism.
The system explains the data; it is a theoretical construct. Phonemes /b/,
/d/
, /g/ exemplify this. The actual sounds produced in certain distinctive manner
that differentiates each from the other comprise the substance. These are
accounted for by the concept of phoneme.
Sounds produced by the human speech organs can be said to comprise
the substance (phonic substance) or content. The shaping into different
functional configurations can be called forms or expressions. Thus, the
same substance is realized in different forms. Drink (content) is used as both
noun and verb. Form can be analysed without taking into account the
meaning. But semantics, a branch of linguistics, deals only with the content
or the substance. Form can be studied from phonological, morphological,
grammatical, and syntactical perspective. This duality is an essential attribute
of any human activity and highly relevant to linguistic study as well.
Competence and Performance
The famousAmerican linguist Noam Chomsky first used these terms to
‘specifically refer to a person’s intuitive knowledge of the rules and structure
of language as a native speaker (he called it competence), and his actual use
of these (which he termed performance). Scholars of the earlier period
were aware of this basic distinction but Chomsky first precisely pointed out
the inherent ability or knowledge in a native speaker of the structure of his
language. It refers to the ability of the native speaker to ‘understand and
produce utterances which he may never find the opportunity either to
understand or to produce’. Competence is the tacit knowledge of the
language. Performance is the use of the language in concrete situations.
‘Sentence’ is a concept that belongs to the theory of competence, while
‘utterance’ belongs to performance.
The native speaker of a language possesses an ‘internalized set of
rules’ which is at the base of his ability to understand and speak. The actual
utterances are only evidence of this competence. While reading a new book,
he comes across new expressions and sentences which he had never read
before, but he does not find any difficulty in understanding them. Each
sentence is a new construction but since he had mastered the rules of the
language, any number of new constructions is easily understood. As Ronald
Wardaugh says, ‘The ability the reader has to understand novel sentences Self-Instructional
Material 49
derives from his competence in English’. His competence also makes him
reject the ungrammatical constructions, consider the
Principles of sentence ‘flying planes can be dangerous’ as ambiguous, and utterances like
Language Teaching
‘I, well, have seen the captain, well, but it was raining, and ah, I had no
raincoat, what a bad memory I have...’ as indicating that the speaker has
wandered off. Competence also makes him recognize an expression as
NOTES command, request, politeness, rough order, and so on. Performance is what
a speaker actually says. It is the actual manifestation of his competence. One
can understand a speaker’s competence by studying his performance. In
learning a new language, it is wiser to develop the basic competence rather
than memorize pieces of sentences and phrases. Chomsky characterised
generative grammar of a language as an explicit description of the ‘ideal
speaker-hearer’s intrinsic competence’.
Langue and Parole
The major contribution of Ferdinand de Saussure to linguistics can be
summed up as providing the basic groundwork of fundamental concepts; his
definition of the ‘linguistic sign’, explanation of the distinction between
concrete and abstract linguistic units, distinction between descriptive
(synchronic) and historical (diachronic), study of language are noteworthy.
He was under the influence of the new scientific temperament and followed
the principles of Durkheim who said that ‘we have social facts that can be
studied scientifically when we consider them from an aspect that is
independent of their individual manifestations’. This attitude helped the
shaping of the structuralist approach.
Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic
Ferdinand de Saussure saw the linguistic sign at once as static and dynamic
or developing. The pairing of terms such as synchrony-diachrony, form-
substance and langue-parole as sets of contrasting relations amply
demonstrates this. The idea is to highlight and demonstrate two dominant
properties of a linguistic sign, one linear and the other arbitrary. La langue is
thus more stable and predictably organised than la parole which displays
freedom and dynamism. Similarly, de Saussure put forward the concepts of
syntagmatic and what he at that time called ‘associative relations’.
In Syntagmatic relations, the syntagma is seen as any ‘combination of
discrete successive units of which there are at least two, with no limit on
the possible number’. These segments range from the smallest construction
units, i.e. phonemes, to phrases, and so on. The relations binding the
successive units are called relation in praesentia. Thus, the word read is a
succession of phonemes /r/, /i:/, /d/; re- read a succession of bound
/morpheme and a free morpheme; against all succession of two words. ‘God
is good’ is a full sentence made up of three units, and so on. For Saussure,
sentence is the most obvious example of a syntagme. It is a combination of
other linguistic units. They demonstrate chain relationship. The unit acquires
its significance by its position of occurrence vis-a-vis other elements
preceding and following it. We shall take an example.
Self-Instructional
50 Material Syntagmatic relations function on the horizontal axis emphasizing the
relational criteria a linguist uses in identifying or defining linguistic categories
or units. The
concept of syntagmatic relations underlines the structural potential of any Principles of
item, under examination. Language Teaching

Paradigmatic
Items can be considered on another plane, a vertical axis. Ferdinand de
NOTES
Saussure postulated the concept of associative relations according to which
‘any link in the chain of speech will suggest other language units to us,
because the units either resemble or differ from each other in form or
meaning’ (Dinneen : 205). In other words, an item in linguistic construction
is capable of triggering other items. For example, the word read can call to
mind other related words such as reading, read (Past Tense), learn, study,
peruse, reading room, books, library, etc. These words are connected to each
other by paradigmatic relations. Their seat of origin, it is felt, is in the brain
as ‘they are part of the inner storehouse that makes up language of each
speaker’(Saussure). ‘Associative relations’ are called relations in absentia
‘since the terms consist of an item present in the utterance and others that
are not actually in the utterance’. (Dinneen: 205).
We can visualize a word as the centre of a constellation around which
spring other words. These relations are unpredictable. Associations that are
called up in one person may not occur in the mind of another. Since it is
psychological, it is also subject to individual vagaries and governed by the
specific factors governing the individual’s speech behavior. Paradigmatic
relations are unpredictable, free, dynamic and idiosyncratic, comparable to
la parole.

Check Your Progress

1. Define the concept of language.
2. What is selection and gradation?
3. Who introduced the concept of competence and performance?
4. Differentiate between synchrony and diachrony.

3.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. A language is a set of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a

social group communicates.
2. In the teaching of a language, selection and gradation of language
items are very important. Selection may be done by the teacher, in
respect of grammatical items, vocabulary and structures. Gradation
means putting the language items in order of presentation. Thus,
simple items having more utility and better teachability will be taken
care of.
3. Noam Chomsky introduced the concept of competence and
performance.
Self-Instructional
4. The distinction synchrony and diachrony refers to the difference in Material 51

treating language from different points of view. When we take a

synchronic point of
Principles of view, we are looking at a language as we find it at a given period in
Language Teaching
time. The diachronic point of view, on the other hand, gives us the
historical angle; we look at a language over a period of time along with
changes that occurred in it.
NOTES
3.6 SUMMARY

 A scientific approach to language teaching uses scientific information.

It is based on theory and a set of principles which are internally
consistent.
 Effective learning of a language depends on the effective teaching of
it. According to Robert Lado (1964), language teaching involves
following certain general principles.
 Listening and speaking should be taught before reading and writing.
The teacher should help the students memorize basic conversational
sentences as accurately as possible. The language teacher must teach
the sound system structurally by using demonstration, imitation, aids and
fluency. The language teacher should keep the vocabulary load to a
minimum.
 Since the problems differ according to each native language,
different emphasis in teaching are required for different language
backgrounds. The language patterns must be taught gradually in
cumulative graded steps. Translation is not a substitute for language
practice. Therefore, the language should be taught first and translation
can be taught as a separate skill. The language should be taught as it
is.
 Some of the main linguistic principles of teaching are Imitation,
Practice and Drill, Oral Approach, Selection and Gradation, and
Motivation.
 Learning of any language is based on the principle of imitation. It is
very true in the case of small children. Whatever they see all around
them, they imitate those things in the same way.
 Learning of a language is a habit formation process. Habits are
formed through repetition. Continuous practice and drill work are
needed for it.
 Language is more connected with ears and tongue than with eyes. So
in the teaching of English, oral work should be given top most priority.
 In the teaching of a language, selection and gradation of language
items are very important. Selection may be done by the teacher, in
respect of grammatical items, vocabulary and structures. Selection and
gradation should be based on frequency, teachability, range of
applicability, usefulness, etc.
Self-Instructional  Motivation is of great importance in the teaching-learning of a
52 Material
foreign language. Language is learnt quickly if the students are
interested in it. That is why a language teacher makes use of different
types of aids in his class.
 Before dealing with the details of phonetics, it is important to consider
some major concepts in linguistics. They are synchrony and diachrony,
form and
substance
,
descriptio
n and
prescripti
on, and
competen
ce and
performa
nce.
  When we take a synchronic point of view, we are looking at a Principles of
language as we find it at a given period in time. The diachronic point Language Teaching
of view, on the other hand, gives us the historical angle; we look at a
language over a period of time along with changes that occurred in it.
 The famous American linguist Noam Chomsky first used the terms NOTES
‘competence’ and ‘performance’to ‘specifically refer to a person’s
intuitive knowledge of the rules and structure of language as a native
speaker and his actual use of these rules.
 Ferdinand de Saussure introduced the concept of Langue and Parole.
La langue is more stable and predictably organised than la parole which
displays freedom and dynamism. Similarly, de Saussure put forward the
concepts of syntagmatic and what he at that time called ‘associative
relations’.
 Syntagmatic relations function on the horizontal axis emphasizing the
relational criteria a linguist uses in identifying or defining linguistic
categories or units. Items can be considered on another plane, a
vertical axis. Paradigmatic relations are unpredictable, free, dynamic
and idiosyncratic, comparable to la parole.

3.7 KEY WORDS

 Imitation: It refers to the process of replicating another’s behavior.

Learning of any language is based on the principle of imitation. In
fact, imitation is natural to man. From childhood, language is best
learnt through imitation.
 Gradation: Gradation means putting the language items in order of
presentation.
 Synchrony: When we take a synchronic point of view, we are looking
at a language as we find it at a given period in time.
 Competence: Competence is a concept introduced by Noam
Chomsky which refers to a person’s intuitive knowledge of the rules
and structure of language as a native speaker.

3.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. What are the general principles of language?
2. Define drill practice.
3. How can students be motivated?
4. What is meant by oral approach?
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Material 53
Principles of
Language Teaching
Long-Answer Questions
1. Discuss the principles of language teaching.
NOTES 2. Enumerate linguistic principles of teaching.
3. Explain the syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations in language.

3.9 FURTHER READINGS

Aggarwal, J.C. 2009. Essentials of Educational Technology Innovations in
Teaching Learning. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.
Halliday, Michael et al. 1964. The Linguistic Science and Language Teaching.
London: Longman.
Mohanty, Jagannath. 2009. Modern Trends in Educational Technology.
Hyderabad: Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Sachdeva, M.S. 2013. Modern Teaching of English. Ludhiana: Tandon
Publications.

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54 Material
 Methods of Teaching
BLOCK - II English

METHODS AND APPROACH

NOTES
UNIT 4 METHODS OF TEACHING
ENGLISH
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Methods of Teaching English: An Introduction
4.2.1 Major Components of a Method
4.3 Grammar Translation Method
4.4 Direct Method
4.5 The Substitution Method
4.6 Bilingual Method
4.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
4.8 Summary
4.9 Key Words
4.10 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
4.11 Further Readings

4.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, you will learn about different methods and approaches of
teaching English language. There are different types of methods. The merits
and demerits of different methods such as grammar translation method, direct
method, substitution method and bilingual method will be discussed in detail,
which will further enhance our understanding of teaching language.
These methods not only give a clear knowledge for teaching English,
but also help in applying the knowledge to improve skills. The language
teacher should be aware of these methods and implement to the students.

4.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the components of a method
 Discuss the grammar translation method
 Explain the nuances of direct method
 Know about substitution method and bilingual
method
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Material 55
Methods of Teaching
English 4.2 METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH: AN
INTRODUCTION

NOTES The dictionary defines ‘method’ as a way of doing things. Methods deal
with the ‘how’ of teaching. Methodology indicates the sequence to be followed
in a language task/activity and the role of the learners and teachers in this
sequence. A method can be said to include three components.
i. Approach
ii. Design
iii. Procedure
4.2.1 Major Components of a Method
(i)Approach
The practices in language teaching are based on the theories concerning the
nature of language and language learning. These theories together form the first
component of a method. We shall look at these theories in this section. The
two main views of language learning are as follows:
The behaviourist view of language learning
Behaviourists believe that learning, both verbal and non-verbal, takes place
through the process of habit formation. Learners are exposed to the
language in their school/college, family and neighbourhood. They try to
imitate the people around them. If the imitation is proper, they are rewarded,
which motivates them further for imitation, leading to reinforcement and habit
formation. The behaviourists think that learners should be corrected as soon
as they make mistakes in order to avoid fossilization.
The cognitivist view of language learning
Cognitivists agree with the behaviourists that learners need exposure to
language, but they hold that learning does not take place solely by imitation
and repetition. Human beings are born with a built-in device in their brains
which helps them in discovering the underlying patterns of the language
they hear. They, then, form their own hypotheses about the language and
construct new sentences. For them, language-learning is exposure to the
language, hypothesis formation, confirmation or re-formulation 0f the
hypotheses. Cognitivists look at errors as part of the learning process.
(ii) Design
The second aspect of a method is Design. In this component, the following
are clearly spelt out:
(a) Objectives of the course
(b) The syllabus model which the method incorporates
(c) Teaching and learning activities
Self-Instructional (d) Roles of teachers and learners.
56 Material
(iii) Procedure Methods of Teaching
English
The third and last component of a method focuses on what happens in the
actual classroom situation. It includes the behaviour that operates during the
production, practice and feedback phases of teaching.
A technique refers to the design and procedure components of a NOTES
method. It may be described as an implementational sub-process of a
method. It specifies the teaching learning activities as well as the role of the
teachers and learners in the language activities/tasks.
Techniques that give learners greater autonomy in language processing
are now in vogue in language classrooms. Some of these are role play, and
simulation, information gap and opinion gap activities, language games and
puzzles. Techniques for developing various language skills (reading, writing,
listening, speaking) will be enunciated in detail in the following blocks.
A method tells us ‘how to teach’. It is an application as to how a
language is to be taught and learned. In the teaching and learning of
English as a second language, many methods have been tried. We have now
entered a post-method era. Many of the old methods are no longer in
vogue. As the ultimate goal of learning the English language is for
communicative purpose, the communicative approach is becoming very
popular. A look at different methods, their merits and demerits will give us
an idea about this.

Check Your Progress

1. What are the components of method?
2. What is the behaviourist view of language learning?
3. What is the cognitivist view of language learning?

4.3 GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD

As in many other things, there have been many improvements in the

teaching of English in this century. Many methods have been tried to teach it
effectively. The oldest method is known as the Grammar Translation
Method. This method was used because of the influence of teaching of
classical languages like Latin, Greek and Sanskrit. In this method, the
students studied the parts of speech, conjugation and syntax in detail.
Principles
In this method the language to be taught is viewed as a system of rules seen
in the text. These rules are related to the rules of the first language or mother
tongue. So rules of the foreign or second language are memorized and it is
followed by practice in translation.
Procedure
The classroom procedure was simple. The students were given grammatical
rules to memorize. For example, they memorized ‘Conjugation of verbs’. Self-Instructional
Material 57
They learnt
Methods of Teaching
English
the different parts of speech. Then, they were asked to memorize words with
their translation in the mother tongue.
NOTES Therefore, students:
(i) memorized all the facts of the language
(ii) gave translation of words
(iii) were given parsing and transformation exercises
(iv) translated first from second language to the mother tongue
(v) then translated from first language (Mother Tongue) to second
language.
1. The rules of grammar and the lists of exceptions were learnt by
heart and applied in translation exercises during and after the
lesson.
2. The method did not take into account the rarity or relative
difficulty of any words. All of them, easy and difficult, common
and rare, had to be learnt by the student under their respective
word groupings.
3. The sentences in English and the mother tongue were compared
and contrasted side by side. The teacher translated all the words,
phrases and sentences into the mother tongue of the pupils. The
pupils were also required to do the same.
4. The theory of the language was taught in detail but there was very
little practice in the use of the language. The method was
completely cut away and totally removed from life situations.
Merits
Some of the merits of using this method are as follows:
(i) The method makes extensive use of the student’s knowledge of the
mother tongue; English was taught with the help of the mother
tongue. Words, phrases and sentences were freely translated into the
mother tongue. Teachers and students felt at home and comfortable.
(ii) This was the easiest and quickest way to explain words, phrases and
sentences of English. It saved time because English was not used for
giving meanings. Most of the words were learnt in this way correctly.
(iii) In the early stages, their understanding was tested through the mother
tongue.
(iv) The method saved time and trouble for the teacher as even an
average teacher could follow the method confidently.
(v) The pupils learnt many English words easily by this method.
Demerits
Some of the demerits of this method are as follows:
(i) The students learnt the theory of language but could not use English
as a tool of communication to satisfy their everyday needs. Speech
Self-Instructional was totally neglected by the pupils. Even college students could not
58 Material speak English. They did not get any practice in oral work in English.
 (ii) The natural way of learning the mother tongue and the foreign Methods of Teaching
language is by listening, speaking, reading and writing in that order. English
But according to Grammar Translation method, they started with
reading.
(iii) Language learning is a kind of habit formation and language habits are NOTES
formed through intensive practice. In this method, the patterns of
English were not practised at all. Pupils who learnt English in this
bookish and unnatural way had to relearn it later.
(iv) If we translate English into the mother tongue all the time, it leads to
artificial sentences.
(v) Many words in English do not have exact equivalents in the mother
tongue and vice versa. A language is born out of the customs and
behaviour patterns of the group using the language. Since these customs
vary from one language to another, we cannot find exact equivalents
from one language to another. Only a little meaning may be common
to both. Again, some words in English have more than one meaning.
Therefore, they cannot be translated literally. Prepositions and other
structural words cannot be translated into the mother tongue.
(vi) The method seeks to teach English by rules and not by the current
usage of the language. We cannot teach or learn a language all by rules
all the time. If we think in the mother tongue and speak in English,
we cannot make any progress with the use of English fluently and
correctly.
With all the disadvantages, the Grammar Translation method is still
popular with many teachers and pupils. Students in higher classes ask for
translation of each and every word of English into the mother tongue. The
teacher too finds it easy and obliges the students. But students make
mistakes in the use of English even after five or six years of study.

4.4 DIRECT METHOD

The Direct Method came into use as a reaction to the Grammar Translation
Method. It is said that the Direct Method is not a method in itself, but a set
of principles to be followed while teaching. The basic principle of the
Method is that English is learnt in the same way as the mother tongue is
learnt.
Prof. P. Gurrey says, ‘Essentially, it (the Direct Method) is a Principle,
not a teaching method, a system that operates through many methods, a way
of handling the new language and of presenting to the class. It demands a
direct bond that is a direct association between word and thing and between
sentence and idea, between experience and expression instead of an indirect
one through the mother tongue.’ This method, also known as the Natural
Method or Mother’s Milk Method, is how we learnt our mother tongue.
Webster’s New International Dictionary says, ‘Direct method is a
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method of teaching a foreign language, especially a modern language, through Material 59
conversation, discussion and reading in the language itself, without the use of
the pupil’s language,
Methods of Teaching
English
without translation, and without the study of formal grammar. The first words
are taught by pointing to objects or pictures or by performing actions.’
NOTES (i) In the direct method the students are directly involved with the
use of English. The students learn to speak by speaking and to
read by reading.
(ii) The meanings of words are given by pointing to objects and
pictures. The students are encouraged to think in English. A
direct bond was created between experience and expression,
thought and word. The student acquires ‘instinctive, unerring
language sense’ which we all possess in varying degree in the
mother tongue and which superseding all rules, grammars and
dictionaries, resting at bottom on the direct association between
experience and expression, is the only sure guide in the use of a
language.
(iii) Translation and the use of the mother tongue are banned completely.
(iv) Grammar was taught by starting with examples and then rules.
This is the inductive method of teaching grammar. Such
grammar is called functional grammar as opposed to theoretical
or Format grammar.
(v) Oral work formed an important part of teaching. It came before
reading and writing. Oral presentation of English helped students
to listen to the sound features of English.
(vi) In grammar translation method, words were considered units of
teaching. In the direct method, a sentence forms the unit.
Teachers and students used full sentences when they followed
the Direct Method.
(vii) Vocabulary was selected and graded. With a particular
sentence pattern, a limited number of words were used.
Principles
The principles of direct method are as follows:
i. In the grammar-translation method, a word in English is learnt
through a word in the mother tongue. In the direct method, the word
and its meaning or what it denotes are linked directly.
ii. The word is associated with the thing directly in context.
iii. There is contextualization; language learning is a real life experience.
iv. There is a natural association between word and idea and this
strengthens learning.
v. The words in the target language thus become part of the language
habit of the pupils.
Procedure
The direct method adheres to the following process while teaching language:
Self-Instructional i. The direct method emphasizes oral practice. At the first stage, auditory
60 Material and vocal skills are taught. Pronunciation practice is given.
 ii. There is no use of mother tongue in the class. The teacher speaks Methods of Teaching
only in English, while also using pictures, models and other Audio English
Visual Aids.
iii. In the middle years, further practice in listening and speaking is given.
Pupils are trained to read English. They are encouraged to write. NOTES
iv. Grammar is not taught in isolation. It is taught inductively and through
situation. Again A.V. Aids come to the help of the teacher. Grammar
rules are deduced from examples.
v. Vocabulary is given importance. Words are chosen on the basis of the
pupil’s environment and suited to his experience. Concrete words are
chosen first. Objects are shown and the respective words are linked
with them. Students learn to use the new words in conversation.
vi. In the third stage, since the pupils would have acquired a fair mastery
of the language skills, literature is introduced.
Merits
There were certain advantages in the direct method. Some of them are
given below:
(i) In the direct method, the pupil learns English in the same way as he
has learnt his mother tongue. He listens to the statements, questions the
teacher and practices speech himself.
(ii) The extensive oral work helps the pupil to think in English and speak
English. He becomes fluent and accurate in pronunciation.
(iii) To supplement his demonstration, the teacher uses a number of audio-
visual aids. These aids make teaching interesting and promote quick
learning.
(iv) Since learning begins with speech, pupils are able to read and write
better later.
(v) The direct method, with its emphasis on speech practice, helps
correction of mistakes the moment they are made.
(vi) More items on the syllabus can be covered in a short time.
Demerits
Some of the demerits of the direct method are given below:
(i) The method depends on oral work for its success. We need very
competent teachers to do oral work efficiently. Average teachers
cannot cope with oral work.
(ii) Reading and writing are neglected or postponed to a later stage. So,
this is not a complete method in itself.
(iii) It is difficult to give the meanings of words always in English without
the use of the mother tongue.
Self-Instructional
(iv) Audio-visual aids are not easily available; so the method becomes Material 61
expensive and is beyond the reach of ordinary schools and teachers.
Methods of Teaching
English
(v) Average students cannot keep pace with the brisk movement of the
lesson during oral work.
NOTES (vi) Direct method teaching is productive only with small classes. Usually
large classes hinder oral work.
(vii) Last of all, the direct method lays stress on words and not on their
position in a sentence. Also, many words in English have more than
one meaning. Idioms and phrases present problems of usage.

4.5 THE SUBSTITUTION METHOD

This approach insists upon giving practice or oral drill of sentence patterns.
This pattern drill is better done with the help of a substitution table. Here,
there is a correct statement illustrating a pattern. By substituting one item or
word or word groups with one of the same categories, a number of
sentences can be framed. Thus, the student is able to form correct sentences
and there is no possibility of him committing any error. Even when wrong
language habits are formed, they can be remedied with the help of drills with
the substitution table.
Meaning
Substitution tables written on charts are the most useful and powerful drill
available to practice sentences. Substitution tables are based on oral
substitution. Substitution tables are used once the student can speak the basic
sentence pattern by repetition. Substitution table is fast, flexible and versatile
and it approximates conversational use of language.
Procedure
There are many ways of giving drill to the students in a particular sentence
pattern.
(a) The teacher writes the model sentence on the black board. He reads it
out slowly first and then at normal speed. The students imitate him
then they write down the sentences.
(b) The teacher then changes one of the items and the pupils substitute it
in the appropriate place and read out correct sentences. This is
substitution.
(c) The teacher prepares a substitution table for a particular pattern.
Characteristic
Some of the characteristics of substitution method are as follows:
1. Substitution table is used for oral exercise / oral repetition
2. The exercise is conducted completely in English language only
3. The meaning of the words in the table is assumed to be known since
this is a grammar drill and not a vocabulary lesson
Self-Instructional
62 Material 4. The Model sentence is presented orally and repeated by the class
until production is satisfactory.
 There are three ways of constructing a sentence Methods of Teaching
English
(i) Grammatical construction
(ii) Conversion
(iii) Ergonic substitution. NOTES
This method employs ergonic substitution. Ergonic substitution
means construction of new sentences on the analogy of the model sentence
by replacing its ergons or working units by others already learnt. Pupils
learn both the model sentences and thus are in possession of a large number
of sentences belonging to the same basic pattern. They can use these on
suitable occasions. In the simple substitution table, the variables cannot be
interchanged. Hence, it is also called a ‘straight substitution table’.
For example,
P.V.Sindhu Is a Cricket Player
Ajith Former President
Abdul Kalam Actor
Virat Kohli Badminton player
In a compound substitution table, on the others hand, the variables can
be interchanged, i. e., all kind of cross-substitutions can be made.
Types of Substitution Table
There are several variations in substitution. They are as follows:
1. Simple substitution: In a simple substitution table, substitutions occur
only in one position. In the table, given below substitution occur: in the
adjective position.
I Like the White, Black, Brown, Red colour car
The first few examples are orally told by the teachers to illustrate the
exercises for students. After these, the teacher signals the class or
individual students to respond.
2. Multiple substitution table: In this type of table, substitutions occur
more than one element per response / sentence.
AjithHe They Ran slept Last nightThe previous day
These exercises can be led orally by the teacher, by a tape recorder
or through video.
Merits
Some of the merits of substitution method are as follows:
(a) Substitution tables are useful device for the oral practice of sentence
pattern.
(b) They develop speaking and listening skills.
(c) A basic sentence pattern is mastered by students in an active way.
Self-Instructional
(d) The method is the shortest way of learning. Material 63
Methods of Teaching
English
(e) All students have a chance to participate.
(f) There is no chance for the learner to make any mistake.
NOTES Demerits
The demerits of substitution method are given below:
(a) The pupil learns sentences unconnected with real life situations or
actual usage.
(b) All aspects of the language cannot be taught through this method.
(c) Drill becomes monotonous and dull.
(d) There is no practice in reading or writing long passages.

4.6 BILINGUAL METHOD

Dr. C. J. Dodson of the University College of Wales was the originator of
the bilingual method.
The aims of this method are:
i. to make the pupils speak English with fluency and accuracy
ii. to make them write English fluently and accurately.
iii. to enable the pupil to use his mother tongue concepts to
bilingual proficiency.
We saw in the direct method and the structural approach how the
meanings of words and sentences were made clear through situations and
through the use of objects, pictures and actions. These situations were
laboriously created by teachers whose own English were shaky.
The creation of situations in English took plenty of time and effort;
even then the teacher was not sure if the pupils really understood the correct
meaning. Also, it required a very capable teacher fluent in English to be
able to create newer situations to sustain the interest of children. In fact, we
know from experience that many teachers are using the mother tongue
extensively often under social compulsions to give the meanings of English
words and sentences and even lessons. The Grammar Translation method
advocated extensive translation.
Naturally, there should be a method which would strike a balance
between the direct method and the grammar-translation method. This is the
bilingual method. In this method, the teacher gave the meanings of English
words and sentence patterns in the mother tongue, thus helping the pupils
immediately to recall the object or situation and understand the meanings.
Then, teacher and pupils practiced the English sentences in English. Thus, the
bilingual method recommended a restricted use of the mother tongue, that too
by the teacher alone, not by the pupils at all. It also provided for intensive
practice of patterns in English, helping the formation of correct language
habits.
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64 Material
 A few scholars in Andhra Pradesh led by Prof. H.N.L. Sastry Methods of Teaching
conducted experiments in local schools using the bilingual method. The class English
was divided into two groups; the first group was the experimental group using
the bilingual method and the other control group was using the direct
method. NOTES
They concluded as follows:
(1) It was unnecessary and time consuming to teach all items through
the Direct Method.
(2) The teacher was not sure whether the pupils really understood
the meanings by this method.
(3) On the other hand, using the mother tongue by the teacher saved
time and made the meanings of English words and sentences
very clear.
(4) The experimental group had a lot of time for practice in English,
once the meanings were clear by the use of the mother tongue by
the teacher
(5) The teacher was able to establish good rapport with the children
in the experimental group.
(6) The results at the end of nine months teaching showed that the
experimental group scored better than the control group.
Similar results were reported by other scholars.
Merits of the Bilingual Method
The merits of the bilingual method are given below:
1. The direct method does not take advantage of the language habits
and concepts already formed in the mother tongue. In fact, it ignored
whatever the child had learnt in the mother tongue by the time he
started English. The Bilingual Method makes good use of the pupils’
previous skills in the mother tongue and their ability to associate word
and object.
2. The method promotes fluency and accuracy—fluency by means of
pattern practice in English and accuracy through precise meanings of
English words and sentences in the mother tongue.
3. No elaborate equipment like tapes and other audio-visual aids is
required here.
4. It saves a lot of time for pattern practice in English by quickly
clearing concepts through the mother tongue.
5. The teacher need not strain himself to create new situations in English.
Instead, he can use that time for pattern practice. Even an average
teacher could do this.
Demerits
In the hands of a careless teacher, it may degenerate into translation method.
But the method cannot be blamed for this. Self-Instructional
Material 65
The direct method is useful in senior classes and the bilingual method
is useful in the junior classes. The bilingual method has all the advantages of
other methods.
Methods of Teaching
English
Check Your
Progress
NOTES 4. Compare grammar translation method and direct method.
5. What are the aims of bilingual method?
4.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS

1. A method can be said to include three components, namely,

approach, design and procedure.
2. Behaviourists view of language learning stresses that learning, both
verbal and non-verbal, takes place through the process of habit
formation. Learners are exposed to the language in their
school/college, family and neighbourhood. They try to imitate the
people around them.
3. Cognitivist view of language learning agrees with the behaviourists
that learners need exposure to language, but they hold that learning
does not take place solely by imitation and repetition. Human beings
are born with a built-in device in their brains which helps them in
discovering the underlying patterns of the language they hear. They,
then, form their own hypotheses about the language and construct new
sentences.
4. The direct method came into use as a reaction to the grammar
translation method. It is said that the direct method is not a method in
itself, but it is a set of principles to be followed while teaching. The
basic principle of the Method is that English is learnt in the same way
as the mother tongue is learnt.
5. The bilingual method aims to achieve the following purposes:
 To make the pupils speak English with fluency and accuracy
 To make them write English fluently and accurately.
 To enable the pupil to use his mother tongue concepts to,
bilingual proficiency.

4.8 SUMMARY

 Methods deal with the ‘how’ of teaching. A method can be said to

include three components, namely Approach, design and procedure.
 Behaviourists believe that learning, both verbal and non-verbal, takes
place through the process of habit formation. Learners are exposed to
the language in their school/college, family and neighbourhood. They
try to imitate the people around them.

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  Cognitivists agree with the behaviourists that learners need exposure Methods of Teaching
to language, but they hold that learning does not take place solely by English
imitation and repetition. Human beings are born with a built-in device
in their brains which helps them in discovering the underlying patterns
of the language they hear. They, then, form their own hypotheses about NOTES
the language and construct new sentences.
 Design underlines the objectives of the course, the syllabus model
which the method incorporate, Teaching and learning activities, and
the role of teachers and learners.
 Procedure aspect of a method focuses on what happens in the actual
classroom situation. It includes the behaviour that operates during
the production, practice and feedback phases of teaching.
 The oldest method of teaching language is the grammar translation
method. In this method, the students studied the parts of speech,
conjugation and syntax in detail.
 The Direct Method came into use as a reaction to the grammar
translation method. It is said that the direct method is not a method in
itself, but a set of principles to be followed while teaching. The basic
principle of the method is that English is learnt in the same way as the
mother tongue is learnt.
 The substitution method insists upon giving practice or oral drill of
sentence patterns. This pattern drill is better done with the help of a
substitution table. By substituting one item or word or word groups
with one of the same categories, a number of sentences can be
framed. Thus, the student is able to form correct sentences and there is
no possibility of him committing any error.
 The bilingual method strikes a balance between the direct method and
the grammar-translation method. In this method, the teacher gave the
meanings of English words and sentence patterns in the mother
tongue, thus helping the pupils immediately to recall the object or
situation and understand the meanings. Then, teacher and pupils
practiced the English sentences in English.

4.9 KEY WORDS

 Method: The dictionary defines ‘method’ as a way of doing things.

Methods deal with the ‘how’ of teaching. Methodology indicates the
sequence to be followed in a language task/activity and the role of the
learners and teachers in this sequence.
 Cognivitist: Cognivitist believe that learning does not take place solely
by imitation and repetition. Human beings are born with a built-in
device in their brains which helps them in discovering the underlying
patterns of the

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Methods of Teaching
English
language they hear. They, then, form their own hypotheses about the
language and construct new sentences.
NOTES  Bilingual: Bilingual refers to a person who speaks two languages. In
Bilingual Method, the teacher gave the meanings of English words
and sentence patterns in the mother tongue, thus helping the pupils
immediately to recall the object or situation and understand the
meanings

4.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. What are the major components of method?
2. Write down the principles of grammar-translation method?
3. What were the reasons for the decline of direct method?
4. Define the substitution method.
Long-Answer Questions
1. Explain the demerits of grammar translation method.
2. Explain the direct method. What are its merits?
3. Discuss the bilingual method and its merits.

4.11 FURTHER READINGS

Sachdeva M.S. 2013. Modern Teaching of English. Ludhiana: Tandon

Publications.
Arulselvi, Evangelin. 2009. Teaching of General English. Chennai:
Saratha Pathippagam.
Larsen-Freeman, D., & Anderson, M. 2011. Techniques and Principles in
Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Paliwal, A.K. 2002. Perspectives on English Language Teaching. Jaipur:
Surabhi Publications.
Percy, R. 2012. Teaching of English. Hyderabad: Neelkamal Publications Pvt.
Ltd.

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UNIT 5 APPROACHES OF Approaches of Teaching
English

TEACHING ENGLISH
NOTES
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Approaches: An Introduction
5.3 Structural Approach
5.4 Situational Approach
5.5 Oral Approach
5.6 The Audio-Lingual Approach
5.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
5.8 Summary
5.9 Key Words
5.10 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
5.11 Further Readings

5.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, you will learn about the different approaches to language learning
and the difference between method and approach. While structural
approach deals with the selection and gradation of materials to be taught,
situational approach took a departure from the structural approach.
Situational approach uses situations to present structures in an understandable
manner.
This unit will also delve into oral approach and audio-lingual approach.
The merits and demerits of these approaches will also be discussed in detail.

5.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the difference between method and approach
 Explain the concept of structural approach
 Describe the uses of situational approach
 Discuss oral approach and audio-lingual approach

5.2 APPROACHES: AN INTRODUCTION

An approach is a set of assumptions concerning the character and the needs

of a language, and therefore the processes concerned within the teaching and
learning
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Approaches of Teaching of that language. An approach is not constant because of the technique. It
English
tells us ‘what to teach’ whereas a way tells us ‘how to teach’. In instruction,
any technique that is appropriate for ‘what is to be taught’ is used. It
depends on whether or not it is straightforward and teachable. Any technique
NOTES which will be used to fulfill these needs is valid.
Approaches of Teaching English
Due to research in various techniques in the field of language learning and
teaching, some class-room techniques such as methods or approaches were
adopted to teach English. Due to the changing form and status of English,
many methods and approaches have been adopted to teach this language.
The shortcomings of one method or approach gave birth to another method
or approach. To achieve the objectives of English teaching, the teacher
must adopt the adequate method or approach. For this, a sound knowledge
of various methods and approaches, their merits and demerits is essential.
The two terms ‘method’ and ‘approaches’ have been used
interchangeably many a times but there is a difference between the two.
Approach is a broader term than method.
Approach is axiomatic (study of self-evident truths). In the words of
Anthony, ‘It states a point of view or philosophy or an assumption which
one believes but cannot necessarily approve.’ Method is an overall plan
based on some approach. Anthony states, ‘Method is an overall plan for the
orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts and
all of which is based upon the selected approach.’ The term ‘method’
includes the selection and gradation of material to be taught. Approach deals
with assumptions and method in a procedure based on some assumptions. In
this way, within one approach there can be many methods.
Guidelines of good method and approach
Some of the indices which are used to evaluate the usefulness of a method and
an approach are as follows:
1. The best method of approach is that through which maximum
objectives can be gained.
2. Only that method is preferred which can be molded for teaching
children of different age groups.
3. A good method should be capable of teaching English language as
well as literature.
4. The method or approach should follow the maxims of teaching.
5. The method or approach should be such that the whole course can
be completed within the prescribed time.
6. They should be suitable for both small and large sized classes.
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 Approaches of Teaching
English
Check Your
Progress
1. What is the difference between method and approach? NOTES
2. List out any thee guidelines of good method and approach.
5.3 STRUCTURAL APPROACH

The structural approach is a new approach to the teaching of English. It is

the result of researches made by experts at the university of London
Institute of Education. It emphasizes structural words and sentence patterns in
the teaching of English.
Principles of Structural Approach
Prof. F.G. French has put forth the following principles:
1. Learners have to fix up habits of the English language patterns.
2. Learners’ activities are more important than those of the teacher.
3. Oral work, which is the base for the other language skills, is built up.
4. The structure of English has to be mastered – they are to be picked
up, practiced and fixed in mind.
5. Meaningful situations are created by dramatization to teach language
skills.
6. The teacher teaches one language item at a time.
Selection of Structures
As the structures of English are the basic teaching points in this approach,
the teacher selects the structures based on the following principles:
i. Usefulness: the structures which are used frequently.
ii. Productivity: the structures which entail the other structures.
iii. Simplicity: the structures which are simple in terms of form and
meaning.
iv. Teach-ability: the structures which are easy to teach.
v. Frequency: the structures with a high rate of occurrence.
vi. Range: the structures which occur in various contexts.
vii. Coverage: the structures which cover a number of meanings.
viii. Learnability: the structures which are easy to learn.
Gradation of Structure
The structural approach is better described as a syllabus of graded structure
and controlled vocabulary. Taught through the oral approach, structural
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during English language teaching course.
Approaches of Teaching
English A. Grouping
a. Phonetic grouping: It is based on sound. For example: cat, rat,
mat, etc.
NOTES b. Lexical grouping: It is based on words used in the same context.
c. Grammatical grouping: It is based on similar sentence pattern.
d. Semantic grouping: It is based on words having a similar meaning.
e. Structure Grouping: It is based on structures which fit each other.
B. Sequencing
a. Grammatical sequencing: They are placed one after the other
depending on their context.
b. Semantic sequencing: They are sequenced depending on their meaning.
c. Lexical sequencing: It depends on the phrases which go together
C. Types of Sentence Pattern: There are different patterns of
sentences. They are:
a. Two-part patterns: Birds fly(birds/fly)
b. Three-part patterns: She is sleeping (she / is / sleeping)
c. Four-part patterns: Sresta went to shop (Sresta/went/to/shop)
d. Patterns beginning with ‘there’, ‘Wh’ type question. There are
two chocolates in my bag. Where is your college?
e. Patterns of command/request such as come here, go there, etc.
f. Formal pattern such as Good afternoon, Thank you, etc.
D. Sentence Types: The structures have the following sentence types:
a. Declarative sentence: It makes a statement. Example: I want to
be a good teacher.
b. Imperative sentence: It gives a command or makes a request.
Example: Please write it down.
c. Interrogative sentence: It asks a question. Example: Where
are you going?
d. Exclamatory sentence: It expresses a feeling such as surprise,
happiness, etc. Example: Hurrah! We have won the game.
System
The language is systematic and patterned. The structure of language has two
parallel substructures - expression and content and a net of associations
between the two. Therefore, in the learning of the language, it is necessary to
discover the symbols and describe the system.
To understand the meaning of Structural approach, we need to talk
about the structure of language. We are talking about the kind of material
that goes to make up language, the way the materials are put together,
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72 Material
build up sentences such as statements, questions, commands and Approaches of Teaching
explanations from the living language, and are the means of expressing what English
we feel, want to do talk about and so forth. A structure is a sentence pattern,
which is nothing but a sound approved, recognized and understood both by
the speaker and the listener. When English is learned as a second language, NOTES
it is important that the recurrent patterns of organization in the English
language are assimilated by the learner. For this, it is important that one
acquires some knowledge about the way in which a sentence is formed.
Word order, Structural words and inflexions
The English language has an important device for the construction of
meaningful sentence. They are word order, structural words and infections.
(i) Word order: Structural approach lays stress on order, which is the
most vital factor in English sentences. A sentence pattern is a model
for sentence which has constant form and construction despite being
created of completely different words. The order in English is mounted.
Therefore, the models for the various sorts of English sentences are
mounted conjointly with the amendment in skinny order, means of the
sentence conjointly modified.
For example: The tiger killed the person. The man killed the tiger.
(ii) Structural words: Another factor that is extremely necessary in
structural devices is that the essential presence of operate words or
structural words. The structural words are words that do not have any
definite means in themselves however are terribly useful in forming
sentences of various sorts. These are the words that assist in building
sentences. For example, auxiliary verbs such as ‘be’, ‘do’ and ‘may’
don’t have any intrinsic orienting .
For example:
1. The boy killed the snake.
2. The boy will kill the snake.
3. The boy has killed the snake.
4. The boy has to kill the snake.
5. The boy might kill the snake.
In the first sentence, the suffix-ed will change the meaning and convey
that the action has occurred in the past. In the second sentence, the
word ‘will” show that the action is going to occur. In the third
sentence, the word ‘has’ followed by the suffix-ed added to ‘kill’
shows that the action has now been completed. In the fourth sentence
the word ‘has’ followed by ‘to’ conveys that the action has not yet
occurred. In the fifth sentence, the word ‘might’ shows the action is
possible. All these suffixes like ‘ed’ or words like ‘will, has, has to
and might’ express a functional meaning or make the structural pattern
meaningful. They are called structural words.

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Approaches of Teaching In learning a language, it is not enough to know the content words.
English
More important than the content words are the structured words,
which help in the construction of utterances words, structural words.
Some of them are:
NOTES  Pronoun: I, we, he, her, some any, etc.
 The Preposition: in, on, under, at, from, etc.
 The helping verbs: do, have, be, will, can, may, etc.
 Structural adjectives: a, the, this, that, all, each, etc.
 Structural adverbs: ago, again, also, even, etc.
These words have significance only when they are parts of patterns
in a structural whole. Structural words bind together other words to
make phrases, clauses and sentences that are the units of language. It
is one of merits of the structural words.
(iii) Inflexions: The third aspect is that the English language has got a
number of inflexions. Inflexions are the changes or differences in the
form of words to show the particulars work they are doing in a
sentence. This variation of the forms of words takes place in order to
express case, number, gender, tense and so on.
For example,
At his
House To
his House In
his House
From his House
The small helping words like ‘at’, ‘to’, ‘in’ and ‘from’ give a different
meaning and expression.
(a) In verbs- I play, you play, we play, he plays.
(b) In nouns- one girl, two girls
(c) In adjectives- Quick, Quicker, Quickest
(d) In adverbs-Quickly
F.G. French calls these three features as the bones of English which
support the structure of sentences. When teaching English as a foreign
language, we must pay special attention to these three features and ensure
an adequate mastery of these by all students at the initial stage.
Stages in structural approach
In teaching structures, the teacher should remember the following four
stages in the pupil’s learning of them.
1. The learner hears the new speech unit from the teacher.
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no longer a series of meaningless sounds.
 3. The learner is able to imitate the sounds again perhaps without Approaches of Teaching
analysing individual words. English

4. The learner from memory is able to reproduce the speech unit in an

appropriate situation.
NOTES
Procedure
Oral work is the backbone of the structural approach. Of the four language
activities, that is, listening speaking, reading and writing, speech is the most
important. Charles fries says, ‘The speech is the language. The written
record is a secondary representation of the language. Oral work is the soul
of the structural approach’.
The pupils must acquire a working knowledge of English and so the
procedure to be followed in the structural method is as follows:
1. Revision of the previous structure
2. Presentation of the new structure
3. Creating situations to teach the structure
4. Chorus work
5. Leading from the substitution table
6. Teaching vocabulary
7. Model reading of the lesson by the teacher
8. Silent reading by the pupil
9. Loud reading by pupil
10. Silent reading by the pupil 11.Comprehension questions
12. Composition questions
Merits of structural approach
Some of the merits of Structural Approach have been discussed below:
(a) The controlled practice of structures leads to improvement of
accuracy over a period of time.
(b) Structures are taught based on the principles of selection, gradation,
patterns of sentences and types of sentences. Hence, a lot of time is
saved.
(c) English is taught in meaningful contexts.
(d) Speech is given importance.
(a) Demerits of structural approach
The demerits of Structural Approach are as follows:
(a) Learners’ L1 is not utilized in teaching and learning.
(b) Language use is a matter of creativity. Teaching a limited number of
structures may restrict learner’s potential to use the language.
(c) Language drills and repetitions are mechanical. Self-Instructional
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Approaches of Teaching
English
(d) In order to teach English using structural approach, teachers should
be well-versed with linguistics, especially syntax.
NOTES (e) Oral work is overstressed.
The structural approach makes the learner active and attentive. It
establishes its superiority over other methods of teaching English from the
psychological and pedagogical points of view. Its distinctive features are
gradation of structures and vocabulary in the reading material, integration of
grammar and composition with reading lessons, active participation by the
pupil rather than the teacher, and definiteness regarding the method and
content of teaching.

Check Your Progress

3. State the two principles of structural approach.
4. What are the four stages in the pupil’s learning of language in
structural approach?

5.4 SITUATIONAL APPROACH

Situational approach is nothing but improved form of structural approach. In
order to present structures in an understandable manner, situations are
used. The situational presentation of content words, structures and grammar
items proves to be very effective in language teaching. It especially helps
the learners to learn English without the use of mother tongue.
Main Components
The two main components of this method are the following:
1. Presentation: Conveying the meaning of the selected and graded
structures and words.
2. Practice: Providing opportunities and items for drill or practice in
using the language items.
Presentation communicates the meaning of words and structures to
the learners. It is the stage at which a learner is helped to acquire
knowledge of the meaning and the use of new content words and structures.
The learner’s attention should also be directed towards pronunciation,
stress and intonation, order of words, grammatical forms, etc.
Principles of situational approach
1. Language learning is habit-formation.
2. Mistakes should be avoided.
3. Language skills are presented orally first and then in written form to
improve the effectiveness of learning.

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 4. Examples are better than analysis for language learning. Approaches of Teaching
English
5. Meanings of the words are presented in linguistic and cultural context.
6. Opportunities are created for learners to associate the meaning of
new words with parallel situations.
NOTES
7. New words are introduced as and when it comes in the class.
8. Language materials are used to create appropriate situation.
9. Continuous repetition of language items is crucial.
10. The teacher raises questions related to created situation and s/he
answers them.
11. Revision is important.
12. There is a continuous chain of actions from the teacher
13. Teachers’ statements and actions go together continuously.
Presentation of lexical words
It is easy to list the several devices used for teaching the meaning of new
content words. They are:
(i) Use of classroom situations such as objects, pictures, models, etc. in
the classroom. This also includes actions, gestures, (wink, stare,
frown, etc.) and situations that occur spontaneously in the classroom
or are conceived for the purpose of teaching meaning.
(ii) Use of verbal situations: For things which are impossible to bring into
the classroom, the following devices can be used
(a) Picture, wall pictures, cards, etc
(b) Blackboard sketches.
Whenever pictures are used, size and relevance to the context should
be borne in mind.
(iii) Use of verbal situations: An individual word frequently acquires a
meaning because of the relationship between it and other words. It is
essential that learners should be aware of certain kinds of
relationships. By drawing tentative conclusions from a variety of
situations, the learner learns a number of words through the following
verbal situations:
 Definition: ‘New words may be defined by words already
known.
For example, ‘philanthropy’ is love and service for others;
‘philately’ is collection of postage stamps ‘Philology’ is a study
about language in detail.
These definitions should be teaching definitions. The teaching
definitions include simple comparisons or synonyms. (for
example, pigeon is a bird similar to dove; you will be able to give
good definitions of words
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Approaches of Teaching if you know their distinctive features, the characteristic, action
English
or behaviour.
 Enumeration: Meaning can be taught by listening. For example,
bees, months, ants, mosquitoes are insects; rubies, diamond, germs,
NOTES emerald, opals and sapphires are precious stones; gold, silver,
lead, copper, oil and coal are ‘natural resources’; cots, chairs,
sofas, and benches are furniture and so on. It is neither necessary
nor possible to give a complex enumeration. It would be
impossible, for example, to explain the word ‘integer’by listening
to it.
 Opposition: If the learner knows the meaning of a word, he can
be taught another word, which is its opposite in order to get an
idea of the meaning of the new word. E.g. ‘good’ is the
opposite of ‘bad’; ‘remember’ is the opposite of ‘forget’.
 Learning through contexts: There is a railway station at x.
The learner can guess that x is a place. Last summer, people
came to enjoy its climate. The learner gets the idea that x is a
cool place. X is a part of Western Ghats confirms that it is a hill
resort. In such series of contexts, the first sentence may give
only a general idea of the meaning; the second sentence makes it
more specific. The third makes it even more precise, and so the
new word would more and more meaning as contexts are
multiplied. Context used to teach meaning may relate to the
learner’s life and background, their interests and experience,
their knowledge of stories and legends, current events and
school subjects like History, Geography, Science, Mathematics,
etc.
Merits of situational approach
Some of the merits of this approach are given below:
1. Meaning well as the structures are used in an appropriate situation.
2. Learning is easy and effective.
3. The learner gets good exposure to English; L1 is discouraged.
Demerits of situational approach
Some of the demerits of this approach are as follows:
1. Only limited vocabulary and structures are taught.
2. It is useful for teaching lower-class learners.
3. Drilling makes the class uninteresting and weary.
4. This approach demands highly competent teachers.

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 Approaches of Teaching
5.5 ORAL APPROACH English

Learning a maternal language begins with speech. A child is in a position to

utter the words even before knowing the particular meaning of the words NOTES
due to sheer imitation of the sounds. Constant fundamentals of listening and
speaking are often utilized in learning the second language too.
Psychologically, it is logical to start learning the second language orally. The
various phrases create an impression on the mind and therefore the pupil is in
a position to master the phrases that represent an entire sentence.
Therefore, academics ought to speak English and facilitate their
students speak it properly. It should be understood that once this feat is
achieved, the scholars are often helped to amass the tougher skills of reading
and writing.
Objectives of the oral skills
The oral approach aims at achieving the following goals:
 To introduce language items structural and vocabulary items.
 To discuss the reading passages and poems.
 To prepare the students orally for doing the written exercises.
 To test the students’ reading comprehension
 To teach composition writing
 To motivate the students to read the supplementary reader lessons.
 To take up remedial teaching.
Merits of oral approach
Some of the merits of this approach are given below:
 The oral approach is easy for the teacher to teach. It saves time and
effort. In oral practice, a number of repetitions are possible.
 No writing work can be undertaken before the pupils master the skill
of writing. But oral practice can be given from the beginning.
 Correction of mistakes in writing involves a tedious process, whereas
in oral practice there can be instant correction. Correction at this step is
highly desirable before wrong language habits are formed.
 Correction of the whole class is possible. When the mistakes of a
student are corrected, the whole class learns from it.
 Chorus repetition helps. It takes away the shyness and fear of the
slow learners and they are motivated to learn.
 Since listening precedes speaking, the pupils simultaneously develop
their aural-oral skills in this oral approach.

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Approaches of Teaching
English
Demerits of oral approach
 Correction of pronunciation is not totally possible if it’s a large class.
NOTES Dearth of efficient teachers of English will hamper the process of oral
teaching.
 Oral approach is suitable only to children and not for adults. Adult
learners are shy to speak in front of others and are already speaking
and writing faulty English which is very difficult to unlearn.
 Dearth of efficient teachers of English will hamper the process of oral
teaching.

5.6 THE AUDIO-LINGUAL APPROACH

The Coleman Report in 1929 recommended a read based approach to
foreign language teaching for use in American college and schools. Teachers
taught from books containing short reading passages in the foreign
language. Rapid silent reading was the goal. The audio-lingual method or
Army method is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. This
method emerged at the time of World War II. It is almost equal to Direct
Method as the foreign language is taught directly. This method considers
LSRW as the logical sequence by the learner should learn the language.
Listening is important in developing proficiency in speaking and speaking is
effective through listening. Articulation is more proper by hearing the sounds
and the learners develop a linking for the language. Listening is foundation
for speaking, but we neglect this fact and treat it as incidental to speaking
rather than treating as a foundation for it.
It was the incorporation of the linguistic principles of theAural-Oral
approach with state of the art psychological learning theory in the mid 1950s
that led to the method that came to be known as audiolingualism. Teachers
were encouraged to attend summer institutes to improve their knowledge of
foreign languages and to learn the principles of linguistics and the new
linguistically based teaching methods. The combination of structural
linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural oral procedures, and
behaviourist psychology led to Audio-Lingual Method. As linguistics
discovered new sound types and new pattern of linguistic invention and
organization, a new interest in phonetics phonology, morphology and
syntax developed.
Activities are to be developed for the systematic development for
listening. The foreign language ‘is taught for communication purpose. So,
oral skills are practised systematically in developing communication skills.
Practice in all the four language skills is given prominence as it will lead to
habit formation.
Though many activities are undertaken to develop oral skills, practice
is taken up only after experience is gained through listening.

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Merits of audio-lingual approach
80 Material
 Aural-oral skills develop in an exceedingly meticulous manner.
 Teaching of vocabulary is made effective by the employment of visual
aids.
  The fundamental principle is to be practical and straightforward for a Approaches of Teaching
bigger cluster. English

Demerits of audio-lingual approach

 The method is almost guided learning as it is dominated by the teacher. NOTES
 The learners are passive and they don’t have much control over their
learning.
 The scope for learning analytically is not there as it demands pattern
practice, drilling, and memorization over functional learning.
 Language form alone is considered while meaning is treated
secondarily.
 A balanced importance is not given to all the four skills.

Check Your Progress

5. State two objectives of the oral approach.
6. Which report recommended a read based approach to foreign language
teaching in 1929?

5.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Approach is a broader term than method. Approach is axiomatic

(study of self-evident truths). It states a point of view or philosophy or
an assumption which one believes but cannot necessarily approve.
Method is an overall plan based on some approach. It is an overall plan
for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which
contradicts and all of which is based upon the selected approach.
2. The three guidelines of good method and approach are:
 Only that method is preferred which can be molded for teaching
children of different age groups.
 A good method should be capable of teaching English language as
well as literature.
 The method or approach should follow the maxims of teaching.
3. The principles of structural approach are given below:
 Learners’ activities are more important than those of the teacher.
 The teacher teaches one language item at a time.
4. In teaching structures, the teacher should remember the following four
stages in the pupil’s learning of them.
 The learner hears the new speech unit from the teacher.
 The learner recognizes a speech unit which he has heard before. It
is no longer a series of meaningless sounds.
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Approaches of Teaching
English
 The learner is able to imitate the sounds again perhaps without
analysing individual words.
 The learner from memory is able to reproduce the speech unit in
NOTES
an appropriate situation.
5. The oral approach aims at achieving the following goals:
 To discuss the reading passages and poems.
 To prepare the students orally for doing the written exercises.
6. The Coleman Report in 1929 recommended a read based approach
to foreign language teaching for use in American college and schools.

5.8 SUMMARY
 An approach is a set of assumptions concerning the character and the
needs of a language, and therefore the processes concerned within the
teaching and learning of that language
 The two terms ‘method’ and ‘approaches’ have been used
interchangeably many a times but there is a difference between the
two. Approach is a broader term than method.
 Approach is axiomatic (study of self-evident truths). It states a point
of view or philosophy or an assumption which one believes but
cannot necessarily approve. Method is an overall plan based on some
approach. It is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of
language material, no part of which contradicts and all of which is
based upon the selected approach.
 The structural approach emphasizes structural words and sentence
patterns in the teaching of English. As structures of English are the
basic teaching points in this approach, the teacher selects the structures
based on usefulness, productivity, simplicity, frequency, range,
coverage and other factors.
 The English language has an important device for the construction
of meaningful sentence. They are word order, structural words and
infections.
 Situational approach is nothing but improved form of structural
approach. In order to present structures in an understandable manner,
situations are used. The two main components of this method are
presentation and practice.
 Learning a maternal language begins with speech. A child is in a
position to utter the words even before knowing the particular
meaning of the words due to sheer imitation of the sounds. This is
known as Oral Approach.
 The Coleman Report in 1929 recommended a read based approach
to foreign language teaching for use in American college and schools.
Teachers

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 taught from books containing short reading passages in the foreign Approaches of Teaching
language. The audio-lingual method or Army method is a style of English
teaching used in teaching foreign languages. It is almost equal to Direct
Method as the foreign language is taught directly. This method
considers LSRW as the logical sequence by the learner should learn NOTES
the language

5.9 KEY WORDS

 Axiomatic: Axiomatic means self-evident or unquestionable truth.

The approach to language learning is considered axiomatic.
 Inflexions: It refers to the change in the form of a word (typically
the ending) which is usually done to express a grammatical function or
attribute such as tense, mood, person, number, case, and gender.
 Habit formation: It refers to process by which a behavior, through
regular repetition, becomes automatic or habitual. Language learning is
often done through imitation or reinforcement.
 LSRW: LSRW refers to the four skills of language learning, that is,
listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

5.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. How many approaches are there in English language teaching?
2. Define structural approach.
3. What are the two components of situational approach?
4. List out any five objectives of the oral approach.
Long-Answer Questions
1. Explain the principles and presentation of situational approach.
2. Elucidate the oral approach along with its merits and demerits.
3. Discuss the merits and demerits of audio-lingual approach.

5.11 FURTHER READINGS

Baruah, T.C. 1985. The English Teachers’ Handbook. New Delhi:

Sterling Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
Brumfit, C.J. 1984. The Communicative Methodology in Language Teaching.
Cambridge: C.U.P.
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Approaches of Teaching Freeman, D.L. 2000. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford:
English
O.U.P.
Hubbard, Peter, et al. 1983. A Training Course for TEFL. Oxford: O.U.P.
NOTES Lado, Robert. 1971. Language Teaching. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing House Co. Ltd.

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 BLOCK - III Teaching of
English Prose
TEACHING STRATEGIES

UNIT 6 TEACHING OF ENGLISH NOTES

PROSE
Structure
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Definition, Characteristics and Objectives of Prose
6.2.1 Characteristics of Prose
6.2.2 General Objectives of Teaching Prose
6.2.3 Various Forms of Prose
6.2.4 Steps of Teaching Prose
6.3 Methods of Teaching Prose
6.4 Effective Teaching Strategies for Prose
6.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
6.6 Summary
6.7 Key Words
6.8 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
6.9 Further Readings

6.0 INTRODUCTION

Teaching prose enables the students to understand the passage, read fluently,
enrich their vocabulary, and enjoy reading and writing. It enables the learners
to extend their knowledge of vocabulary and structures and become more
proficient in the four language skills. It develops the ability of speaking
English correctly and fluently.
In this unit, you will learn the definition of prose and the approach that
can be taken to develop the language ability of the students. The unit will
also delve into detailed prose lessons which are also called intensive reading
lessons. Detailed prose lessons not only help students in reading
comprehension but also help them master the presented structure and
vocabulary. The procedure followed in ensuring that the students become more
proficient in their language skills will also be discussed in detail.

6.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the definition of prose
 Explain the characteristics and objectives of teaching
prose Self-Instructional
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 Describe the procedure and methods of teaching prose
Approaches of Teaching
English 6.2 DEFINITION, CHARACTERISTICS AND
OBJECTIVES OF PROSE

NOTES Prose is a form of language that exhibits a grammatical structure and a natural
flow of speech rather than a rhythmic structure as in traditional poetry. While
the common unit of verse is based on meter or rhyme, the common unit of
prose is purely grammatical such as a sentence or paragraph.
The main aim of teaching prose is to develop the language ability of
the students. It is the intensive study of a language. The language ability
helps the learners to use English language without any problem.
The general aim of teaching prose is to enable the students:
 To understand the passage and grasp its meaning.
 To read with correct pronunciation, stress, intonation, pause and
articulation of voice.
 To help the students understand the passage by silent reading.
 To enrich their active and passive vocabulary.
 To express the ideas of the passage orally and in writing.
 To enjoy reading and writing.
 To develop their imagination.
Detailed prose lessons
Detailed prose lessons are also called intensive reading lesson. In detail
reading, the textbook is read thoroughly word by word. In the language of
Bacon, we can also say that, ‘The textbook is to be chewed and digested.’
Students are required to read not only for comprehension but also for
mastering the presented structure and vocabulary. In detailed Prose lesson,
each and every difficult word, idiom or phrase is fully explained to the
students so that they could grasp them firmly.
Language materials for prose lessons
The language materials for prose lesson are the following:
 Grammar/structure/usages
 Comprehension
 Lexical items and vocabulary
 Composition.
Aim of teaching prose
The aim of teaching prose can be put as under:
(1) General Aim of Teaching Prose
Self-Instructional (2) Specific Aim of Teaching Prose
86 Material
The general aim of teaching prose is: Teaching of
English Prose
(1) To enable the pupils to read English passage loudly with correct
pronunciation, stress, intonation, pause and articulation of voice.
(2) To develop the comprehension ability of the students.
NOTES
According to Coleridge, ‘Prose is best words in their best order’. The
aim, methods and nature of teaching prose is different from those of poetry.
Prose is for knowledge information and language. Poetry is for enjoyment,
aesthetic, sensuousness and imagery. Appreciation of prose involves
comprehending the central experience, beauty, and property of phraseology,
the allusions and the images in the presentation of the experiences.
6.2.1 Characteristics of Prose
Some of the characteristics of prose are given below:
 Prose consists of philosophical ideas, social problems, historical
description of events, geographical concepts, etc.
 Prose is the most important aspect of literature. Thoughts on a topic,
story, drama, novels, autobiography and biography, narration and
explanation of concepts, theories and principles are major aspects of
prose.
 Prose develops listening, reading, speaking and writing skills.
 The purpose of literature is best served by prose.
 Prose develops the expressional and interpretative ability of students.
 Prose develops cognitive and affective aspects of students.
 Prose is the best way of preserving human knowledge experiences,
imagination and ideas, and transmit to new generations.
6.2.2 General Objectives of Teaching Prose
The objectives of teaching prose are as follows:
1. To ensure that students understand the passage or lesson.
2. To develop their imaginative powers.
3. To enable students to enjoy reading English literature.
4. To enrich students’ active and passive vocabulary.
5. To ensure that pupils read the passage with correct pronunciation,
intonation, pause and articulation of voice.
6. To develop students’ imaginative power and prepare them for world
citizenship.
6.2.3 Various Forms of Prose
The various forms of prose are as follows:
1. Essay: Essays may be personal, philosophical, historical or critical.
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Approaches of Teaching 2. Novel: The term originally meant a ‘fresh story’ but gradually came to
English
signify a story in prose as distinguished from a story in verse which
continued to be called a romance.
3. Short story: It is a recent development in English literature. It shares
NOTES
the usual constituents of all fiction, that is, plot, character and setting
but they cannot be treated with the same detail as in a novel.
4. Play or drama: Drama presents fiction of fact in a form that could be
acted before the audience. A play has a plot, characters, dialogue,
atmosphere and an outlook on life like a novel, but it is as a rule
intended to be performed in public, not to be read in private. There are
some other kinds of prose such as biography, paragraph writing,
composition, etc.
Procedure of teaching prose lesson
There is every need for pre-planned lesson plan for teaching prose.
Different scholars have suggested different types of lessons. Generally,
Herbartian steps are followed in teaching and planning a prose lesson. These
steps are strictly on ‘Apperceptionistic view’ according to which learning is
linking an old idea with a new idea.
A. Preparation:
1. Teaching Aids
2. Previous Knowledge
3. Introduction
Preparation: No motivation is necessary for students whose first
language is English. However, teachers should attract those students for
whom English is a foreign language. This is called ‘preparation of the
lesson’. The following steps may be taken into consideration.
1. Teaching Aids: Teaching aids are used to make teaching
effective, purposeful and interesting; teaching aids are essential.
They make teaching joyful and careful. Desirable material should
be prepared to make lesson effective and helpful.
2. Previous Knowledge: This is to test the previous knowledge of
the student regarding the lesson and also to link the past
knowledge with the existing one. In this way, the pupils can
connect the new and past experiences mentally and learn the
matter.
3. Introduction: It has two purposes:
(a) To bring the past knowledge to consciousness
(b) To attract students attention to the new subject. So the
teacher should first put some questions to test the previous
knowledge of students and then link that to the subject to
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88 Material
6.2.4 Steps of Teaching Prose Teaching of
English Prose
The class text book or reader in English is meant to be taught intensively. In
the intensive teaching under structural approach which is followed in schools,
a teacher has to adopt a particular procedure or pattern. The steps a teacher
NOTES
has to follow in teaching prose are:
1. Motivation or Introduction (Previous Knowledge)
2. Introduction of New Grammatical Structure
3. Introduction of New vocabulary.
4. Model reading or pattern reading by the teacher
5. Word study or explanation of different words
6. Silent Reading by the pupils
7. Testing comprehension or comprehension questions
8. Reading aloud by the pupils.
9. Assignment oral or written.
The detailed procedure adopted under each step is discussed
hereunder.
1. Motivation or introduction: The first step a teacher has to
take when he starts a class is to motivate the students. This is
common to all subjects. The introduction of motivation can be
done with the help of audio-visual aids or by creating verbal
situations or by both. If he is continuing a lesson already started,
then he can ask a few questions on the passage already covered
and motivate the students to study the topic. Then, this step will
be called recall of previous knowledge.
2. New grammatical structures: In the method of structural
approach, importance is given for the learning of the content. So
teaching new structures is given preference. The structures are all
graded and selected based on the principle of utility, teach ability,
suitability to the class, etc. The structures are introduced by
creating visual or verbal situations. Oral drills such as repetition
drills and oral practice are effectively done and practiced. But in
the case of passive vocabulary, student gets mastery over it and
is in a position to understand it and apply it in a sentence of his
own.
3. New vocabulary: Under vocabulary there are two categories: i)
Active and production type ii) Recognition and passive type. The
procedure that the teacher followed for teaching a new
grammatical structure has to be followed for teaching a new
active vocabulary. It is enough if the student is made to recognize
and understand the meaning of this new word.
4. Model reading or pattern reading by the teacher: At the time Self-Instructional
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of reading the passage for the first time, the teacher asks the
students to
Approaches of Teaching listen to his reading carefully. He reads the passage observing
English
the pause, stress, rhythm and intonation correctly. The students
will be asked to observe these carefully. During the second
reading, he asks the pupils to follow his reading which he again
NOTES does at normal speed observing the same pause, stress, etc. This
provides the pupils the required practice in aural comprehension.
5. Explanation of difficult words, if any When the teacher has read
the passage twice, the boys in their aural comprehension may
come across one or two difficult or new words. The teacher at
this stage will ask the students to point out difficult words, if any,
that are to be explained by him and he explains them.
6. Silent reading by pupils: This is the stage where the entire
class gets busy. Each student reads silently and comprehends at
his own pace. The teacher fixes a time limit to develop speed in
reading. He also corrects the habits like finger movements and lip
movements which some pupils have at the time of silent reading.
7. Comprehension questions: Pupils would have by then grasped
the passage. Then teacher proceeds to ask questions on important
matters. In the question pattern, he starts with yes/no, true/false
questions, followed by multiple choice, short answer type and
inference type and essay type. If he is not satisfied with the
response, he can drill up that passage for the second time.
8. Reading aloud by pupils: This step is required to develop in
the students to correct reading habits. It also helps in correcting
errors in pronunciation, pause, stress, rhythm and intonation. The
reading could be done in groups in lower classes. But in higher
classes, only individual pupil reads. Care should be taken to see
that all students are covered and no one is neglected.
Present Position of Teaching Prose
In teaching of English, prose is always considered important. But the
methods of teaching are generally faulty. The following points highlight the
glaring defects:
(i) Majority of teachers just translate English prose into mother tongue.
In doing so, they feel that they have taught prose well. It is their wrong
notion.
(ii) The teachers teach prose just for the sake of prose. Above all, they
keep the examination as the main target before them. They rarely teach
prose for making the students leaf the language.
(iii) Applied grammar or functional aspect of the language is not properly
dealt with by the teachers. Generally, they leave it to the student.

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 Teaching of
6.3 METHODS OF TEACHING PROSE English Prose

The teaching of prose includes two types of lessons:

(a) Detailed or intensive prose lessons. NOTES
(b) Non-detailed or extensive prose lessons.
Intensive Reading
Reading a text for accuracy is called intensive reading. It is done with the
close guidance of the teacher. It forces the learners to pay more attention to
the text. It involves the profound and detailed understanding of the text. It
is primarily concerned with the developing of reading strategies.
The reading strategies are:
1. Judgment
2. Reasoning
3. Interpretation and
4. Appreciation
Intensive reading is more an exercise in accuracy. Students do not
read a text only for a specific purpose of information. A text is considered
suitable for scanning of information, paying attention to the writer’s intentions,
arguments, ideas, style, etc. The students are expected to answer all questions
which involve their understanding of the text, grammar, vocabulary, writing,
etc.
Extensive Reading
Extensive reading or reading for fluency involves reading of longer texts for
pleasure. It is not meant for minute details. It is a fluency activity and the
students can read on their own. This is called Rapid reading or Independent
silent reading. The specific objectives of extensive reading are:
1. To understand the meaning as quickly as possible.
2. To increase passive vocabulary.
3. To develop taste for reading.
4. To develop the habit of reading for pleasure.
5. To concentrate upon subject matter.
The term extensive reading means to read silently and quickly. It
helps to read without the help of the teacher. It trains the reader to
understand the subject matter as quickly and efficiently as possible.
It plays a vital role in the learning of second/foreign language. The
students are made to read as much as possible. They are given choice and
freedom to select the books of their choice. Reading has its own reward.
There are no follow up activities. The reading texts are within the linguistic
competence of the reader. Students are permitted to read at their own pace. Self-Instructional
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They choose when to read or
Approaches of Teaching
English
where to read. This creates interest among the learners. So, they learn to read
faster without any disturbance. Steps involved in extensive reading
NOTES I. Introduction:
1. The teacher gives main hints of the passage.
2. He explains the difficult portions.
3. He deals with difficult areas of a language.
II. Silent reading:
1. The students should read silently and quickly.
III. Question:
1. The teacher asks questions to test the student’s
understanding. In extensive reading, the readers must read
silently and understand the matter. This would create an
interest among the readers. The students may not be
interested in reading text books. Interesting magazines,
newspaper, etc. may be recommended.

6.4 EFFECTIVE TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR

PROSE
Teaching prose focuses on increasing student’s comprehension of the material
and establishing a personal connection to it. The key is to use a variety of
strategies to keep students interested and involved. Leif Danielson, the
author of Teaching Strategies, states, ‘As an overall teaching strategy: You
should create the conditions that will elicit the behavior that you want from
your class or an individual student.’
1. Read: Encourage students to read the material several times if
needed. Repeated observation reveals what they may have missed the
first time. Introduce active reading strategies at the beginning of the
course. First, teach them to observe what is on the page—the facts
and answers to ‘who, what, when, where, and how.’ Then encourage
them to notice patterns, connections, repetition or contradictions. Tell
them to question everything and explain that a situation or item
wouldn’t be in the text if there wasn’t a reason for it. Lastly, teach
students to discover the theme of the text—what the author intended
for the reader to understand. At the beginning of the course, make
sure students understand the literature terminology. They will need to
know what the fiction elements are (point of view, character, setting,
plot, structure and theme) and why writers use them. Most textbooks
explain these terms; so students should read about the concepts and
then discuss them during class by using examples from the assigned
readings.
2. Write: One of the best ways for students to increase comprehension
is to write about the story they have read. Require students to keep a
journal during the course and have them brainstorm, list or free-write
a paragraph
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 immediately after completing the reading. Depending on the level of Teaching of
the class, create a form with questions to answer as homework. English Prose

Other writing assignments also enhance creative and critical thinking.

Ask students to write a continuation of a short story and imagine what
would happen next. Alternately, have them rewrite the ending of a NOTES
short story, choosing a point in the action and changing the direction of
the plot. You can also require that they change the gender, age, race or
sexual orientation of a character from a story and rewrite the story or a
selected scene. Assign the students a character and have them write a
letter to him or her—or have the students write a letter to the author
and tell him or her what they think of the story.
3. Discuss: Lecturing helps students understand the material, but
creating a discussion involves students more effectively. Hearing
another point of view challenges them to comprehend the material
deeper. During the class, ask questions. According to Saskatchewan
Education, ‘Effective teaching involves asking appropriate questions
at appropriate times and helping students ask their own questions.’
Small group discussion gives shy students an opportunity to relate one-
on-one. Group four or five students together and give them a question
to discuss. Let someone draw it randomly or use a question-and-
answer form. Bring the smaller discussions back to the class by having
one student report what was discussed.
4. Integrate technology: Integrate technology into your teaching
strategies. After reading and discussing a work, watch the movie
version in class. If a movie has not been made of that book, watch a
similar one to compare or contrast. View author broadcasts reading
their own work or commenting on it. Assign students to make a
movie about the story or novel. Patty Blome at Scholastic notes that
‘students develop comprehension and increase learning while
researching characters, storyboarding plots and learning the art of film-
making by translating a novel into a Hollywood-style digital movie.’

Check Your Progress

1. State two objectives of teaching prose.
2. List the various forms of prose.
3. What is intensive reading?
4. What are the steps involved in extensive reading?

6.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. The objectives of teaching prose are as follows:

 To ensure that students understand the passage or
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lesson. Material 93
Approaches of Teaching
English
 To develop their imaginative powers.
2. The various forms of prose are essay, novel, short story, and drama or
NOTES play.
3. Reading a text for accuracy is called intensive reading. It is done with
the close guidance of the teacher. It forces the learners to pay more
attention to the text. It involves the profound and detailed
understanding of the text. It is primarily concerned with the developing
of reading strategies.
4. The three steps involved in extensive reading are: introduction, silent
reading, and questions. The teacher first gives main hints of the passage.
The students then read silently and quickly. The teacher asks questions
to test the students.

6.6 SUMMARY
 Teaching prose enables the students to understand the passage, read
fluently, enrich their vocabulary, and enjoy reading and writing. It
enables the learners to extend their knowledge of vocabulary and
structures and become more proficient in the four language skills.
 Prose is a form of language that exhibits a grammatical structure and
a natural flow of speech rather than a rhythmic structure as in traditional
poetry.
 The main aim of teaching prose is to develop the language ability of
the students. It is the intensive study of a language. The language
ability helps the learners to use English language without any problem.
 Detailed prose lessons are also called intensive reading lesson. In
detail reading, the textbook is read thoroughly word by word. In the
language of Bacon, we can also say that, ‘The textbook is to be
chewed and digested.’ Students are required to read not only for
comprehension but also for mastering the presented structure and
vocabulary. In detailed Prose lesson, each and every difficult word,
idiom or phrase is fully explained to the students so that they could
grasp them firmly.
 Prose consists of philosophical ideas, social problems, historical
description of events, geographical concepts, etc.
 Prose is the most important aspect of literature. Thoughts on a topic,
story, drama, novels, autobiography and biography, narration and
explanation of concepts, theories and principles are major aspects of
prose.
 The various forms of prose are essay, novel, short story, and drama or
play.
 There is every need for pre-planned lesson plan for teaching prose.
Different scholars have suggested different types of lessons. Generally,
Herbartion steps are followed in teaching and planning a prose lesson.
These steps are strictly on ‘Apperceptionistic view’ according to which
learning is linking an old idea with a new idea.
 Self-Instructional
94 Material
  Preparation of a lesson involves the following steps: Teaching of
English Prose
o Use of teaching aids to make teaching effective, purposeful and
interesting.
o Testing previous knowledge of the student and linking the past
knowledge with the existing one. NOTES
o Use of Introduction to bring the past knowledge to consciousness
and to attract students attention to the new subject
 In the intensive teaching under structural approach which is followed
in schools, a teacher has to adopt a particular procedure or pattern.
The steps are:
o Motivation or Introduction (Previous Knowledge)
o Introduction of New Grammatical Structure
o Introduction of New vocabulary.
o Model reading or pattern reading by the teacher
o Word study or explanation of different words
o Silent Reading by the pupils
o Testing comprehension or comprehension questions
o Reading aloud by the pupils.
o Assignment oral or written.
 Reading a text for accuracy is called intensive reading. It is done with
the close guidance of the teacher. It forces the learners to pay more
attention to the text. It involves the profound and detailed
understanding of the text. It is primarily concerned with the developing
of reading strategies.
 Extensive reading or reading for fluency involves reading of longer
texts for pleasure. It is not meant for minute details. It is a fluency
activity and the students can read on their own. This is called Rapid
reading or Independent silent reading.
 Teaching prose focuses on increasing student’s comprehension of the
material and establishing a personal connection to it. The key is to use
a variety of strategies to keep students interested and involved.

6.7 KEY WORDS

 Herbartian steps: J.F. Herbart’s steps in lesson planning involve

preparation, presentation, association, generalization, and application.
 Apperceptionist view: It is a theory that states that mental
development is determined chiefly by apperception or introspective self-
consciousness rather than by association.

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Approaches of Teaching
English
 Intonation: Intonation describes how the voice rises and falls in
speech. The three main patterns of intonation in English are falling
intonation, rising intonation and fall-rise intonation.
NOTES
 Teaching aids: Teaching aids are objects (such as a book, picture,
or map) or devices (such as a DVD or computer) used to enhance
classroom instruction.

6.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. What is the role of previous knowledge test in teaching of prose?
2. What is the use of model reading while the teacher is teaching prose?
3. List the objectives of extensive reading.
4. What are the pitfalls of teaching prose in the present days?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Explain the steps the teacher has to follow in the teaching of prose.
2. Elucidate the aims of teaching prose.
3. Discuss the effective teaching strategies for prose.

6.9 FURTHER READINGS

Jordan, R. R. 1997. English for Academic Purposes: A Guide and

Resource Book for Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Thonney, Teresa. 2003. The Qualities of Good Prose. New York: Longman.
Mowla, Shaik. 2009. Techniques of Teaching English. Hyderabad: Neelkamal
Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Varghese, C Paul. 2013. Teaching English as a Second Language. New
Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited.
Vallabi J. E. 2014. Teaching of English Principles and Practices.
Hyderabad: Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Wadhwa S.S. 2011. Latest Trends in Teaching English. Ludhiana: Tandon
Publications.

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UNIT 7 TEACHING ENGLISH Teaching English Poetry

POETRY
NOTES
Structure
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Teaching Poetry
7.3 Definition, Characteristics and Importance of Poetry
7.3.1 Characteristics of Poetry
7.3.2 Importance of Poetry
7.3.3 Advantages of Teaching Poetry
7.4 Procedure of Teaching Poetry
7.4.1 Pronunciation Drill
7.4.2 Comprehension Questions
7.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
7.6 Summary
7.7 Key Words
7.8 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
7.9 Further Readings

7.0 INTRODUCTION

Teaching of poetry at different levels of education is an appreciable activity.

Teaching poetry has several advantages as it leads to all round development
of students, enriches the experience of the pleasure and imparts enjoyment
and pleasure.
In this unit, you will learn about the definition and characteristics of
poetry. The advantages of teaching poetry will also be delved into. The
techniques and methods of teaching poetry have also been discussed to
understand the ways in which the process of teaching poetry can be
enhanced.

7.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the definition and characteristics of poetry
 Describe the advantages of teaching poetry
 Discuss the methods and techniques of teaching poetry

7.2 TEACHING POETRY

Poetry is language used in a special way. Poetry lessons are helpful to

improve pronunciation of English words and to acquire proper stress and
intonation. A true poet is a genius who speaks in new language to hearten Self-Instructional
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and inspire his fellows.
Teaching English Poetry

Poetry leads to the all round development of personality of pupils,

particularly the emotional, imaginative, intellectual, aesthetic and intuitive
aspects .We read poetry for pleasure and enjoyment. Poetry is regarded as a
NOTES more difficult kind of prose with special grammatical construction and
thought involvement. There are two broad aims of teaching poetry in
schools.
(a) Literary aim and
(b) Subject matter aim.
For achieving these two aims, the teaching of prose and poetry should
be intensive (for achieving literary aim) and extensive (for achieving subject
matter aim). Intensive study is mainly related to explanations, detailed
information and appreciation; all these aspects are considered essential for
the development of aesthetic sense. Extensive study means gaining of
knowledge. Hence, the role of poetry teaching in schools should not be
made a controversial issue. It should essentially increase students’
comprehension ability too. Poetry is not an ‘optional extra’; it aims at
exploring the possibilities of placing best words in best order.

7.3 DEFINITION, CHARACTERISTICS AND

IMPORTANCE OF POETRY
Poetry is musical and metrical form of language. Poetry is a thing of beauty
to form, thoughts and emotions. It is intimately woven with nature and life. It
is more to the ear and heart than to eye. Wordsworth says, ‘Poetry is a
spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings.’ E. Allen Poe says, ‘The
rhythmical creation of thought.’ Hudson says, ‘Poetry is made out of life,
belongs to life and exists for life.’ Milton says, ‘Poetry is simple, sensuous
and passionate.’ Coleridge believes that poetry is ‘The best words in the best
order.”
7.3.1 Characteristics of Poetry
Some of the characteristics of poetry are given below:
Emotional and imaginative content
The first notable feature of poetry is that its content is emotional and
imaginative. In fact, emotion and imagination are the essential qualities of
poetry. It is said that ‘poetry is imaginative emotional interpretation of life’.
Poetry deals with facts, experiences and problems of life. First, it relates
them to our emotions and then transforms them by imagination. Poetry treats
reality imaginatively. However, it does not falsify it. Imagination and
emotion predominate poetry.
Metrical form (rhythm)
The second essential characteristic of poetry is metre. Poetry is emotional
and imaginative in substance and metrical in form. Metre means rhythmical
Self-Instructional language. In poetry, the emotional and imaginative interpretation of life is
98 Material clothed in rhythmical language. Like any art, the function of poetry is to give
aesthetic pleasure and it is metre which enables poetry to perform this
function properly. Metre primarily
differentiates poetry from prose. Great critic Matthew Arnold says, ‘metre Teaching English Poetry
must be taken as the general and constant characteristic of poetry and the
chief point of distinction between prose and poetry.
Poetic diction
NOTES
Diction means both the choice and the arrangement of words. It is both
vocabulary and syntax.
Critics may have different views about poetic diction. It is true that
the words used by the poets are the different from those used by a prose
writer. The poet also arranges the words in a different way. It is metre
which modifies the language of poetry. As Coleridge has said, the diction of
poetry is different from the language of prose. The poet uses sweet and
pleasant sounds and not harsh ones. Similarly, the syntax of the poet is not
conditioned by the rules of grammar but by requirements of metre.
Rhyme
Poetry has rhyme; it may be regular or irregular. Rhyme means the
similarity in sounds between words or syllables. Words or syllables at the
end of two lines of a poem may have similar sounds. This means that the
two lines rhyme together.
For example:
‘Twinkle, twinkle you little star how I wonder what you are’
There are various kinds of rhymes such as half-rhyme and eye-
rhyme. It should be noted that is not an essential feature of poetry. For
example, ‘blank verse’ and ‘free verse’ may not have rhyme.
Music and melody
Poetry is musical and melodious. In fact, poetry is called musical speech. The
poet makes use of various devices to make their verse musical and such
devices include rhyme, alliteration and certain consonants and vowels. The
music of poetry is a matter of verbal felicity. Songs, ballads and sonnets are
highly musical. Music can be called the essential quality of poetry.
Figures of speech
The diction of poetry needs to be figurative. Figures of speech are also
essential for the emotional and imaginative appeal of poetry. Simile, metaphor,
personification and hyperbole are some of the figures of speech which are
often used by poets. Without figures of speech, poetry may lose much of its
charm and appeal.
Life and nature as raw material of poetry
Life and nature are the raw material of poetry and it reveals the mystery,
beauty, and loveliness of human life and nature. Poetry turns the ordinary
things of life and nature into objects of beauty.
For example: Keats’s ode ‘Ode to the Nightingale’ has made the bird
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Teaching English Poetry 7.3.2 Importance of Poetry
Today, poetry favours practical skills over creativity; arguably, the most
creative of literatures gets overlooked as it is seen by many people as being
NOTES ‘difficult’. Poetry has the potential both in the classroom, and outside the
classroom to teach important lessons. Teaching and learning from poetry
can help students respect and understand the viewpoints of people across the
globe in an age of increasing divisiveness.
General objectives of teaching poetry
The general objectives of teaching poetry are as follows:
1. To enable the students to appreciate beauty, rhyme and style of the poem.
2. To enable pupils to read aloud the poem with proper rhythm and
intonation.
3. To enable students to enjoy recitation, thought and imagination
involved in the poem.
4. To train the emotions, develop aesthetic sense and create love for
English Literature in the students.
Teaching poetry at different levels:
(1) Primary level:
1. To enable the pupil to enjoy the poem.
2. To help pupils to recite and enjoy simple poems.
3. To help pupils learn elements of language such as sounds,
word phrases, sentences and their structuring.
4. To make students listen, repeat and memorize the poems.
5. To develop a taste for poetry reading and writing.
(II) Secondary level:
1. To make students enjoy and appreciate the poem style.
2. To enjoy rhyme and rhythm.
3. To develop power of appreciation of beauty.
4. To help pupils learn elements of language such as sounds,
words, phrases, sentences and their structures.
(III) Higher secondary level:
1. To ensure that the students are able to praise the poem.
2. To appreciate the images that presents the experience.
3. To appreciate the rhythmic and musical touch of the poem.
4. To train the emotions, feelings and imagination of the students.
5. To create aesthetic sense in students.
6. To create a love for literature in students.
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Methods of teaching poetry Teaching English Poetry

The methods of teaching poetry are:

1. Lecture method
2. Question Answer method NOTES
3. Review method
4. Meaning and understanding method.
Techniques of teaching poetry
Some of the techniques of teaching poetry are:
1. Question Answer technique
2. Model reading
3. Explanation technique
4. Parallel Quotation technique
5. Narration technique
7.3.3 Advantages of Teaching Poetry
Poetry gives an internal pleasure and joy to our students. Teaching poetry has
the following advantages:
(i) It leads to all round development of students.
(ii) It enriches the experience of the readers.
(iii) It imparts enjoyment and pleasure.

7.4 PROCEDURE OF TEACHING POETRY

There is no particular method for teaching poetry. Apoem should be seen as a

whole and not as a part while teaching poetry. A short introduction regarding
the poem, poet and poet’s style may act as a stimulus to the pupils and help
them enjoy and appreciate the poem. At primary stage, children may be
asked to learn poem and if the poem is enjoyable, they will learn it by heart
without even realizing it.
A good teacher plans his lesson well before he goes to class. The
teacher visualizes the classroom activities in advance. Certain general steps can
be followed for teaching poetry in the classroom. They are not extensive
because each poem needs a separate treatment.
Objectives
Objectives of the poem are to be mentioned in behavioural language.
Specific objectives differ from poem to poem depending upon the main
theme of the poem.
Teaching aids Self-Instructional
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The aids must be suitable, relevant, cheap and fitting to the context.
Teaching English Poetry Previous knowledge
The previous knowledge, experiences and mental development of the
students are ascertained and the same is mentioned in the plan book. It is on
NOTES the basis of previous knowledge that the new lesson is to be introduced in
the class.
Introduction
Thompson and Wyatt have suggested three ways of introduction.
1. The best method is to read a parallel poem, i.e., a poem similar
in subject –matter with the poem to be taught. If possible, the
parallel poem should be written by the same poet.
2. One method is to give the gist of the poetry and ask two or
three simple questions on that.
3. The third method is to give the life-sketch, style and
characteristics of the poet.
Statement of aim
After increasing the students’ curiosity to know about the poem by
introduction, the teacher should state the aim briefly in clear words.
Presentation of the poem
Ryburn opines, ‘A good poem is a complete whole.’ So, poetry should be
taught in only one unit. The presentation stage consists of the following
points.
 Presenting the gist of the poem: This is done to make the pupils
understand the theme and matter of the poem. The teacher,
therefore, presents the gist of the poem.
 Model reading by the teacher: The teacher recites the poem while
the students listen to him carefully with their books closed. This helps
the pupils to follow the musical tone of the poem.
A good teacher of English poetry should be familiar with rhythm
and intonation pattern of English language. The model reading by the
teacher should help the students to experience or feel the poem in its totality.
Recitation is the soul of poetry. So, it must be very effective.
7.4.1 Pronunciation Drill
The teacher conducts the pronunciation drill of the difficult words. First,
he pronounces the difficult words one by one and then asks the students to
pronounce the words correctly. He repeats the words till the students learn to
pronounce the words correctly.
Advantages of teaching poetry
1. Poetry has tremendous appeal for children and it is the best way of
exciting their love of the language. Poetry has special appeal for the
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2. Poetry educates our emotions and increases our imagination.
 3. Poetry has cathartic value because it helps in expression and training Teaching English Poetry
of emotions. Poetry is memorable because of its arrangement of
rhyme and rhythm.
4. Poetry imparts pleasure to the students. It lays the foundation for the
appreciation of the beauty of thought, mood or feeling. NOTES
5. Poetry introduces variety in the English course and is a good antidote
against boredom.
Emotional Response: Model Reading-I
A poem is enjoyed to a maximum extent if pupils feel the music and
sensuousness in it. Poetry is musical if it is presented in such a way by the
teacher. Therefore, the teacher should create such an atmosphere for the
poem that it evokes emotional response from the pupils. So, it should be
read twice or thrice. Rybum wisely pointed, ‘One reading of course is not
enough. It must be read twice or thrice.’
The students should be asked to look at their books and hear
attentively and the teacher will recite the poem in a modulated voice.
Meaning of Difficult words and Phrases
Such words which create hindrance in the comprehension of the Poem
should be explained to the pupils. The teacher should select appropriate
words and phrases used in the poem and clearly explain why they are used
by the poet. The use of a particular word, a phrase or a transferred epithet
can be highlighted and its significance can be explained by the teacher. He
can also bring out the beauty of the figures of speech and throw light on the
ideas involved.
Model Reading II
When the poem has been fully explained and discussed, the teacher should
read the poem once again. This reading will have a greater effect on the
pupils since much explanation has been already said about the poem.
Imitation reading by the pupils: After reading the poem, the teacher
asks the pupils to read the poem one by one. He should ask them to recite it
with effect, caring about their pronunciation, intonation and rhythm.
7.4.2 Comprehension Questions
Simple questions to make sure if students have comprehended the poem can
be asked to them. Their number can vary depending upon the length of the
poem.
Appreciation questions
These questions test:
1. Appreciation of beauty of thought Self-Instructional
2. Appreciation of the beauty of images Material 103

3. Appreciation of the beauty of emotions

4. Appreciation of the beauty of style and language.
Teaching English Poetry

Choral Recitation
This is useful for primary level pupils. The main intention of this recitation
NOTES is to enable the students catch the rhyme and intonation and follow the
teacher overcoming their shyness. Later, such pupils can read independently.
It helps them to develop eloquence and fluency as well as emotional release.
Assignment
This section doesn’t have much importance in poetry teaching. The
teacher may ask the pupils to write rhyming words and lines that will create
special interest.
For successful teaching of poetry, the words of Alexander Haddow
are very appropriate. ‘Read each poem twice, give the children time to form
their own impressions, invite them to criticize and help them in doing so.
Let the poetry period be, as far as possible, a period of joy and a period of
pondering over things they love already. Let them choose for themselves the
poems they are to learn by heart choosing his own favourites. That only can
develop a taste for poetry and train the ear to the variety of beautiful sounds.
That only can arouse in them some of the wealth of poetry that is before
them. Remember that we must turning out readers of poetry, not students of
poetry.’

Check Your Progress

1. List some of the figures of speech used in poetry.
2. State two objectives of teaching poetry.
3. What are the advantages of teaching poetry?
4. What is pronunciation drill?
5. What is the reason behind conducting choral recitation?

7.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Simile, metaphor, personification and hyperbole are some of the

figures of speech which are often used by poets.
2. The general objective of teaching poetry is:
 To enable the students to appreciate beauty, rhyme and style of the
poem.
 To enable pupils to read aloud the poem with proper rhythm and
intonation.
3. The advantages of teaching poetry are as follows:
 Poetry has tremendous appeal for children and it is the best way
of exciting their love of the language. Poetry has special appeal
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 Poetry educates our emotions and increases our imagination.
 4. The teacher conducts the pronunciation drill of the difficult words. Teaching English Poetry
First, he pronounces the difficult words one by one and then asks the
students to pronounce the words correctly. He repeats the words till
the students learn to pronounce the words correctly.
5. The main intention of choral recitation is to enable the students catch NOTES
the rhyme and intonation and follow the teacher in overcoming their
shyness. Later, such pupils can read independently. It helps them to
develop eloquence and fluency as well as emotional release.

7.6 SUMMARY

 Poetry leads to the all round development of personality of pupils,

particularly the emotional, imaginative, intellectual, aesthetic and intuitive
aspects. Poetry is musical and metrical form of language.
 The first notable feature of poetry is that its content is emotional and
imaginative. The second essential characteristic of poetry is metre.
Metre means rhythmical language. In poetry, the emotional and
imaginative interpretation of life is clothed in rhythmical language.
 Poetry is also characterized by poetic diction which is both the choice
and the arrangement of words. It is both vocabulary and syntax.
 Poetry has rhyme. It is musical and melodious. Figures of speech are
also essential for the emotional and imaginative appeal of poetry.
 The various methods of teaching poetry are lecture method, question
answer method, review method, and meaning and understanding
method.
 The techniques of teaching poetry are question answer technique,
model reading, explanation technique, parallel quotation technique, and
narration technique.
 There is no particular method for teaching poetry. A poem should be
seen as a whole and not as a part while teaching poetry. A short
introduction regarding the poem, poet and poet’s style may act as a
stimulus to the pupils and help them enjoy and appreciate the poem.
 The teacher conducts the pronunciation drill of the difficult words.
First, he pronounces the difficult words one by one and then asks the
students to pronounce the words correctly. He repeats the words till
the students learn to pronounce the words correctly.
 Simple questions to make sure if students have comprehended the
poem can be asked to them. Their number can vary depending upon
the length of the poem.

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Teaching English Poetry

7.7 KEY WORDS

NOTES  Metre: In poetry, metre is the basic rhythmic structure of a verse or

lines in verse. Many traditional verse forms prescribe a specific verse
metre, or a certain set of metres alternating in a particular order.
 Poetic diction: Diction refers to a writer’s distinctive vocabulary
choices and style of expression in a poem or story.
 Hyperbole: Hyperbole is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical
device or figure of speech.
 Choral recitation: Achoral speaking is defined as a group of people
reading or narrating a poem or a dramatic piece.

7.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. Write the definition of poem.
2. State the characteristics of poem.
3. List the methods and techniques of teaching poetry.
4. What is the importance of model reading by the teacher in teaching poem?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Explain the advantages of teaching poem for school and its procedures.
2. Describe the teaching of poem at various levels.
3. Discuss the procedure of teaching poem at various level of education.

7.9 FURTHER READINGS

Larsen-Freeman, D. and Anderson, M. 2011. Techniques and Principles in

Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mowla, Shaik. 2009. Techniques of Teaching English. Hyderabad: Neelkamal
Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Jain, Praveen. M. 2014. Methodology of Teaching English Tools,
Techniques and Methods. Jaipur: Aavishkar Publishers.
Rao, K.V. 2010. Techniques of Teaching English. Hyderabad: Neelkamal
Publications Pvt Ltd.

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UNIT 8 TEACHING OF ENGLISH Teaching of English
Grammar

GRAMMAR
NOTES
Structure
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Grammar: An Introduction
8.2.1 Characteristics of Grammar
8.2.2 Grammar and Our Schools
8.2.3 Objectives of Teaching Grammar
8.3 Types of Grammar
8.4 Methods of Teaching Grammar
8.5 Teaching Procedure
8.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
8.7 Summary
8.8 Key Words
8.9 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
8.10 Further Readings

8.0 INTRODUCTION

Teaching grammar has always been an essential part in teaching of English

language. In this unit, the definition and characteristics of grammar will be
described. The effective teaching of grammar with several of the new
emerging techniques that helps the students attain a better knowledge of
grammar will also be discussed.
An analysis of the new techniques has paved the way for discussion
on the types of grammar and its uses. The ways in which grammar has been
taught in schools did not provide the application intelligence to the students
which have been discussed with reference to the usage of grammar for
practical purposes such as spoken and written forms. Various innovative
methods are provided for the students to get better knowledge about
grammar with their respective rules.

8.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the definition and characteristics of
grammar
 Discuss the objectives of teaching grammar
 Analyze the types of grammar
 Know about the methods of teaching grammar Self-Instructional
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Teaching of English
Grammar 8.2 GRAMMAR: AN INTRODUCTION

Grammar is a preventive and corrective medicine safeguarding and

NOTES rectifying language. Grammar is the science of language. It is an analytical
and terminological study of sentence.
Dr. Sweet has defined grammar as the practical analysis of a language
and its anatomy. Dr. West says, ‘Grammar is not a code of rules; it is, like
etiquette and table manners, a statement of convention… like etiquette, it is
in a state of constant change.’
Professor W.N. Francis says that Grammar has three different
meanings. The first meaning of ‘grammar’, also known as grammar-1, is the
set of formal patterns in which the words of language are arranged in order
to convey large meanings. The seconds meaning of ‘grammar’, known as
grammar-2, is the branch of linguistic Science which is concerned with the
description, analysis, and formulation of formal language patterns. The
third meaning of ‘grammar’ or grammar-3 is linguistic etiquette.
Chapman has given a comprehensive definition of grammar to establish
the rules and principles, which are followed more or less unconsciously or
instinctively by the native speakers.
Prof. Sonenshein has found that grammar deals merely with ‘syntactic’
type of difference in the grouping of words in sentences. It is a description of
structure and nothing more.
8.2.1 Characteristics of Grammar
The main characteristics of grammar relate to usage, diction, style and
punctuation.
Usage
Grammar leads to organizations of words which are based on eight different
parts of speech. These are verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs,
prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. These parts of speech determine
how the sentences are organized.
Diction
Diction refers to the proper use of words. Diction ensures that the words
convey and express meaning by their appropriate use.
Style: Sentence structure
As per grammatical rules, a sentence should contain a subject and a
predicate. While a subject refers to a person, place, thing or idea that acts in
the sentence,
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predicate is the verb that appears in the active or passive voice. It is to be Teaching of English
noted that a sentence is incomplete without a subject and predicate. Grammar

Style: Spelling
Words must be spelled correctly and there should be proper use of NOTES
uppercase and lowercase letters. For examples, while using proper nouns,
the first letter needs to be capitalized.
Proper Punctuation
Proper punctuation is another characteristic of grammar. Some of the
common punctuation marks are comma, colon, semicolon, dash, quotations
and parentheses.
8.2.2 Grammar and Our Schools
In the older days ‘Grammar first, language next’ was the common practice
everywhere. In those days, Latin Grammar dominated English Grammar,
and Grammar was a must to teach the art of speaking and writing the English
language. At present time, grammar is losing its importance. Scholars have
freely criticized it. P. Gurrey is of the view that in secondary schools the use
of paraphrasing and full analysis is a waste of time compared to the
effectiveness of many other exercises.
Holliday and his colleagues condemned it by saying that ‘much of
English grammar taught in the old method was pedantic or archaic, even
erroneous.’
In the old system of teaching, grammar occupied a very important
place in the curriculum. It was believed that ability to speak and write English
was impossible without a prior mastery of grammar. With the introduction
of Direct Method, grammar is fast disappearing from the school curriculum.
Because of the adoption of the Direct Method of teaching wherein
traditional grammar is ignored and functional grammar is taught along with
other linguistic items, Ballard says, ‘Formal grammar fails to provide a
general mental training, does not enable teachers to eradicate solecism, does
not aid in compositions and takes up time which could much more
profitable be devoted to the study of literature.’ Grammar, therefore, loses its
importance. It has begun to occupy a secondary place in the curriculum.
Formal or theoretical grammar gave its place to function or applied
grammar.
Professor A.W. Frisby has drawn a beautiful word-picture of a
swimming coach, coaching his young swimmers ‘strokes’ of swimming
without coaching them ‘swimming’. The result that he draws is fairly true.
‘Some shivered on the edge of the bath. A few jumped in and sank; the class
alas, could not swim.’ This exactly happens when the workman has been
taught how to name the tools and not to use them. Similar is the fate of
teaching grammar in our schools.
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Teaching of English Sources of the Matter of Grammar
Grammar
The best source of teaching is the textbook. It is the responsibility of the
authors of the textbook and even before them, it is the onus of the framers of
NOTES syllabus to lay down specific rules and instructions viewing the ‘end in
view’ on which these textbooks should be written. The authors should select
their material and grade it by including the specific points of grammar. They
should also give sufficient training in speech and writing and then by way of
correcting the oral and written work, the grammatical points should be
referred to.
When to begin grammar?
Here is an answer to his important question. The grammar taught in schools
should be pure grammar i.e. a grammar of function, and not in form.
Four Safeguards:
An eminent scholar has suggested four safeguards in the teaching of grammar.
 Firstly, the study of grammar should not begin until student has
acquired a working knowledge of the language.
 Secondly, Grammar should never form the sole subject of a full period.
 Thirdly, teachers should never face students with grammatically
incorrect sentence for them to correct.
 Fourthly, no opportunity should be missed to stress those points where
the vernaculars of India differ from English.
8.2.3 Objectives of Teaching Grammar
The main objectives of teaching grammar are enumerated as follows:
 To develop the understanding about the rules of grammar.
 To develop a scientific attitude towards language.
 To develop insight into the structure of English language.
 To develop their mental abilities of reasoning and correct observation.
 To enable the students to assimilate the correct patterns of the
language without rote memorization.
Advantages
Some of the advantages of learning grammar are as follows:
(i) The development of scientific and logical attitude towards language.
(ii) Systematically knowledge of the language.
(iii) Development of language skills.

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 (iv) The mental development of the learner. Teaching of English
Grammar
(v) The development of insight regarding structure of language.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of learning grammar are as follows: NOTES
(i) It hinders the spontaneous learning of a foreign language.
(ii) Knowledge of grammar does not help in speech and writing.
(iii) Learning the rules of grammar is not learning a language.
(iv) It does not provide the ideas, thoughts, and feelings to the learners to
express.
(v) Grammar does not lay down rules for the language to follow. It
merely observes and records the language.

8.3 TYPES OF GRAMMAR

The following are the types of grammar:

1. Prescriptive grammar
2. Descriptive grammar
3. Scholarly grammar
4. Structure grammar
5. Transformational generative grammar
Prescriptive Grammar: It is also called theoretical or formal grammar. It
is classical or old traditional grammar. In it, the main emphasis is on rules and
forms. It ties language with rules.
Descriptive Grammar: It is also known as function grammar. The main
emphasis lay on the functional side of language. Descriptive grammar
describes the behavior of language. It overcomes the shortcomings of
prescriptive grammar. It is not taught theoretically but is taught with the
teaching of language items.
The Scholars of ‘University’ Developed Scholarly Traditional
Grammar: They use bibliographical references, critical evolution of the work
of predecessors and documentation by citations from English literature.
Structure Grammar: Prof. C.C. Fries, an American linguist, was the
founder of structure grammar. It emphasizes on structure of sentences. It is
not a complete system.
Transformational Generative Grammar: According to this basis type of
grammar , sentences are of two types (a) basis sentence and (b)
transformed sentences. It is in a developing stage and may take an important
place in the future.

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Teaching of English
Grammar
Difference between Traditional Grammar and Functional Grammar
Traditional Grammar Functional grammar
NOTES 1. It lays emphasis on rote memorization 1. It emphasises on the correct pattern of
of grammatical rules. sentence without learning the rules by
heart.
2. It is taught with deductive approach 2. It is taught with inductive approach.
3. It is taught with the help of grammar 3. It is taught along with the graded
course books as a separate subject . reader but not as a separate subject.
4. It is taught formally 4. It is taught informally
5. Every part of grammar is taught 5. Useful and functional part of sentence
patterns is taught

Check Your
Progress
1. What are the characteristics of grammar?
2. State the objectives of teaching grammar.
3. List two advantages of teaching grammar to students.
8.4 METHODS OF TEACHING GRAMMAR

The various methods for teaching of grammar are:

1. The Tradition Method
2. The Inductive-Deductive Method
3. The Incidental or Correlation Method
4. The Informal Method
1. The Traditional Method
In this method, a textbook is used to contain definitions. For example, a
teacher’s task is to make the definitions and rules more clear to the students
with the help of suitable examples. He then asks students to do the same
exercise and memorize the definitions and rules by heart. Traditional method
has the following shortcomings:
1. It emphasis on rote memory
2. It is against the pedagogic principles to proceed from known to
unknown, simple to complex, particular to general, example to rule.
3. Students find it least interesting.
Due to all these demerits, this method is obsolete these days.
2. The Inductive Method
The method is most suitable because it is in accordance with the modern
method of teaching and moves from the known to the unknown, from simple
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 Thompson and Wyatt say, ‘Even when facts are discovered inductively, Teaching of English
the knowledge acquired has to be applied deductively.’ Grammar

Inductive means to proceed from observation to law and rules.

Deductive means to proceed from law and rule to observation and
NOTES
examples.
This method has two processes:
(a) Inductive process:
o Presentation of example and illustration in a systematic way.
o Observation and analysis of example.
o Generation of rules.
(b) Deductive process:
o Generation of rules.
o Verification and application of the rules by observation
and analysis.
o Practice of the examples of the rules.
Advantages
Inductive and deductive method has many advantages:
i. It is psychological because it follows the well known psychological
maximum of teaching.
ii. It arouses the interest of the pupils because they remain active, make
enquiry and discover the rules themselves.
iii. It has no place for memorization.
iv. It stimulates their power of thinking, reasoning and assimilation.
Demerits
Some scholars have criticized this method due to the following demerits:
i. It is only applicable at an early stage.
ii. This method is not full in itself. But the merits of this method have
made it most successful method of teaching grammar. It is advisable that
the grammar should be taught informally as the early stage with
inductive. Deductive method and incidental method at the middle stage
and with traditional method of the higher stage.
3. The Incidental or Correlation Method
It is also called reference method. In this method, grammar is taught
incidentally. This is done during the teaching of textbook, while doing
translation work, or during writing composition. Complex structures are
explained and the grammatical implications are taught simultaneously.At the
same time, these things interfere with

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Teaching of English
Grammar
course of teaching a particular topic because there is an unnecessary
divergence. ‘However, this method is very suitable, as a supplementary to
the Inductive- Deductive method. After the rules of grammar have been
NOTES taught in the grammar period, reference at the proper occasions may be made
in the intensive reading or composition period for the purpose of further drill
and application.’
Since grammar is taught by relating it to the textbook, translation
and composition, it is called reference or correlation method; the advantages
of this method is that students know the practical use of grammatical laws.
However it also has the following disadvantages:
o It is not a complete method.
o It can interfere with normal teaching.
For overcoming these demerits, this method should be used along
with inductive-deductive method.
4. Informal Method
This method advocates the teaching of grammar not by rules but by usages.
By continuous practice of using words while speaking, reading and writing,
grammar can be learnt. This method proves useful at the early stage when
pupils are taught orally. According to Suri and Bhardwaj,
‘The informal method is a necessity in the early stages when the pupils
have not mastered enough vocabulary and are yet baffling with speech.’
Informal method has following disadvantages:
(ii) All the grammatical rules cannot be taught by this method.
(iii) Student does not get systematized knowledge of grammar.
(iv) It consumes much time and labour of students.

8.5 TEACHING PROCEDURE

Grammar can be taught through stories or songs.
Teaching grammar through stories
Everyone loves a story. Stories can be used for both eliciting and
illustrating grammar points. The former employs inductive reasoning, while
the latter requires deductive thought. It is useful to include both approaches
in lesson planning. In addition, a well-told story is the perfect context for a
structure-discourse match, but the technique can also be used effectively for
a structure-social factor match. Storytelling is one of the extremely versatile
techniques, and once you get the hang of it, it can be a convenient and natural
grammar teaching tool. You may even find that it is the technique that holds
students’ attention best. The students also enjoy this technique the most.

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 Grammar points can be contextualized in stories that are absorbing if Teaching of English
they are selected keeping the interest of the class in mind, are told with a Grammar
high degree of energy, and involve the students. Students can help create
stories and impersonate characters in them. Storytelling is traditional in almost
all cultures. We can tap into that tradition for a very convenient and flexible NOTES
technique in order to teach a grammar lesson. A story provides a realistic
context for presenting grammar points and holds and focuses
students’attention in a way that no other technique can. Although some
teachers are better at telling stories than others, almost anyone can tell stories
with energy and interest. Students naturally like to listen to stories, and
they remember the stories long after the lesson is over.
Grammar can also be taught through songs and rhymes. Since the
meaning is an important device in teaching grammar, it is important to
contextualize any grammar point. Songs are one of the most enchanting and
culturally rich resources that can easily be used in language classrooms.
Songs offer a change from routine classroom activities. They are precious
resources which help develop students’ abilities in listening, speaking,
reading, and writing. They can also be used to teach a variety of language
items such as sentence patterns, vocabulary, pronunciation, rhythm,
adjectives, and adverbs. Learning English through songs also provides a non-
threatening atmosphere for students, who usually are tense when speaking
English in a formal classroom setting. They may encourage extensive and
intensive listening, and inspire creativity and use of imagination in a
relaxed classroom atmosphere. While selecting a song, the teacher should
take the age, interests of the learners and the language being used in the song
into consideration. To enhance learner’s commitment, it is also beneficial to
allow the learners to take part in the selection of songs.
Teaching procedure while using songs
There are various ways of using songs in the classroom. The level of the
students, the interests and the age of the learners, the grammar points to be
studied, and the song itself have determinant roles in the procedure. Apart
from them, it mainly depends on the creativity of the teacher. At the primary
level of singing the song, the prosodic features of the language is
emphasized. At the higher levels, where the practice of grammar points is at
the foreground, songs can be used with several techniques. Some examples
of these techniques are:
o Gap fills or close texts
o Focused questions
o True-false statements
o Put these lines into the correct sequence
o Dictation
o Add a final verse

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Teaching of English o Circle the antonyms/synonyms of the given words
Grammar
o Discuss
A teacher’s selection of a technique or a set of techniques should be
NOTES based on his or her objectives for the classroom. After deciding the grammar
point to be studied, and the song and the techniques to be used, the teacher
should prepare an effective lesson plan. Since songs are listening activities, it
is advisable to present them as a listening lesson, but of course it is necessary
to integrate all the skills in the process in order to achieve successful
teaching. When regarding a lesson plan as a pre-listening activity, the theme,
title, or the history of the song can be discussed. In the listening stage, some
of the techniques listed above can be used, but among them gap filling is the
most widely used technique. Through such gaps, the vocabulary, grammar, or
pronunciation is highlighted. This stage can be developed by the teacher
according to the needs of the students and the grammar point to be studied.
In the follow-up, integrated skills can be used to complete the overall course
structure.
Since many songs are on themes for which it is easy to find related
reading texts, it may lead the learner to read a text about the singer or the
theme. Besides, many songs give a chance for a written reaction of some
kind. Opinion questions may lead the learner to write about his own
thoughts or reflections. Some songs deal with a theme that can be re-
exploited through role plays. Acting may add enthusiasm to the learning
process. Finally, some songs deal with themes, which can lead to guided
discussion. By leading the students into a discussion, the grammar point could
be practiced orally and, in a way, naturally. Exploitation of songs for
grammatical structures can be illustrated through several examples, which
provide frequent repetitions, or tell a story, or provide comments about life,
or introduce cultural themes. These are effective since they provide authentic
and meaningful material.
How much Grammar should be taught in English?
A person’s ability in language is judged, not by the amount of grammar he
knows but his skill in using that language. At the same time, we cannot say
that he need not know any grammar. A judicious balance has to be struck
between too much and too little grammar. Over the years, teachers had a
fancy to teach grammar, particularly the rules and exceptions followed by
examples as seen in any grammar book. It was also very easy to do that; they
set apart separate periods for grammar, even neglecting the language
textbooks. Students too enjoyed grammar classes. They scored good marks
in grammar.
The syllabus in grammar for secondary schools has been prescribed
all over the country, generally covering the following areas.
i. Parts of speech with reference to their form and position in a
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ii. Words and word formations, prefixes and suffixes and
compound words, different kinds of phrases-adjective phrases,
preposition phrases, etc.
 iii. Clauses (noun, adjective and adverb) and identification in a Teaching of English
sentence. Grammar

iv. Different kinds of sentences, namely, simple, complex and

compound.
v. Tenses, namely, non-finite and finites gerunds and participle NOTES
Modals.
vi. Transformation of sentences, that is, active, passive, reported
speech, simple to complex and vice-versa.
vii. Prepositions and conjunctions.
viii. Punctuation.
Under all these categories, the knowledge of rules is not insisted but
the students should be able to do some exercises to strengthen their usage.
The motto in this regard can be neither too much grammar, nor too little.
Whatever grammar is taught, it must be functional and help the students in
improving their use of English.

Check Your Progress

4. What is transformational generative grammar?
5. State two ways in which teaching of grammar can be improved and
enhanced.

8.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. The main characteristics of grammar relates to usage, diction, style

and punctuation.
2. The main objectives of teaching grammar are enumerated as follows:
 To develop the understanding about the rules of grammar.
 To develop a scientific attitude towards language
3. Some of the advantages of learning grammar are as follows:
 The development of scientific and logical attitude towards language.
 Systematically knowledge of the language.
4. According to this basis type of grammar, sentences are of two types
(a) basis sentence and (b) transformed sentences. It is in a developing
stage and may take an important place in the future.
5. The teaching of grammar can be improved through these ways:
 Sufficient spoken and written work is essential.
 The method of teaching should be chosen keeping in view the age
and general standard of students.

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Teaching of English
Grammar 8.7 SUMMARY

 Grammar is the science of language. It is an analytical and

NOTES terminological study of sentence.
 The main characteristics of grammar relates to usage, diction, style
and punctuation.
 In the old system of teaching, grammar occupied a very important
place in the curriculum. It was believed that ability to speak and write
English was impossible without a prior mastery of grammar. With the
introduction of direct method, grammar is fast disappearing from the
school curriculum.
 The best source of teaching is the textbook. The authors should select
their material and grade it by including the specific points of grammar.
 Grammar helps in developing a scientific attitude towards language
and gaining insight into the structure of English language.
· Prescriptive grammar, descriptive grammar, Scholarly grammar and
Structure grammar are some of the types of grammar. While
prescriptive grammar emphasizes on rules and forms, descriptive
grammar lays stress on the functional side of language. Scholarly
grammar uses use bibliographical references and citations from English
literature. On the other hand, structure grammar was introduced by
American linguist Prof. C.C. Fries.
 The various methods for teaching of grammar are the tradition
method, inductive-deductive method, incidental or correlation
method, and the informal method.
 Traditional method relies on definitions and rules and emphasizes on
rote memory. Inductive method proceeds from observation to law
and rules while the deductive method proceeds from law and rule to
observation and examples. In the incidental or correlation method,
teaching is done while doing translation work, teaching textbook or
during writing composition. Complex structures are explained and the
grammatical implications are taught simultaneously. The informal
method advocates the teaching of grammar not by rules but by
usages
 Grammar can be taught through stories or songs. Grammar points can
be contextualized in stories that are absorbing if they are selected
keeping the interest of the class in mind, are told with a high degree
of energy, and involve the students. Grammar can also be taught
through songs and rhymes.
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 They can be used to teach a variety of language items such as Teaching of English
sentence patterns, vocabulary, pronunciation, rhythm, adjectives, and Grammar

adverbs

8.8 KEY WORDS NOTES

 Parentheses: It refers to a word or phrase inserted as an explanation

or afterthought into a passage.
 Prosody: It refers the elements of speech that are not individual
phonetic segments but are properties of syllables and larger units of
speech such as intonation, tone, stress, and rhythm.
 Inductive method: This method of teaching relies on examples first
and then moves on to rules.
 Deductive method: This method focuses on rules first and then
elucidates it with examples.

8.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. What are the four safeguards in the teaching of grammar?
2. What is the place of grammar in the teaching of English?
3. What are the disadvantages of informal method of teaching grammar?
4. Write a short note on the teaching of grammar through songs.
Long -Answer Questions
1. Explain the aims and objectives of teaching grammar.
2. Analyse the difference between teaching grammar through traditional
method and functional method.
3. Discuss the various methods of teaching English grammar.

8.10 FURTHER READINGS

Agnihotri, R. K. and A. L. Khanna. 1994. Second Language Acquisition:

Socio- Cultural and Linguistic Aspects of English in India. New
Delhi: Sage Publications.
Carter, Ronald, Rebecca Hughes and Michael McCarthy. 2000. Exploring
Grammar in Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Teaching of English Leech, Geoffrey and Jan Svarvik. 2000. A Communicative Grammar of English.
Grammar
Noida: Pearson Education Asia Pvt. Ltd.
Sachdeva, M.S. 2013. Modern Teaching of English. Ludhiana: Tandon
Publications.
NOTES

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UNIT 9 TEAM TEACHING Team Teaching

Structure
9.0 Introduction NOTES
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Team Teaching and Teaching of English
9.2.1 Implementation of Steps in Team Teaching
9.2.2 Principles of Team Teaching
9.3 Procedure to Implement Team Teaching
9.3.1 The Team in Action
9.3.2 Making Decisions
9.4 Suggestions of Team Teaching
9.4.1 Advantages of Team Teaching
9.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
9.6 Summary
9.7 Key Words
9.8 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
9.9 Further Readings

9.0 INTRODUCTION

Team teaching is one of the innovations in instructional organization to

ensure optimum use of resources, interests and expertise. In this unit, you will
learn about the implementation of steps in team teaching.
Team teaching ensures economical use of resources, interested and
enthusiastic teaching, deployment of teachers to areas and methods in which
they feel most at home; it makes teaching experience-centered, provides a
framework within which subject integration is possible and offers
opportunities for staff co- operation. This unit will also delve into the
advantages of team teaching.

9.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the meaning of team teaching
 Discuss the procedure of implementing team teaching
 Describe the suggestions and advantages of team teaching

9.2 TEAM TEACHING AND TEACHING OF

ENGLISH

In many higher education institutions, the usual pattern of teaching is still

largely based on an individual lecturer bearing responsibility for students in a Self-Instructional
course module Material 121
Team Teaching or unit, possibly supported by part-time staff tutors. At some levels of
learning though, for example in postgraduate seminars, this model is
replaced by a team- teaching approach which involves a number of lecturers
(usually between two and five) and possibly non-teaching professional
NOTES support staff as well. To carry out effective team teaching requires a re-
orientation on the part of individual staff members and departmental
administrators.
Background of team teaching
Team teaching has its origin in America in the mid-1950. Drawing strength
from an alliance with several great universities and championed by bodies
such as the National Association of Secondary School Principals and the
National Education Association, by 1964, it caught the imagination of some
1,500 teachers, whilst about 45,000 pupils were being instructed under team-
teaching methods of English.
It was suggested in the 1959 Report-Image of the Future that three
broad groupings of pupils might replace conventional classes and that each
of these groupings could have specific roles to play in the work of a school.
Forty per cent of the scheduled time might be spent in large groups of about
one hundred where the emphasis would be on pupil stimulation, motivation,
enrichment, planning of activities, etc. Teachers, in this area, would be
specialists and a wide range of audio-visual aids would be needed. Another
forty percent of the time would be spent by pupils, in small groups of
twelve to fifteen, with the teacher acting as counselor or consultant. Finally,
twenty percent of the time available would be spent on individual study or in
groups of two or three. Here, a variety of activities would be involved such
as reading, research, experimentation, writing, listening to pre-recorded tapes,
viewing, photographic material and so on, under the guidance of a tutor. By
1965, the technique had become extremely sophisticated both in its
organization and presentation of material.
American team-teaching ventures gave further impetus to the
implementation of team teaching in England. More schools took up the idea.
Almost every school advanced along its own lines. In I964, the school
council was formed. This council was given the responsibility of coordinating
and promoting such venture. In England, team teaching was introduced largely
to meet a need. For example, staffing problems had to be solved; facilities
were inadequate; framework was needed for mixed ability groupings; the
school learning age level was to be raised. However, the merits of team
teaching, as an educational innovation were not realized.
Meaning of team teaching
Team teaching has been defined differently by different writers. In the words
of Lloyd Trump and Dam Baynham, ‘Team teaching in an arrangement
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122 Material plan, instruct and evaluate one or more class groups, in an appropriate
instructional space and given the length of time, to take advantage of the
special competencies of the team members.’ David W. Beggs says, ‘A
teaching team is a systematic arrangement
with a leader and assistants, and with an optimum rue of technology Team Teaching
cooperatively instruct a group of students, varying the size of the student
groups and procedures with the purpose of instruction, and spending staff
time and energy in ways that will make the best use of their respective
competencies.’ In team teaching, a group of teachers, working together, plan, NOTES
conduct, and evaluate the learning activities for the same group of students.
In practice, team teaching has many different formats but in general it is a
means of organizing staff into groups to enhance teaching. Teams generally
comprise staff members who may represent different areas of subject
expertise but who share the same group of students and a common planning
period to prepare for the teaching. To facilitate this process, a common
teaching space is desirable. However, effective team teaching requires much
more than just a common meeting time and space.
9.2.1 Implementation of Steps in Team Teaching
Implementing a team teaching approach requires administrative
encouragement, acceptance of an initial experimental quality, and willingness
to take risks. Proof that team teaching works comes not only from the
instructors’ self-judgment, but also from students’ evaluations. Above all,
team teaching cannot be accomplished by administrative fiat, but
administrators need to encourage it.
Ways to Team Teach
In its fullest sense, team teaching is where a group of lecturers works
together to plan, conduct, and evaluate the learning activities of the same
group of students. However, it would be a mistake to think that team
teaching is always practised in the same way. Its format needs to be adapted
to the requirements of the teaching situation. Some possible options are
where:
 Two or more teachers teach the same group at the same time;
 Team members meet to share ideas and resources but generally
function independently;
 Teams of teachers share a common resource centre;
 A team shares a common group of students, shares planning for
instruction but team members teach different sub-groups within the
whole group;
 Certain instructional activities may be planned for the whole team by
one individual, for example planning and developing research seminars;
 Planning is shared, but teachers teach their own specialism or their
own skills area to the whole group;
 Teams plan and develop teaching resource materials for a large group
of students but may or may not teach them in a classroom situation.
An analysis of above definitions reveals the following characteristics of
team teaching:

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Team Teaching 1. It is a form of instructional organization.
2. A number of teachers join hands and decide to take action. It is
not imposed upon them. The cooperating members fully
understand it; they are enthusiastic about it and have to be
NOTES prepared to give the time and energy to make it work.
3. Resources are pooled for the benefit of all concerned. These
resources include factors such as specializations in interests,
knowledge, skills and experience. They also include more tangible
factors such as periods on the time-table, departmental equipment
and facilities and free time for meetings.
4. Team teaching focuses on the needs of the pupils.
David Warwick has identified four approaches to team teaching:
 Thematic approach: Warwick explains, ‘A whole new approach
is coming in to being… It entails complete afternoons being given
over to realistic fieldwork of all kinds; the availability of two or
more members of staff simultaneously involved in one project: a
breaking away from the conventional forms of classroom
divisions; and a blocking of the school timetable to give the
facilities and space required.’
 Concurrent themes: In this approach, two or more themes are in
operation together with the same group of children. For instance,
the mathematics department may decide to start a geographical
study of rainfall and temperature with one of its own ‘graphs’. In
this way, courses will be run on independent yet parallel lines,
having continual cross reference and links with each other.
Exchange of classes and the joint use of equipment and materials
could be arranged, yet maintaining their independence of them.
 The cumulative sequence: It is another way of organizing the
contributions of various departments to a team-teaching scheme. In
this sequence, no theme is presented to the pupils at the outset,
but the overall pattern is built up as the work proceeds.
Programmes are linked consecutively, like beads on a necklace,
but their relevance to other programmes in the sequence does not
become apparent until the final phase of the scheme. This
approach is more suitable for older or more academic pupils, but it
can be adapted for use with younger children also.
 The concentric pattern: In this approach, the starting point is
something the student knows well. From this something, the
syllabus radiates outwards and can be related at any point to
daily life or corporate existence of the pupils concerned. Thus, the
first programme may be simply called ‘Me’ and deal with such
matters as the physical working of the body, hobbies, sports,
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124 Material
9.2.2 Principles of Team Teaching Team Teaching

The principles of team teaching have been discussed below:

1. The size and composition of the team should be appropriate to its
purpose: For some purposes, it may be the most convenient and most NOTES
effective to assemble two or more classes of pupils. For others, much
smaller groupings are desirable. For some others, individual tutoring
and private study are essential. For still others, mixed ability
groupings may be preferred. It is very essential that the size and
composition of the team is appropriate to the needs of the learning
situation.
2. The time allotted to a group should also be appropriate to its
objectives. A fairly flexible time-table is essential. All lessons should
not be of the same length.
3. The learning-environment, too, must be appropriate to the activities of
the group. The conventional classroom, laboratories, libraries, workshops,
farms, halls and individual study corners are all needed and should be
utilized.
4. The jobs assigned to teachers must be appropriate to their special
qualifications and interests.
5. The level and style of instruction must be appropriate to teach
learners in the group.

Check Your Progress

1. State two characteristics of team teaching.
2. List two principles in team teaching.

9.3 PROCEDURE TO IMPLEMENT TEAM

TEACHING

Planning, conducting and evaluating team teaching are all important activities.
Some of the most important aspects of planning which we need to consider
in advance of implementing teams are the concerns of staff, the selection of
team members, and setting of realistic goals for any teaching team in the first
instance.
(i) Understanding staff concerns
A basic premise of team teaching is that its adoption is not something that
happens at one point in time — it extends over time. As users go through
the adoption process, there will be changes in their concerns.
From a team perspective, the ultimate aim will be to have individual
team members reach a stage where they accept joint responsibility for the basic
instruction of a group of students. There will be concerns; however, the
relevant literature suggests that one way of dealing with these concerns is
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Team Teaching seem to follow a time cycle. Early concerns usually appear to be procedural
e.g., determining roles, setting agendas, keeping records, setting
procedures for communicating with outside people, and scheduling
teamwork, etc. Next to appear are student-related concerns such as meeting
NOTES students’ needs, planning to deal with individual students, etc. These are
followed by concern among team members for their own professional growth
and finally there is a concern for the collective wellbeing of the team. This
last level is reached when teams are seen as (i) a means of professional self-
development, (ii) a forum at which ideas about instruction and coordinating
curriculum can be shared, and (iii) when students are involved in decision
making.
(ii) Selecting team members
The composition of any teaching team is a matter which must be considered
carefully if that particular team is going to function effectively. While it is
possible that teams can be arbitrarily formed, it is far more fruitful if they
come together in response to needs and interests. Thought needs to be given
to selecting team members and defining team roles and these decisions
need to be evaluated periodically. The following questions are indicative of
the sorts of issues which should be considered:
 Selection of team members: Team members should not be clones
of each other. Because differences in subject expertise, interests,
perspectives, backgrounds and qualification levels can contribute to
the collective strength of a team and the growth of individual team
members. Furthermore, the ‘mix’ of personalities and
characteristics add to the experience students get from interacting
with the team.
 What is the role of the team leader? Basically the team leader
will be concerned with (i) internal functioning — setting agendas,
keeping records, coordinating schedules ensuring the team ‘stays
on task’ i.e. that it achieves what it sets out to achieve; and (ii)
external functioning
— communicating with department heads to ensure that the team
is resourced, supported, and meeting departmental
goals/expectations, etc.
 What is the role of team members? Team members need to
contribute to the team in ways other than simply turning up for
classes and meetings. It is essential that all team members contribute
to formulating and achieving team goals. To do this, each member
must take responsibility for participating in team discussions and
planning session and following through on decisions made by the
team within the timeframes decided by the team. It is only in this
way that a spirit of cooperation and collaboration can be
maintained.
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126 Material (iii) Setting realistic team goals
Teams need to have a sense of direction. One finding from the relevant
literature of particular interest relates to the time required to develop an
effective level of team teaching. When teams are formed from teachers
with no previous team experience, it seems to take about three years for
them to
develop the
team-
teaching process to an efficient and effective level. Hence, in setting a Team Teaching
timeline for teams to achieve realistic goals, it is important to ask what the
aims of team teaching during the first year or semester will be and what the
longer-term goals are. The answers to such questions are important in
determining priorities for the development of teams. It is unrealistic to NOTES
expect that all goals and expectations will be met immediately. Rather, it is
better to consider what it is reasonable to undertake as teachers and to expect
from students and at what stage?
9.3.1 The Team in Action

A team in action has to follow certain steps in order to ensure classroom

management. Some of them have been discussed below.
(i) Planning for Teaching: Assume that it has been decided that team
teaching will go ahead in your department and that you have agreed and
been selected to be a member of a team. Assume also that the issues
surrounding teams discussed earlier have been attended to and the
team is now ready to begin work. Decisions facing yourself and your
teaching partners now will focus undoubtedly on planning
teaching/learning activities.
(ii) Assigning roles and responsibilities: Effective teams are systematic
in their division of labour and do not forget that roles may be rotated
on a regular basis. In allocating roles, strengths and weaknesses of
individual team members need to be taken into account. A brief
questionnaire gathering an idea of these strengths and weaknesses
might be a good idea before a draft list of responsibilities for the team
is discussed.
(iii) Catering for students: While team teachers and their students are
usually happy with the community spirit that teams can provide,
teamwork also has a considerable effect on classroom management. For
example, by planning together, team teachers can clarify teaching
policies and behavioral expectations that are applied to students.
Difficult management situations can be analyzed and resolved
together, resulting in richer discussions and sounder solutions. Teams
of teachers can think of ways of improving student motivation, a sense
of responsibility, and overall student performance.
(iv) Conducting meetings: Team teaching is group work and as such
teams need to develop as functioning groups. In dealing with other
team members, teamwork is seldom without conflict — professional or
personal points of view may clash. Blending differences
constructively is a challenge to all team members. To do this, it is
important to acknowledge team members’ strengths, interests,
personal and professional goals both in assigning responsibilities and
in the conduct of meetings.
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Running meetings Material 127

For a team to function effectively, the team meetings need to run well. They
need to clarify expectations for how the team will operate, i.e. clarify
management issues
Team Teaching and set ground rules for meetings such as:
 How will items get on the agenda?
 What should be recorded in the minutes?
NOTES  Who will do the recording?
 How will decisions be reached?
 How should communication with other teams and members of the
department be managed?
 How will a team calendar/schedule be compiled?
9.3.2 Making Decisions
Decision making process involves the following steps.
Evaluating Progress
The main problem encountered in meetings which prevent decisions from
being made effectively and efficiently is the difficulty of keeping all team
members on task. The team leader needs to ensure that:
 problems are defined clearly;
 there is time for brainstorming alternatives for action;
 each alternative is subject to critique;
 a plan of action is selected, implemented and subsequently evaluated
In a small team, a formal evaluation of progress often seems inappropriate.
However, all teams need to set aside some time to evaluate their progress in
terms of both teaching the module and with their own development as an
effective team. An outside facilitator could be called in to manage this
where appropriate. Some questions which might be asked in the context of
such an evaluation are:
 Are the goals set for the teams work realistic?
 Have the goals been achieved and to what extent?
 Do all team members participate equally in team decisions?
 Have decisions been carried out?
 Are responsibilities shared among team members?
 Do students benefit from the team’s work?
 Which areas need more attention?
Maintaining Continuity From Year to Year
In order to ensure the continuity of the module/course when it is presented
second and subsequent times, the team needs to maintain clear
documentation of the course including:
 the course outline or syllabus;

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  weekly timetables; Team Teaching
 teachers’ notes for each unit;
 students’ notes;
 teaching materials/written bulletins;
NOTES
 copies of tests and examinations;
 final course evaluations;
 student evaluations.
Carefully maintaining these course documents will ease the task of the
course leaders, facilitate the induction of new teachers into the team, and
simplify the task of revising the course/module in a rational manner.

9.4 SUGGESTIONS OF TEAM TEACHING

In view of the additional complexity which team teaching initiatives introduced

into departmental organization and in view of the time needed for staff to
adapt to the new structures, it is relevant to ask what benefits accrue from
team teaching. How, for instance, does team teaching benefit lecturers, part-
time tutors, students, and departments as a whole?
 For lecturers, who so often work alone, team teaching provides a
supportive environment that overcomes the isolation of working in
self-contained or departmentalized class-rooms. Being exposed to the
subject expertise of colleagues, to open critique, to different styles of
planning and organization, as well as methods of class presentation,
teachers can develop their approaches to teaching and acquire a
greater depth of understanding of the subject matter of the unit or
module.
 Part-time staff can be drawn more closely into the department as
members of teams than is usually the case, with a resulting increase in
integration of course objectives and approaches to teaching.
 Team teaching can lead to better student performance in terms of
greater independence and assuming responsibility for learning.
Exposure to views and skills of more than one teacher can develop a
more mature understanding of knowledge often being problematic
rather than right or wrong. Learning can become more active and
involved. Students could eventually make an input into team
planning.
 Team teaching aids the professional and interpersonal dynamics of
departments leading to closer integration of staff.
Team Teaching: An Alternative to Lecture Fatigue
Team teaching is an approach which involves true teamwork between two
qualified instructors who, together, make presentations to an audience. The Self-Instructional
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instructional advantages of team teaching include:
Team Teaching (1) Lecture-style instruction is eliminated in favour of a dynamic interplay
of two minds and personalities - Lectures require students to act as
passive receptors of communicated information, but team teaching
involves the student in the physical and mental stimulation created
NOTES by viewing two individuals at work.
(2) Teaching staff act as role models for discussion and disagreement -
Teaching staff members demonstrate modes of behaving in a
disagreement as well as exposing students to the course content.
(3) Team teaching makes effective use of existing human resources -
Acquisition of additional expensive resources or equipment is not
required to implement this method; only reorganization is required to
put the team into operation.
(4) Team teaching has the potential for revitalizing instructional
capabilities through a process of dialogue - Team teaching begins with
the recognition that the instructor/student link is critical and offers an
approach that has been shown to stimulate and provoke, while
expanding and enriching student understanding.
(5) Interest in traditional courses can be stimulated as students share the
enthusiasm and intellectual discourse that the lecturers communicate -
Team teaching is not boring. Students are drawn into the situation
from the first moment.
(6) The effective use of facilities is possible - The impersonal nature of
large lecture halls can be brought to life by an interactive and dynamic
situation.
(7) Team teaching provides opportunities for interaction with the audience.
9.4.1 Advantages of Team Teaching
Some of the advantages of team teaching are given below:
1. Ensures economical use of resources: Ours is an age of large
secondary schools, a number of sections in a single class, a number of
teachers teaching a single subject. It means subjects are taught to
different sections, at different times by different teachers. If audio-
visual material is used, it will tend to be used in the most uneconomic
fashion, the same equipment being used a number of times. This is
wastage of equipment and materials such as film projector, bulbs,
electricity, blackout rooms and above all, important factor- teacher
energy. When students are organized in teams consisting of 100 or 200
students, economic use of material and an efficient use of manpower
are ensured.
2. Ensures interested and enthusiastic teaching: While planning, the
teachers consider their own skills and divide the classroom teaching
accordingly. Some attempt can be made to give the ‘feel’ of a period
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130 Material
in history, evoke the physical sensation of a geographical location,
awaken sympathy with a character in fiction or get spiritual concepts
across. Similarly,
 one teacher may be good at presenting ideas, while another is best at Team Teaching
teaching slow learners or is able to diagnose a learner’s needs. Another
does well in correcting written expression. Through observing one
another and planning together, team teachers deepen their sensitivity of
the complexities of teaching and learning. Thus, students can get the NOTES
best of their teachers and teachers can give the best of themselves to
the students.
3. Deploy teachers to method and area of their expertise: Teachers
can concentrate on those areas for which they have expressed
preference or have specialized knowledge. Their time and energies
can thus be used far more economically and effectively.
4. Makes teaching experience-centered: Team teaching ensure that
complete afternoons are being given to realistic field-work of all kinds
and more than two members of staff are involved in one project. a
breaking away from the conventional form of classroom divisions and
blocking of the school time-table to give the facilities and space
required is also done.
5. Provides a framework within which subject integration is possible.
Team teaching places the needs of children above the needs of the
subjects.
6. Makes teaching pupil-centered: Pupil’s needs and reactions decide
the direction and scope of the syllabus. It provides a good ‘bridge’
between the closely built primary school community and the more
impersonal world of secondary school. It continues the much-needed
primary school emphasis upon activity work and discovery methods.
Lessons can be ‘tailored’ to fit the needs of the pupils.
7. Provides opportunities for staff cooperation: Team teaching allows
a glimpse to teachers of their colleagues at work. It gives an
opportunity to compare methods and approaches. Unknown and
unsuspected talents, interests and experiences are revealed. Teachers
come to know that Mrs Malhotra has a special knack of screening
films, Mr Harbans Singh has specialization on religion, Mr Bansal has
visited America and tells a lot about the Americans, their customs,
manners, etc. Such skills abound in any school. When teachers work in
isolation, these remain unutilized. Team teaching helps break this
isolation and prepares the ground for an effective use of talents for
the benefit of all concerned.
8. Takes students out of the classroom into the real world: It
narrows down the gap that has so far been separating schools from
actual life. As Warwick points out, ‘Traditionally our schools have
held themselves aloof from society at large. A part of the
neighbourhood, yet essentially apart from it, they have been
regarded, both from within and without, a case of culture in a
wilderness of ignorance and anarchy.’
9. Help in smooth sailing from the elementary level to the high
school level and then to the college level: There is the utmost
understanding
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Team Teaching

among students and teachers, which fosters mutual trust and

cooperation, and creates the most suitable atmosphere for learning and
teaching.
NOTES
Team teaching provides experimental framework in which all or most
of the current reforms can be incorporated and integrated. It has vast
potential for our country.

Check Your Progress

3. What is the role of a team leader?
4. How can conducting meetings resolve differences between team
members?
5. Give two advantages of team teaching.
9.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS
1. The characteristics of team teaching are:
 It is a form of instructional organization.
 Team teaching focuses on the needs of the pupils.
2. The principles in team teaching are:
 The jobs assigned to teachers must be appropriate to their special
qualifications and interests.
 The level and style of instruction must be appropriate to teach
learners in the group.
3. The team leader will be concerned with (i) internal functioning —
setting agendas, keeping records, coordinating schedules ensuring the
team ‘stays on task’ i.e. that it achieves what it sets out to achieve;
and (ii) external functioning — communicating with department
heads to ensure that the team is resourced, supported, and meeting
departmental goals/expectations
4. Teamwork is seldom without conflict and professional or personal
points of view may clash. Blending differences constructively is a
challenge to all team members. It is therefore important to conduct
meetings and acknowledge team members’ strengths, interests, personal
and professional goals.
5. The advantages of team teaching are:
 The effective use of facilities is possible. The impersonal nature of
large lecture halls can be brought to life by an interactive and
dynamic situation.
 Team teaching provides opportunities for interaction with the audience.

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 Team Teaching
9.6 SUMMARY

 Team teaching in an arrangement whereby more than two teachers,

with or without teaching aids, cooperatively plan, instruct and evaluate NOTES
one or more class groups, in an appropriate instructional space and
given the length of time, to take advantage of the special
competencies of the team members
 Implementing a team teaching approach requires administrative
encouragement, acceptance of an initial experimental quality, and
willingness to take risks.
 In its fullest sense, team teaching is where a group of lecturers works
together to plan, conduct, and evaluate the learning activities of the
same group of students. However, it would be a mistake to think that
team teaching is always practiced in the same way. Its format needs
to be adapted to the requirements of the teaching situation.
 Planning, conducting and evaluating team teaching are all important
activities. Some of the most important aspects of planning which we
need to consider in advance of implementing teams are the concerns of
staff, the selection of team members, and setting of realistic goals for
any teaching team in the first instance.
 Team members need to contribute to the team in ways other than
simply turning up for classes and meetings. It is essential that all
team members contribute to formulating and achieving team goals. To
do this, each member must take responsibility for participating in team
discussions and planning session and following through on decisions
made by the team within the timeframes decided by the team.
 Planning for teaching involves preparing a brief questionnaire gathering
an idea of these strengths and weaknesses, catering to students’
needs and conducting meetings. Decision making process should be
initiated only after evaluating progress.
 Team teaching not only leads to effective use of resources but also
ensures enthusiastic teaching. By making teaching pupil-centered and
experience- centered, it takes students out of the classrooms into the
real world.

9.7 KEY WORDS

 Team teaching: It refers to an arrangement whereby more than two

teachers cooperatively plan, instruct and evaluate one or more class
groups.
 Evaluation: Evaluations refers to the assessment or valuation of
students based on performance.

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Team Teaching

 Student selection: This refers to the process of selecting students

for teamwork or team presentation.
 Traditional approach: Traditional approach refers to a methodology
NOTES
that follows the ancient concepts in teaching.

9.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. What is team teaching?
2. State the need of team teaching.
3. What are the different methods of organizing teams?
4. How is team teaching different from traditional teaching?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Elucidate team teaching as an alternative to traditional teaching.
2. Explain how the current educational system provides the space to
implement team teaching.
3. Discuss the merits and demerits of team teaching.

9.9 FURTHER READINGS

Kochhar, S.K. 2011. Methods and Techniques of Teaching. New Delhi: Sterling
Publishers.
Richmond, W. Kenneth. 1967. The Teaching Revolution. London:
Mathuen and Co. Ltd.
Warwick, David. 1971. Team Teaching. London: University of London
Press Ltd.
Sachdeva, M.S. 2013. Modern Teaching of English. Ludhiana: Tandon
Publications
Vallabi J.E. 2014. Teaching of English Principles and Practices.
Hyderabad: Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.

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UNIT 10 LESSON PLANNING Lesson Planning

Structure
10.0 Introduction NOTES
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Lesson Planning: An Introduction
10.2.1 Meaning and Definition of Lesson Planning
10.2.2 Importance of Lesson Planning
10.2.3 Characteristics of a Good Lesson Plan
10.3 Preparation of Lesson Plan: Approaches
10.3.1 Prose Lesson
10.3.2 Poetry Lesson
10.3.3 Grammar Lesson Plan
10.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
10.5 Summary
10.6 Key Words
10.7 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
10.8 Further Readings

10.0 INTRODUCTION

Lesson planning is an important part of the teaching process. Careful lesson

planning not only yields positive rewards but also leads to effective learning.
In this unit, the characteristics and importance of lesson planning will be
discussed in detail.
Furthermore, the main approaches to lesson planning will also be
delved into. The approaches while preparing a prose lesson, poetry lesson
and grammar lesson vary a lot and this unit will offer insight into that as
well.

10.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the importance and characteristics of a good lesson plan
 Discuss the various approaches to lesson planning
 Explain the preparation of prose lesson, poetry lesson and grammar lesson

10.2 LESSON PLANNING: AN INTRODUCTION

Planning helps in the successful completion of any human activity. Careful

advance planning of any enterprise leads to its ultimate success and benefits
the person or persons concerned. Teaching is one such important activity
where detailed thinking and planning will yield handsome rewards in the
form of effective learning by students. Language being a skill subject needs
careful handling, as it is different from content subjects. The teacher should
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be familiar with the syllabus in English, which is laid out in the form of Material 135
structures and vocabulary items. Added to these
Lesson Planning are the teachers’ handbooks and pupils’ workbooks which are meant to
help them teach and learn English efficiently.
Planning involves, firstly, the allocation of the prescribed lessons on
units— term wise, month wise and week wise spread out evenly over the
NOTES whole year. The number of working days (teaching days) will have to be kept
in view in any subject planning.
Secondly, lesson planning every day serves to clarify the ideas of the
teacher on what to teach (the syllabus and the units) and how to teach it.
Vocabulary and structure needs to be borne in mind, while planning the
lesson. Also, the relative importance of the four language skills of listening,
speaking, reading and writing has to be considered and specific time should
be allotted to them in the teaching time available. Generally, one or two of
these skills oral work, reading or writing tend to get more attention, to the
neglect of the other skills. Listening skill usually gets neglected. A careful
lesson plan balances the claims of all these skills.
10.2.1 Meaning and Definition of Lesson Planning
Planning is essential not only in teaching but in all spheres of human activity.
Probably, there is no type of work where the results of poor planning are as
devastating as in teaching. R.L. Stevenson said, ‘To every teacher I would
say, “Always plan out your lesson before-hand but do not be slave to
it”.’Bagley has put it thus, ‘However, able and experienced the teacher, he
could do never without his preliminary preparation.’ I.K Davis is perfectly
right when he says, ‘Lesson must be prepared for there is nothing as fatal to
a teacher’s progress as unpreparedness.’ To be effective, every intelligent
worker plans out his work. A surgeon diagnoses the case, prepares his
surgical instruments before he puts the patient on the operation table; a
lawyer makes attempts to anticipate and prepare for every move in the
court, an engineer prepares his blue print before he actually starts the
construction work of a bridge or a building; the house mistress plans the
details of the daily meals; the sales manager gives careful attention to every
step in a proposed selling campaign. So a teacher must plan and prepare his
work.
A lesson plan indicates the aims to be realized by teaching a lesson,
the methods to be employed and the activities to be undertaken in the class,
so that it is kept engaged for the realization of the aim. A lesson plan is
actually a plan of action. It includes:
(i) Working philosophy of the teacher.
(ii) Information and understanding of his pupils.
(iii) Comprehension of the objectives of education.
(iv) Knowledge of the material to be taught.
(v) Ability to use effective methods of education.
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Following definitions indicate the broad meaning of a lesson plan:
Bining and Bining: Daily lesson planning involves defining the objectives, Lesson Planning
selecting and arranging the subject matter and determining the method and
procedure.
Lester B. Stands: A lesson plan is actually a plan of action. It, therefore,
includes the working philosophy of the teacher, his knowledge of philosophy, NOTES
his information about and understanding of his pupils, his understanding of
the objective of education, his knowledge of the material to be taught, and
his ability to utilize effective methods.
N.L. Bossing: Lesson plan is the title given to a statement of the
achievements to be realized and the specific means by which these are to be
attained as a result of the activities engaged in day-by-day under the
guidance of the teacher. This definition tends to focus upon the teacher’s
attention.
10.2.2 Importance of Lesson Planning
Preparing a lesson plan is the key to effective teaching. Lesson plan is a
‘Plan of Action’ implemented by the teacher in the classroom. Lesson
planning helps the teacher in the following ways:
 It makes teaching organized and systematic.
 It aids the teacher in the selection and arranging to teaching points.
 It prepares the teacher to apprehend and deal with the learning
difficulties of students.
 It leads to an appropriate utilization of time and resources.
 It boosts the confidence of the teachers during teaching.
Nature of Lesson Planning
According to Bossing, ‘Lesson planning is essentially an experience in
anticipatory teaching. It is living through in advance, mentally and
emotionally, the classroom experience as the teacher visualizes it. The eager
faces, the questions that will arise, the difficulties the pupils will encounter,
the way these difficulties are to be met, all these the teacher will experience in
imagination. This is the first essential of good planning. It is here that the
teacher can bring into play the subtle power of well-developed imagination.
The more vivid, the better, so long as it is fully tinged with realism.’
10.2.3 Characteristics of a Good Lesson Plan
Some of the features of a good lesson plan are given below.
 A lesson plan should be (a) attainable during a span of specified time,
(b) In sequence, (c) In logical order.
 The subject matter should be covered adequately.
 It should be ensured that the requisite material is well in place.
 The method, the teaching aid and the evaluation mode and items must Self-Instructional
be synchronized. Material 137
Lesson Planning  The plan should neither be too short nor too long.
 Learners’ age, aspirations and interest should be kept in mind.
 Focus should be more on fluency rather than accuracy.
NOTES
10.3 PREPARATION OF LESSON PLAN:
APPROACHES

Following are the main approaches to the preparation of lesson planning:

1. Herbartian Approach
J.F. Herbart (1776-1841) and his followers developed the five steps
approach to lesson planning. To a great extent, these steps are being
followed with some modifications even today. Herbart propounded four
steps: (1) Clearness, (2) Association, (3) System, (4) Method.
These names were changed by his disciples as given below:
 Clearness to Preparation
 Association to Presentation
 System to Abstract (Comparison and generalisation)
 Method to Application
These were further modified
as:
1. Preparation
2. Presentation
3. Association and comparison
4. Generalization
5. Application
Preparation: This step is concerned with the preparation of the mind of the
students so that they may receive new knowledge. This is very essential both
for the teacher as well the children. The teacher must know what the children
have already learnt and assimilated. He must have an accurate idea of what
the children already know. The children must be made to realize what they
do not know so that they may have a desire to know more. Preparation is
just like preparing ‘the ground before sowing the seed in it’.
Nothing is to be imparted in vacuum. The ‘apperceptive masses’ must
be brought to the forefront. J. Welton writes, ‘Let the teacher then—as
briefly and concisely as possible, pick up the thread of knowledge and get
the pupils into the line of thought which leads from their present
requirements to the new end. The better the teacher knows his class, the
more accurately and quickly can he do this. This starting point must be
known before the planning of the lesson can be profitably begun. It is this
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138 Material
place and attitude of the pupils that marks off the true artist in teaching
from the mere mechanical grinder of facts and formulae. To know where the Lesson Planning
pupils are and, where they should try to be are the two essentials of good
teaching.’ This step of preparation is also known as introduction.
Preparation means preparation on the part of the teacher as well as on
the part of the students. In preparation, the ‘will to learn’ is aroused to some NOTES
extent, whereas in motivation, it is reinforced to a higher degree.
Main Features of Preparation
Some of the features of the preparation stage are given below:
1. It should contain no new knowledge.
2. It should stimulate curiosity.
3. It should be as brief as possible.
4. Much time should not be devoted to this step.
Presentation
A lesson can be initiated in the following ways:
(a) We may start our lesson with the help of two or three interesting
questions.
(b) We may start with the help of some aids, i.e., pictures, charts or
models.
(c) We may put some questions on the subject-matter previously taught.
(d) We may start with the help of a situation. For example, in some topics
we may take the situation of a co-operative store for profit and loss.
(e) We may start with the help of a relevant story.
Statement of the Aim
Announcement of the statement of the aim of the lesson in a clear, concise
and specific form is very essential. It is necessary both for the teacher and
pupils to know the general and specific aims of the lesson. The teacher will
take the aid of various devices, e.g., questions, illustrations, explanations,
exposition, demonstration and sensory aids, etc. Information and knowledge
may be given, explained, revealed or suggested.
The teacher should bear in mind the following principles in the
presentation
stage:
(i) Principle of selection and division. The material to be
presented should be wisely and judiciously selected. It should be
divided into different sections. The teacher should also decide as
to how much he is to tell and how much the pupils are to find out
for themselves.
(ii) Principle of successive sequence. The different sections should
be well connected and should maintain a proper sequence. The
teacher should ensure that the succeeding as well as the preceding
knowledge is clear to the students. Self-Instructional
Material 139
Lesson Planning (iii) Principle of absorption and integration. In the end, separation
of parts must be followed by the combination for the
understanding of the whole.
Sometimes, the word ‘development’ is used in place of ‘presentation’
NOTES
as the latter implies passivity. The term development of the lesson indicates
that there is pupil-teacher activity.
Association and comparison: This step is related to the task of
strengthening the acquisition of new material. New knowledge is to be
presented to the children in such a way that it becomes associated with their
previous knowledge or facts. The students are presented with new
knowledge and are asked to observe it very carefully and compare it with
another set of facts and knowledge they already know. This helps them to
associate it with the old and thus to turn it into something new.
Generalization: This step is concerned with the systematizing of the
knowledge learnt. Comparison and contrast lead to generalization. In the
inductive type of lessons like mathematics, science of grammar, the students
are often required to establish some generalizations, rules or formulae. As
far as possible, the teacher should see that the students draw out the
conclusion themselves. If the generalization is not the product of the student’s
own thinking, reflection or experience, it is of little value to them. The
teacher should remain in the background. In the word of Ryburn, ‘It is bad
teaching to give children ready-made general conclusions, concepts as we
call them in psychology, which are not founded on experiences of the child
himself, on his own precepts... The child, with the teacher’s help and
guidance must be led to make his generalizations for himself.’
Application: Knowledge is power only when it is used and tested. T.
Raymont writes, ‘The mere acquisition of rules, precepts, principles,
definitions and laws makes directly for pedantry rather than for healthy
mental development.’ The fundamental law of psychology regarding
learning is that the consolidation of knowledge takes place only when the
knowledge learnt is applied to similar situations. Knowledge when it is put
to use and verified becomes clear and a part and parcel of the mental make-
up. The application also serves the purpose of revision and recapitulation of
the principles learnt. There is a difference between application and
recapitulation. Recapitulation merely denotes revision or repetition of the
knowledge learnt in the lesson whereas application requires a good deal of
mental activity to think and apply the principles learnt to new situations.
Forms of Application
1. Solving problems
2. Drawing of maps, charts or models
3. Writing of an essay
Self-Instructional 4. Doing some practical work
140 Material
5. Setting of new type tests
Evaluation of Herbartian Steps Lesson Planning

The Herbatian approach needs to be evaluated on the basis of its merits

and demerits.
Merits: NOTES
Some of the merits of this approach are as follows:
 It assists in making teaching systematic. The teacher proceeds on well
thought out and definite lines.
 It helps in avoiding unnecessary repetition in teaching.
 It is useful in achieving the cognitive objective of teaching.
 It makes use of the previous knowledge of the students for imparting
new knowledge.
 It employs the deductive and inductive methods of teaching.
 It provides a useful frame work, confidence and self-reliance by
following these steps and thus makes teaching effective.
Limitations:
Some of the limitations of this approach are as follows:
 The scheme being very much intellectual in character is suited to
knowledge lessons only. The scheme is not so useful in the case of skill
and appreciation lessons.
 There is more stress on teaching rather than learning.
 The term preparation has been used in a vague manner; preparation
may be concerned with both teachers as well as learners.
 Generalization is not so simple a process as is envisaged by Herbart.
It is not possible to have this step in many cases.
 The plan is rigid, stereotyped and mechanical in nature. This scheme
does not provide for much thinking on the part of the students.
 The term presentation has also been criticized as it speaks of inactivity
on the part of the pupils.
 Herbart was wrong to think that association was a distinct phase of
the learning process. The fact is that this process of association and
comparison is present from the very start of presentation.
2. Gloverian Approach
A.H.T. Glover, in his book New Teaching for a New Age criticized
Herbartian steps on the ground that they are stereotyped, give less scope for
pupil activity and fail to motivate students. If at all suitable, the Herbartian
pattern is suitable in the case of ‘academic subjects’ and the ‘verbal child’.

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Material 141
Lesson Planning Glover’s scheme is based on four points:
(a) Questioning,
(b) Discussion,
NOTES (c) Investigation,
(d) Pupil-activity.
(a) Questioning: By a conscious process of good questioning, an
intelligent teacher can lead his pupil through unfamiliar regions
to a desired destination. The teacher should ask questions at
different stages of the lesson. He should also encourage students
to ask questions.
(b) Discussion: The next step is discussion. For this purpose, it is
better to divide the class into groups. The discussion should be
directed in such a way that students are encouraged to express
their ideas freely. Discussion should help the students to remove
their difficulties.
(c) Investigation: Investigation may be individual or group
investigation. The students are required to investigate on the
topic selected.
(d) Expression: This will be the last step. This should be in the
form of practical activities. Glover classifies these as:
(i) Passive: Here, emphasis is on observing and listening.
(ii) Active: Activities may take the form of handwork craft
work gardening, drawing, etc.
(iii) Artistic or recreative: This includes activities like dancing,
music and acting.
(iv) Organizational: This aspect may be present in the above
activities.
3. Evaluation Approach
Herbartian approach is limited to the realization of the cognitive objective
and is hardly feasible in skill and appreciation lesson. Evaluation approach
has a wider scope. Both approaches are highly structured and teacher-
dominated.
Evaluation approach is based upon sound psychological principles of
learning. Herbartian approach does not provide for the specification of
teaching or learning objectives in behavioural terms. The evaluation approach
provides for the proper statement of educational objectives in behavioural
terms. Herbartian approach is the pioneer approach which showed directions
to the future educators. Herbartian approach is simple and can be easily
followed. Evaluation approach needs more expertise on the part of the
teachers.
Self-Instructional We should try to pick-up all the good points of every approach and
142 Material apply those which suit our classroom environment. We need a happy
blending of all these approaches. The crucial point is that we should follow
an approach which makes our students active participants in the teaching-
learning process and makes it meaningful and effective.
10.3.1 Prose Lesson Lesson Planning

GeneralAims: To teach communicative English, the four language skills of

listening, speaking, reading and writing (LSRW) need to be focused upon.
Specific Aims: To teach the teaching items, structure and vocabulary should NOTES
be included in the lesson and adequate practice should be provided.
The format of the lesson plan has some vertical and horizontal columns
in it.
The following steps and procedure are written down in the vertical columns.
1. Introductory activities
2. Language work (presentation, practice &production)
3. Vocabulary work
Content: Statement of topic, model reading, silent reading, comprehension
questions, reading.
Objectives, specifications, teacher activity, pupil activity, blackboard
work, and the use of aids are written in the horizontal column. Suitable and
appropriate statements are written under each horizontal column against the
corresponding items of the vertical column.
Under introductory activities, the first step in the vertical columns is
motivation. The teacher draws the attention of the pupils to the lesson on
hand, by suitable narration or leading questions. Teacher may greet the
students and ask a few questions about the last lesson, etc. Thus, rapport is
established with the students.
Some listening passages are included. The teacher reads the passage
aloud and the students listen with their books closed. Then he asks them a
few questions to test if they have listened properly. They are thus exposed to
good English from the beginning.
The next step is language work.
The teaching item (may be a structure or a vocabulary item) is first
presented orally by the teacher. This is done through suitable situations or
contexts, meaningful to the students. They listen and understand the
meaning of the structure or vocabulary. Then, they practice the use of the
item, under the guidance of the teacher, who provides hints or clues to
enable them to use it in their own sentences. The item is also drilled
thoroughly. They then produce their own sentences with or without the help
of the teacher. Thus, the communicative value of the language item is
realized in the course of teaching.
In teaching new vocabulary items, the same procedure as detailed
above is followed. All new words are grouped as active vocabulary and
passive vocabulary. The active vocabulary is taught for productive purposes
(for communicative purposes i.e. to speak and write). The words are
practiced in different contexts. The students should be trained to use these
words in their own sentences. The pronunciation of the words should be
taught carefully. Passive vocabulary is for

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Lesson Planning purposes of recognition only, i.e. for understanding. The meanings of such
words are just suggested through pictures or self-explanatory sentences.
The next stage in the lesson is teaching the content. With suitable
narration and questions, the teacher introduces them to the subject matter of
NOTES
the lesson. The topic is then announced and written on the blackboard.
Then there is silent reading of the lesson. As outlined earlier, the
purpose of silent reading at school and in later life is to develop speed of
reading with comprehension. The teacher should train the student to read
silently, without lip movements and regression (going back).Afew
comprehension questions are asked to test their understanding of the text.
Pupils are then made to read the passage aloud, taking care about
pronunciation and proper pauses.
The last step is evaluation. This is done in the form of recapitulation
and assignments. Within the short time available in a teaching period, only a
part of the achievement is judged through suitable questions on content and
vocabulary. Since listening and speaking cannot be judged accurately in the
short time, reading comprehension is tested in the recapitulation stage as
well. The second part of evaluation is assignment. Writing skill is tested
through a few exercises given as homework, which helps us to test the
objective and becomes an important part of the lesson.
10.3.2 Poetry Lesson
Here, we will consider what should go into a lesson plan for teaching
poetry. Poetry differs from prose in many respects and you will see these
differences as you notice the steps in teaching it.
A lesson plan for poetry, as for prose, has both vertical and
horizontal columns. The horizontal columns are: Steps / Teaching Points /
Objectives & Specifications / Teacher Activity /Pupil Black Teaching Points
and Special activity board work.
Introductory activities: A brief and pointed introduction to the poem
without too many details is given by the teacher.
A good introduction is like a big meal, the meal here being the great
impact the poem is going to create on the pupils. It establishes rapport and
sets the mood of the pupils.
Declaration of the topic: A good introduction should lead to the topic
of the poem naturally. It is written on the blackboard. Their expectations are
roused and they are ready to listen to the poem.
Presentation: Some teachers would prefer to read the poem aloud at this
stage, but seeing the standard of children it is better that the meanings of
difficult words is clarified soon after the first reading. The meanings are
given with the help of contextualized sentences. Some poets pack a lot of
meaning into words; there are layers of meaning in fact. It is enough if one
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144 Material
clear meaning is given at first and the pupils allowed to discover further
meanings gradually. They need not be asked to
use these words in sentences of their own as in the case of prose. A poet Lesson Planning
uses words not only for their meaning, but for the rhyme, rhythm, alliteration,
etc. These are conveyed by effective reading aloud of the poem.
The teacher then reads the poem aloud. He may use a tape if available.
The children may close their books and listen in order to get the impact of NOTES
sound and sense. Then the teacher reads it again; this time the children may
keep their books open and follow the teacher’s model reading closely.
Then there is silent reading by the pupils. They will understand and
appreciate the poem if they read it for themselves. Silent reading will be the
basis for their reading aloud later. As they read silently, the teacher goes
round the class and offers help where necessary.
Silent reading is followed by comprehension questions. A few
global questions on the total meaning of the poem and a few local questions
on individual lines are asked by the teacher. Thus, their comprehension skill is
tested thoroughly.
Later their appreciation of the poem is tested by a few intelligent
questions, like ‘which words show you that the poet is happy at the sight of
the rainbow?’
The rhyme and rhythm and the music of the poem are brought out, so
that they really appreciate the poem. Then the pupils are asked to read the
poem aloud, first individually, then in small groups, and then the whole class.
By reciting the poem they enjoy the music fully, in addition to the ideas.
Appreciation is an important stage in a poem.
The last stage is evaluation which is done through recapitulation and
assignment. The pupils are asked to give the main points in the poem. They
may be asked to read the poem again. We should remember that good poetry
is meant for reading and memorization. The homework need not be a
summary of the poem. If they are seniors they may be asked to read other
poems by the same poet or about his life history, etc.
Their interest in literature should be awakened by home reading and
home assignments.
10.3.3 Grammar Lesson Plan
Structure words: Some, any, no.
Aids for teaching: Familiar objects such as pens, pencils, water, ink,
sugar. General aim: To help the pupils to understand spoken English.
Specific aim: To help the pupils to learn the use of ‘some, any, and
no.’
Preparation: The pupils have already learnt the use of
(i) is this / that a
(ii) There is / are
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Their knowledge can be tested, with the following questions. Material 145

1. Is this a bag? Yes, it is. Is that your water bottle? No, it isn’t.
2. Is there a picture of ‘Nehru’ in this room? Yes, there is.
Lesson Planning 3. How many pictures are there in your house?
4. How many girls are there in this class?
Announcement of the topic: Today, we will learn the use of some, any,
NOTES no. Presentations: The teacher puts different objects-pens, pencils,
ribbons,
ink bottle (empty) on the table and makes the pupils describe the objects. He
will help them to make the statements by putting questions.
How many pens are there on the table? There are six pens on the table.
How many pencils are there in your bag?
There are two pencils in my bag. Are there any bags on the table?
No, there aren’t any bags on the table. Is there any ink in that bottle?
No, there isn’t any ink in that bottle.
Is there any water in the village tank? Yes, there is some water in the
tank.
Are there any pictures in this room?
Yes, there are some pictures in this room. Is there any sugar in this bowl?
No, there is no sugar in this bowl. Is there any sugar in that bowl? Yes,
there is some sugar in that bowl. Is there any milk in this pot?
No, there is no milk in this pot. Is there any milk in that pot?
Yes, there is some milk in that pot. ‘Now repeat the sentences after
me’. There are six pens on the table. There are two pencils in his bag. There
aren’t any bags on the table. There isn’t any ink in that bottle.
Is there any water in the tank? There is some water in the tank. There
are some pictures in this room. There are some girls in our school. There is
no pencil in my pocket. There is no ink in that bottle.
There is no water in the pot.
At this stage, Teacher tells the students the rule about the use of the
words some, any, no.
‘Some’ is used with countable and uncountable nouns in affirmative
sentences.
E.g. some pencils, some sugar, some water. It means particular or ‘known’
number or quantity. ‘Any’ is used in the sense of ‘general’, not ‘known’
vague.
Negative and interrogative sentences
‘No’ means ‘nothing’. It refers to numbers as well as quantity. There
are no boys in class IX. There is no water in the tank.
Practicing the use of some any, no
Teacher makes a statement and gives a cue word and pupils use it in
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146 Material
Boys, girls.
There are some boys in our class. There are some girls in our class.
There is not any ink in that bottle.
 Water, tank, pot. Lesson Planning
There is not any water in the pot. There is some water in the
tank. Passenger, bus,
There is not any passenger in this bus. There are some passengers in NOTES
that bus. There is no picture in this book.
Photo, my house, album.
There is no photo in my house. There are some photos in his
album. The sentences are written on the Blackboard as the pupils
say
Then they are asked to read the sentences. Further practice is done
by question and answer.
Are there any shops in this village?
No, there are no shops in this village. Is there any paint in this
tin? No, there is no paint in this tin.
Are there any notebooks in your bag? Yes, there are some notebooks.
Is there any tea in that pot?
No, there is no tea in that pot.
Homework: Teacher gives a substitution table and asks them to make
meaningful sentences at home.
Advantages of Lesson Planning
The lesson plan affects the teacher’s skill, intelligence, ability and his
personality. Following are the chief functions of planning:
1. It delimits the field of work of the teacher as well as of the students
and provides a definite objective for each day’s work.
2. As the goal is determined, the teacher gets impetus to realize his goal.
3. It tends to prevent wandering from the subject and going off the way.
It serves as a check on the possible wastage of time and energy of the
teachers and students. It makes teaching systematic orderly and
economical.
4. Planning helps the teacher to organize and systematize the learning
process. The activities in the lesson are well-knit, inter connected and
associated. The continuity of the educative process is ensured.
5. Planning helps to avoid needless repetition.
6. Planning helps the teacher to overcome the feeling of nervousness
and insecurity. It gives him confidence to face the class.
7. It gives opportunities to the teacher to think out new ways and means
of making the lesson interesting and to introduce thought-provoking
questions. Self-Instructional
Material 147
8. It ensures a definite assignment for class and availability of adequate
materials for the lesson.
Lesson Planning

9. It enables the teacher to link the new knowledge with the previous
knowledge acquired by the students.
NOTES 10. It ensures a proper connection of the new lesson with the previous lesson.

Check Your
Progress
3. What is Gloverian approach?
4. What is the project approach to lesson planning?
5. State
10.4 two advantages
ANSWERS TO ofCHECK
lesson planning.
YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS
1. The main approaches to lesson planning are the Herbartian Approach,
Gloverian Approach, and the Evaluation Approach.
2. The merits of Herbatian approach are:
 It assists in making teaching systematic. The teacher proceeds on
well thought out and definite lines.
 It helps in avoiding unnecessary repetition in teaching.
3. A.H.T. Glover, in his book New Teaching for a New Age criticized
Herbartian steps on the ground that they are stereotyped, give less
scope for pupil activity and fail to motivate students. The Gloverian
approach is based on questioning, discussion, investigation and pupil-
activity.
4. The project approach which was developed by W.H. Kilpatrick and
John Dewey stresses self-activity, social activities and real life
activities.
5. The advantages of lesson planning are:
 Planning helps to avoid needless repetition.
 Planning helps the teacher to overcome the feeling of nervousness
and insecurity. It gives him confidence to face the class.

10.5 SUMMARY

 Lesson planning leads to effective learning by students. Lesson plan

attempts to clarify the ideas of the teacher on what to teach (the
syllabus and the Units) and how to teach it. A lesson plan indicates the
aims to be realized by teaching a lesson, the methods to be employed
and the activities to be undertaken in the class, so that it is kept
engaged for the realization of the aim.
 Lesson planning involves the process of defining the objectives,
selecting and arranging the subject matter and determining the method
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  J.F. Herbart (1776-1841) and his followers developed the Five Steps Lesson Planning
Approach to lesson planning. This was later known as the Herbatian
approach. The steps involved in this approach are Preparation,
Presentation, Association and Comparison, Generalisation, and
Application. The preparation stage refers to the preparation on the NOTES
part of the teacher as well as on the part of the students.
 During the presentation stage, the material to be presented should be
wisely and judiciously selected. Each section should be well-connected
and a proper sequence should be maintained.
 In the association and comparison step, new knowledge is to be
presented to the children in such a way that it becomes associated with
their previous knowledge or facts.
 The generalisation step is concerned with the systematizing of the
knowledge learnt. The Application step is the stage where knowledge
is tested.
 The Gloverian approach is based on questioning, discussion,
investigation and pupil-activity.
 The evaluation approach provides for the proper statement of
educational objectives in behavioural terms. Evaluation approach needs
more expertise on the part of the teachers.
 For prose lesson, structure and vocabulary should be focused upon
and adequate practice should be provided. A lesson plan for poetry
differs from prose in many respects. Grammar lesson is planned to
help the pupils to understand spoken English and to help the pupils to
learn the use of structure words.

10.6 KEY WORDS

 Recapitulation: It is an act or instance of summarizing and restating

the main points of something.
 Silent reading: Silent reading is a form of recreational reading or
free voluntary reading, where students read silently in a designated
time period.
 Assignment: An assignment is a teaching method that boosts the
competency of students by having them carry out the task in their own
time.

10.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. What are the features of a good lesson plan?
2. What are the limitations of the Herbartian steps?
3. How will you check the previous knowledge of the Self-Instructional
Material 149
learners?
Lesson Planning

Long-Answer Questions
1. Discuss the concept of lesson planning and analyse its steps.
NOTES 2. Explain the structure of the lesson plans.
3. Analyse the general objectives and specific objectives for preparing
poetry and prose lesson plan.

10.8 FURTHER READINGS

Jesa, M. 2005. Efficient English Teaching. New Delhi: APH Publishing
Corporation.
Kumari, A.V. 2014. Methods of Teaching English. Guntur: New Era Publications
Mowla, Shaik. 2009. Techniques of Teaching English. Hyderabad: Neelkamal
Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Paliwal,A.K. 2002. Perspectives on English Language Teaching. Jaipur:
Surabhi Publications.
Swami, N. Krishna & Sriraman. 1994. Anatomy of Prose, Poetry and
Drama. Chennai: T.R Publications.

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 BLOCK - IV Instructional Materials

INNOVATION AND EVALUATION

IN
TEACHING ENGLISH NOTES

UNIT 11 INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIALS
Structure
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Instructional Aids
11.2.1 Types of Instructional Aids
11.2.2 Importance and Use of Instructional Aids
11.3 Audio-Visual Teaching Aids
11.3.1 Types of Audio-Visual Aids
11.3.2 Identifying the Websites
11.4 Advantages of Audio-Visual Aids
11.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
11.6 Summary
11.7 Key Words
11.8 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
11.9 Further Readings

11.0 INTRODUCTION

Instructional aids help the learners to grasp the concept easily even if the
concept is a complex one. In this unit, you will learn about instructional
materials and the importance of using them in the teaching-learning process.
Through the use of audio-visual aids such as slides, flow charts, tape
recorder, overhead projector, the learners are exposed to a vast knowledge
accompanied with latest technology. This in turn helps them understand the
nuances in technology as well as the subject matter. The effective use of AV
aids has a number of advantages. These advantages will be discussed in the
unit.

11.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the meaning and types of instructional
aids
 Discuss the importance and use of instructional aids
 Elucidate on the audio-visual aids and its advantages Self-Instructional
Material 151
Instructional Materials
11.2 INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS

Instructional aids are the devices which can be used in teaching for their
NOTES appeal to the ear and the eye. They are the aids to teaching-learning process.
They generally include such materials as objects, pictures, chalk-board,
flannel-board, slides, tape recorder, films and television that are
supplementary to actual text books. Albert Duret rightly said, ‘It is easier to
believe what you see than what you hear; but if you both see and hear, then
you can understand more readily and retain more lastingly.’
An instructional aid is any device that assists an instructor to transmit
to a learner facts, skills, attitudes, knowledge, understanding and appreciation.
A visual aid is an instructional device that can be seen but not heard. An
audio aid is an instructional device that can be audio-visual, that is, the
device can be heard as well as seen.
11.2.1 Types of Instructional Aids
Some of the types of instructional aids are as follows:
 Visual aids: These are aids that can be seen. They include black-
board, flannel board, bulletin board, pictures, charts, models, objects,
flash cards, film strips and slides.
 Audio aids: These are the aids that can be heard. They include
record- player (gramophone), tape recorder and radio.
 Audio-visual aids: These are the aids that can be both seen and
heard. They include television and motion-pictures, and video.
11.2.2 Importance and Use of Instructional Aids
In the present age, instructional aids are of great help in teaching any school
subject. But they assume special importance in an English classroom where
the learner’s experience is not so direct as in learning mother-tongue. They
are important in teaching a foreign language like English for the following
reasons.
 Making teaching and learning effective: Instructional aids can be used
to create situations to make the meaning of words and structures clear
and to practice them in meaningful situations.
 Providing variety: Instructional aids can remove the monotony of
practice work by creating variety and make lessons lively. Display of
various charts, substitution tables, pictures, models, etc. provide a variety
in teaching learning situations.
 Providing interest and inspiration: Instructional aids can provide
interest to the students and inspire them to study more than the actual
classroom instruction and textbook assignments. These aids match with
the basic needs and motives of students and thus, provide a motivation
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152 Material force for learning.
  Creating Language atmosphere: For mastery of a foreign language, Instructional Materials
an understanding of the culture of the native speakers of the language is
essential. Pictures and films on the daily life and the different facts of
the socio cultural life of the English people will help the pupils to
develop such an understanding. Thus, these aids help in creating the NOTES
visual atmosphere in the class.
 Reducing teacher talking: Instructional aids help in reducing teacher
talk. If the picture or model is shown, it needs little explanation.
 Reducing over-dependence on mother-tongue: The use of instructional
aids help an English teacher to reduce over-dependence on learner’s
mother- tongue.
 Classifying the subject matter: Instructional aids bring clarity and
understanding to the various difficult and abstract concepts in
language. They reduce verbalism.
 Saving time as energy: With the use of instructional aids, much of the
time and energy is saved. Most of the abstract language concepts and
phenomena may be easily clarified and assimilated through their use.

Check Your Progress

1. What are the different types of instructional aids?
2. State some examples of audio aids.

11.3 AUDIO-VISUAL TEACHING AIDS

Much of what we say in any language is promoted by what we see or have

seen around us. We, therefore, have to give our students practice in reacting
in English to objects or pictures. Audio-visual aids are an addition to our
‘armoury.’ They allow us to explain a word or concept simply by showing a
picture or pointing to an object. Abstractions can often be expressed in this
way where mime or words are insufficient. Time can be saved by passing
pictures or objects round the class and getting group work going. Tempo
can be accelerated because showing or pointing is a more rapid process
than speaking or explaining. One should not become intoxicated with visual
aids. They can deteriorate into poor substitutes for preparing a lesson.
Combine them with other techniques to fulfill immediate and long-term
aims. The more the pupil is exposed to good models, and more relevant the
material handled appears to him, the more likely he is to make the
considerable effort needed to speak a language well.
In the classroom, the teacher tries to provide a stimulus to many
things at once- accuracy of hearing and imitating, understanding of groups of
foreign sounds and reaction to the ideas expressed by these sounds. How
much of what goes on in the classroom the pupil will retain after leaving the
lesson depends on his own interest in the subject and his own linguistic Self-Instructional
ability and on the teacher’s ability to Material 153
Instructional Materials get at the individual member of the class. There can be no question that the
physical personality and the linguistic technique of the teacher will always
have a far more profound and lasting effect than any mechanical aid.
It has become fashionable to talk of radios, tape-recorders, television
NOTES
and language laboratories as the most important aids in teaching English.
This has developed in the teachers of our country a cynical attitude towards
all teaching aids. They regard teaching aids as something which only the
affluent schools can afford. This is but natural in a country where the vast
majority of schools do not have even the minimum essential furniture like
desk and benches in their classrooms. All aids need not be as expensive as
the ratio or the tape recorder. Nor should they sound as unrealistic as the
advocacy of close circuit television or language laboratories for our rural
schools. Many of the more useful aids can be made by the teacher himself at
little or no cost at all. What is required is a proper understanding of the
purposes of the aids and a genuine desire to improve one’s teaching.
The Blackboard
The blackboard is one of the most important visual aids, commonly available
and inexpensive. It has the advantage of providing a focal point of attention
for the whole class. It can be used for a variety of purposes. However, it is
very easy to forget its usefulness simply because it is always there or because
of lack of thought, preparation, and reluctance to regard it as an integral part
of a lesson.
A good blackboard should have ample space. Before writing anything
on the blackboard, it is advisable to mentally divide the blackboard space
into two parts - a reference area and a working area. Use of coloured chalk
will help in focusing pupils’ attention and will make the lesson interesting.
The writing on the blackboard should be neat and tidy and clearly visible
from the last bench. The teacher should be careful not to stand for a long
time writing on the board with back to the class while students do nothing.
He should not talk to the board. If he needs to say something, turn around
and address the class. Keep the students involved by getting them to read
and repeat parts of what you have written. The teacher can get the pupils
write on the board for him and test their spelling this way. The teacher
should clean the board when it becomes impossibly crowded, instead of
squeezing in additional sentences wherever there is space.
Rules for the use of blackboard
1. Keep it neat and clean. Everything put upon it must be written or
drawn with care
2. See that it is the right place. Walk round the class to make sure that
sunlight is not upon it and what is written upon it is visible to all
pupils.
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154 Material
3. Know what you are going to put on it before you begin
4. Draw pictures, diagrams, tables, etc
5. Use coloured chalks, but not too many, as they prevent discrimination
 6. Let your pupil use the board as often as you use it yourself. Let them Instructional Materials
write and draw on it sometimes for the class and sometimes for the
teacher.
11.3.1 Types of Audio-Visual Aids
NOTES
For purposes of convenience, we shall classify these aids into five types:
(1) Aids through the ear (auditory)
(a) Phonograph and
(b) Radio
(2) Aids through the eye (visual)
(a) Motion picture
(b) Stereoscope
(c) The chalkboard
(d) The camera
(e) The flannel board
(f) The bulletin board
(g) Pictorial Materials
(h) Representations-maps, globes, diagrams, etc.
(3) Aids through the eye and ear (audio-visual)
(a) Sound-motion pictures
(b) Television
(4) Aids through activity
(a) The school journeys
(b) The objects, specimens, model collections
(5) Miscellaneous
(a) Dramatization
(b) Booklets
(c) Newspapers and magazines.
Edgar Dale bases his classification upon the kinds of experiences
presented through the aids. He calls it the ‘Cone of Experience’. The range
of experience described through audio-visual aids as classified by him is
between direct experience and pure abstraction.
These divisions are not intended to be rigid. They overlap and
sometimes blend into each other. The author desires the cone to be ‘a
visual metaphor of learning experiences depicting the various items in the
‘order of increasing abstraction, as one proceeds from direct “purposeful
experience” which is the bedrock of all education.’
Some of the instructional aids used for teaching have been discussed
below:
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Instructional Materials Charts and Tables
Large wall charts and tables can be used for the development of skills as
well as for imparting the essential knowledge of structures and vocabulary.
Pupils can read sentences from charts and tables and write them. Large
NOTES
readymade substitution tables may be found very helpful. Many charts and
tables on the syntactic structures and vocabulary are available in the market.
In the early years, the pupils can read sentences and rhyme from charts. In
teaching grammar, the examples for generalization and comparison can be
written on charts and used year after year. In such charts, colours can be used
to focus attention on a particular point. Suitable model paragraphs can also
be written on charts to enable pupils to write parallel paragraphs. Each
school should try to have a good collection of such charts and tables. Each
item should have ‘instructions for use’ written on the back.
Flash Cards
Cards containing letters, words, phrases, sentences, etc. are a very useful
and inexpensive aid in teaching English. The letters in the cards should be
sufficiently large so that the whole class can read them without any difficulty.
These cards can be used for a variety of purposes. Pupils can practice
sentence-making words making by combining these cards.
Cut-outs
Small figures of people, animals, birds, cut-outs from magazines and
newspapers can be excellent teaching aids. If they are mounted on
cardboard, they would become more versatile and durable. The mounted
pictures look almost like three dimensional models. They can be used like
puppets to create interesting groups and situations. A collection of cut-outs
stored under different labels such as A family group,ARoad Accident, In the
Market, on the Field, etc. will be an invaluable aid for the teacher.
The Flannel Board
When a small piece of cloth with a rough surface is pressed lightly against a
cloth with a similar surface, it sticks on the cloth much in the manner of
cotton wool or fluff sticking on woolen.
Advertisements
Some advertisements can be excellent aids in teaching English.Agood
advertisement attracts attention to itself and its slogan is striking enough to be
remembered easily. By displaying carefully selected advertisement in English
and encouraging the pupils to collect such advertisements, the teacher can
help them to learn many useful patterns embodied in the slogans. Some
advertisements deliberately violate grammatical rules or coin new words.
They may highlight a syntactic or morphological rule. They can be
profitably exploited to fix the rule in the minds of the pupils.

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Gramophone Instructional Materials
In the early stages of learning a new language, it is very helpful to reinforce
the teacher’s personal effort with a short session of listening to and careful
imitation of suitable recorded material. Pupils are more ready to accept what
the teacher says and does if the record illustrates the same points and thus NOTES
seems to be an authentic check on what the learners are striving to do. It is
amazing how well young children can imitate every inflection, vowel quality
and intonation of a record. Perhaps, the best feature of a gramophone record
is that a child can have it at home and play it again and again in his own
time. This extension of experience is invaluable in spurring on the individual,
for undoubtedly children know what they like and like what they know.
Tape Recorder
A tape recorder is an essential classroom aid. It brings other voices into the
classroom. It gives the pupils valuable practice in listening to varieties of
English different from the teacher’s. A great deal of material is available on
tape. The tape recorder has now found its way into the majority of schools.
The most obvious use of the tape recorder in the classroom is to give pupils
salutary lesson of hearing their own voices. Until we have heard ourselves on
a tape, we have little real idea of what our voice sounds like to other people.
The first impact on the hearer is one of shock. When the children have
got over this initial impact, they enjoy the fun of hearing.
Overhead Projector
The teacher may write or draw on a transparency and project it on to a
screen. The transparencies can easily be added to, while the lesson is in
progress. The overhead projector is a very useful alternative to the
blackboard in that the teacher does not have turn his back on the students.
The teacher can save time by preparing the material in advance. Another
advantage over the blackboard is that the OP does not have to be cleaned
and there is more space available. It is used in much the same way as the
blackboard, writing model sentences, presentation, explanation, drills, pictures,
etc. Some commercially produced transparencies are also available. Overhead
projector transparencies can be flexibly used.
Slides and Film Strips
Film strips are similar to slides except that they are easier to use. Both film
strips and slides have the same function as all wall charts, flash cards or
pictures for oral composition. The advantage is that we can move from one
to the other more easily once the equipment is set up. The teacher can make
his own slides for any form of lecture. Slides and film strips are particularly
useful for any series for instance, a routine day in someone’s life, or
talking about places, or for some specialist subjects.

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Instructional Materials Film
Obviously, film accustoms students to understanding English in the cinema or
on television. Usefulness can be increased by making sure of ‘feedback’.
Choose specialized films for different profession; see the film before it is
NOTES
shown to the pupils so that you can determine the level and suitability of
content; stop the film from time to time and get students to ask questions, if
they have not understood. Then, ask them questions about events, character,
descriptions, etc. Give the pupils a script of the film, after they have seen it.
Get them to go over it for homework and ask them to write a summary, or to
give an oral account the next day. However much you use films in class, also
encourage the pupils to go to the cinema and watch television. Films can
also be used more directly in class. Video can be used effectively in language
teaching. The computer is considered very sophisticated aid in language
teaching. But it is very effective. In the coming years they may play key roles
in English language teaching in India.
The Language Laboratory
Much of language learning is the learning of complicated skills. Learning
skills is largely a question of adequate and effective practice. Basically, a
language laboratory is a long classroom in which the students are isolated
from each other by sound proof walls. These walls prevent the sounds made
by anyone student from reaching his neighbours. This leaves him free to
practice speaking without disturbing them. A whole class of students can
practice speaking at the same time instead of one after another as in the
conventional classroom. In this way, language laboratories can help to save
time. This is a rather simplified description of the functions of the
language.
Match Stick figures
The human figure is easily represented by the matchstick drawings.All the
sentences and pictures for each structural item are grouped together on one
sheet of paper. The sheets may be compiled to an album. The teacher can
refer to the appropriate page whenever he is teaching a particular item.
Television
Most of the Distance Education Universities make use of the Television
for conducting the classes. Not only that, the mass media is also conducting
competition quiz programmes, and many scientific and space programmes.
Video tapes played TV in the classrooms. The potential advantage of video
cassette is in the fact that control of the equipment and the learning process
is placed in the hands of the learner.
Radio
Radio is the most significant medium for education in its broadcast sense that
has been introduced since the turn of the century. It is available from early
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morning till long after midnight. By utilizing the rich educational and cultural
158 Material offerings of the radio, children and adults will have access to the best of
the world’s stores of
knowledge and art. There are a lot of benefits in the field of school Instructional Materials
education when they are given opportunities to have the school broadcasting.
LCD projector
LCD projector is a very useful visual device. Globally known LCD
NOTES
projectors are systems that display or project information or video into a
surface. LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display; the technology is used to
project images. They are most commonly used for displaying images in
lectures or presentations. However, they are also used in the famous, ‘Home
Theatre’ application.
The video signals consist of three colours:
(a) Red
(b) Green and
(c) Blue
11.3.2 Identifying the Websites
Internet is an easily available global library for everyone. The teachers should
help the students in order to get gain a lot from the internet. They have to
train them how to use the internet and identify right websites.
There are various websites that offer valuable materials regarding
English language learning. There are foreign commercial websites and
academic websites provided by many Universities for easy access to everyone
for free of cost. Finding resources on the internet can be like looking for a
needle in a haystack. However, we can locate the required websites with the
help of Directories:
(i) The internet public library: http://wwwipl.org
(ii) Look smart: http // www. looksmart.com
(iii) The open directory: http/ldomz.org
(iii) Web Brain: http //www.webbrain.com
(iv) Yahooligans: http/www.yahooligans.com
Search Engines
An internet search engine explores information across the internet and
collects copies of web pages from various host services. The search results
are then displayed according to relevance. Examples of search engines are
as detailed below:
(1) Google-www.google.com
(2) Search bug –www.searchbug.com
(3) AltaVista - www.altavistacom

11.4 ADVANTAGES OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS

Audio-Visual Aids are of immense value in the teaching-learning process.

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and better.
Instructional Materials According to Kothari Education Commission (1964-66), ‘The supply of
teaching aids to every school is essential for the improvement of the quality
of teaching. It would indeed bring about an educational revolution in the
country.’ Just lectures or verbalism of the teacher makes the class-room dull
NOTES and mechanical. Every child is interested in seeing concrete things. He
wants to handle and manipulate, and the teacher should provide situations
so as to satisfy his curiosity of doing things. Learning through sense is better
and more permanent than just mechanical learning. Out of the senses, it is
through hearing and seeing that eighty-six per cent knowledge is gained.
The audio-visual aids, therefore, have great importance both for the
teachers and the learners. In this context, Rousseau says, ‘Give your scholar
no verbal lessons, he should be taught by experience only.’
In the words of Edgar Dale, ‘Because audio-visual materials supply
concrete bases for conceptual thinking, they give rise to meaningful concepts
enriched by meaningful association, hence they offer the best anti-dote for
disease of verbalism.’
Some of the advantages have been explained below:
1. Helpful in creating interest. The use of different aids by the
teacher while teaching makes the teaching-learning process more
interesting. Sometimes, the teacher makes use of charts, film
strips, epidiascope, film project and sometimes she just performs
an experiment in the class. All this makes the teaching- learning
process more interesting.
2. Only lectures by the teacher are too much of verbalism. But the
use of chalk and black boards reduces verbalism. The use of
other types of aids further reduces verbalism in the class.
Naturally, the learners will find it less burdening on their minds.
The teacher is also able to save energy.
3. The use of audio-visual aids gives reality to the learning situation.
Thus, seeing a film-show exhibiting the life of the Tundras and
learning it more effectively in three hours is better than by
reading many books in months together.
4. It gives vividness to the learning situation. For example, if we
want to know about the Mughals, a film on it provides vividness
which is difficult by the study of books.
5. It gives clarity to the learning situation. For example, the film
show of ‘A Tale of Two Cities’ gives a clear picture of the French
Revolution. Anything equal to this is not possible by the study of
books.
6. The aids motivate the child and arouse his feelings of curiosity.
Thus, motivation keeps the child fully absorbed and he tries to
learn more and more.
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 7. They make the abstract ideas concrete and thus help in making Instructional Materials
learning more effective. It results into more clarity and better
understanding.
8. The different types of aids when used successfully in the class-
room provide variety in the class-room situations. Variety in the NOTES
instructional procedures helps the learners to have greater
alternatives.
9. Meet the individual-difference requirements. There are
individual differences among the learners. Some are ear minded
who are able to learn by listening. Some are able to learn through
visual demonstrations while others learn better through doing.
The different types of aids thus help in different ways for
meeting the varied requirements of the students.
10. Good substitute for direct experiences. Effective teaching
requires direct experiences for the learners. It is always not
possible to take children out for direct experiences. Sometimes,
the object is too far. Eg. Elephant Caves. A film or a chart
showing those caves will serve the purpose. In still other cases, it
is not possible to bring the object in the in those situations,
pictures or charts serve the purpose. For example, elephant,
lion, jackal etc. cannot be brought in the class- room. Their
models or pictures or charts can be used for teaching purposes.
The aids are good substitutes for the real objects as they make
learning equally meaningful.
11. Help in developing various skills. The use of audio visual aids
helps in the development of various skills among the students.
They learn how to draw a diagram of the topic, learn how to use
the apparatus and in case where they face some problems in the
conduct of an experiment, they apply their mind to solve the
problem.

Check Your Progress

3. How can flashcards be used as an instructional aid?
4. How does the internet help in the teaching of English language?
5. Name any two search engines.

11.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Some of the types of instructional aids are audio aids, visual aids and
audio- visual aids.
2. Audio aids are the aids that can be heard. They include record-player
(gramophone), tape recorder and radio.

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Instructional Materials

3. Flashcards are a very useful and inexpensive aid in teaching English.

The letters in the cards are sufficiently large so that the whole class
can read them without any difficulty. These cards can be used for a
NOTES variety of purposes. Pupils can practice sentence-making words
making by combining these cards.
4. Internet is easily available global library for everyone. The teachers
can train the students on how to use the internet and identify right
websites. There are various websites that offer valuable materials
regarding English language learning. There are foreign commercial
websites and academic websites provided by many universities for
easy access to everyone for free of cost.
5. Some of the search engines are google, altavista and searchbug.

11.6 SUMMARY
 Instructional aids are the devices which can be used in the teaching-
learning process. They generally include such materials as objects,
pictures, chalk- board, flannel-board, slides, tape recorder, films and
television that are supplementary to actual text books.
 The types of instructional aids are audio aids, visual aids, and audio-
visual aids.
 In the present age, instructional aids are of great help in teaching as it
makes teaching and learning effective, while also providing inspiration to
the students.
 Audio-visual aids allow us to explain a word or concept simply by
showing a picture or pointing to an object.
 The blackboard is one of the most important visual aids, commonly
available and inexpensive. It has the advantage of providing a focal
point of attention for the whole class.
 Some of the instructional aids used for teaching are charts and tables,
flash cards, cut-outs, flannel board, advertisement, gramophone, tape
recorder, overhead projector, slides and film stripes, film, television,
radio, and LCD Projector.
 Internet also offers valuable materials regarding English language
learning. There are foreign commercial websites and academic
websites provided by many Universities for easy access to everyone
for free of cost. An internet search engine explores information across
the internet and collects copies of web pages from various host
services.
 Audio-visual aids create interest among learners and reduce
verbalism. It also provides vividness to the learning process.

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 Instructional Materials
11.7 KEY WORDS

 Audio learning: It is a learning method in which a person learns

through listening to the sounds. NOTES
 Search engine: Search engine is an application that searches for data if
the keyword is provided.
 Overhead projector: A projector that projects an image over the
heads of the viewers onto a screen in front of them is an overhead
projector.
 LCD projector: It is a type of video projector for displaying images
or videos on a screen or a flat surface.
 Flannel board: It is a visual aid used in teaching made of board
covered with flannel or a soft cloth to stick pictures.

11.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. Define audio-visual method of teaching.
2. What is the purpose of AV method in classroom?
3. What are the various types of AV aids?
4. How does the AV method aid teaching?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Enumerate the innovative instructional aids in audio-visual method of teaching.
2. Elucidate the difference between AV method and the traditional chalk
and talk method.
3. Discuss how the use of technology in classroom teaching can be
increased using the AV method.

11.9 FURTHER READINGS

Sachdeva, M.S. 2013. Modern Teaching of English. Ludhiana: Tandon

Publications.
Jesa, M. 2005. Efficient English Teaching. New Delhi: APH Publishing
Corporation.
Kumari, A.V. 2014. Methods of Teaching English. Guntur: New Era Publications

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Instructional Materials Mowla, Shaik. 2009. Techniques of Teaching English. Hyderabad: Neelkamal
Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Paliwal, A.K. 2002. Perspectives on English Language Teaching. Jaipur:
Surabhi Publications.
NOTES

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UNIT 12 PROGRAMMED Programmed
Instructional Materials

INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIALS NOTES

Structure
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Programmed Instruction: Concept
12.2.1 Fundamentals of Programming
12.3 Linear Programming
12.4 Branching Programming
12.5 Construction of Achievement
12.5.1 Development of Programmed Instruction
12.5.2 Steps for Development of Programmed Instruction
12.5.3 Guide to Self- Instructional Material
12.6 Advantages of Self-Instructional Material
12.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
12.8 Summary
12.9 Key Words
12.10 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
12.11 Further Readings

12.0 INTRODUCTION

Programmed learning or programmed instruction is a research-based system

which helps learners work successfully. The method is guided by research
done by a variety of applied psychologists and educators. In this unit, the
concept of programmed instruction will be discussed in detail. The learning
material is a kind of textbook, teaching machine or computer. The medium
presents the material in a logical and tested sequence. After each step,
learners are given a question to test their comprehension. Then immediately
the correct answer is shown.
The concept of branching programming, developed by Norman
Crowder, will also be discussed in this unit. The advantages of self-
instructional material will also be highlighted.

12.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the concept of programmed instruction
 Discuss linear programming and branching
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Programmed
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 Describe the construction of achievement test
 Analyse the advantages of self-instructional material

NOTES 12.2 PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION: CONCEPT

It has been said that one of the earliest programmer was Socrates who
developed a programme in geometry. Socrates used to guide his pupils and
followers to impart knowledge by conducting them conversationally along a
path from fact to fact and insight to insight. The concept of programming and
the method of Socrates may be considered very much similar. Thus,
programmed instruction has a long past but only a short history.
The origin of modern programmed instruction arose from the
psychology of learning and not from technology. Learning of course is
defined as the process of establishing new behaviour. If there is no change
in behavior, there has been no learning. Psychologists have discovered
much about how learning takes place. They have found that the new
behaviour is learned only when the learner positively reacts or behaves
differently. It is not what the teacher does but what the student does that
result in learning.
Programmed learning grew out of experiments in operant conditioning
of pigeons in Skinner’s laboratory in Harvard University. Programmed
instruction got historical momentum only after the publication of an article
‘The science of learning and the art of teaching’ by B.F. Skinner in 1954.
Definition of Programmed Instruction
Let us analyse the various definitions of programmed instruction.
B.F. Skinner
Harvard psychologists B.F. Skinner and James G. Holland devised the
auto- instructional methods which have served the present generation as the
basis for the present work in programmed learning. He found that most of
the classroom teaching is ineffective. He wanted to improve the classroom
instruction and teaching. He attempted to apply his operant conditioning
theory of learning to teaching and preparing instruction. He claimed that
desirable change can be brought out by giving a continuous feedback of
reinforcement for desired responses. The operant conditioning is more
significant for human learning.
Norman A. Crowder
Norman A. Crowder (1954) was a psychologist in USA. He developed a
strategy for this purpose which is known as ‘branching programming or
intrinsic programming’. He gave main emphasis on task analysis rather
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than learning condition. In this technique, content is presented and multiple-
choice questions
are asked to diagnose and ascertain if the learner has followed it. If he Programmed
cannot follow it, the remedial instruction is produced for improving the Instructional Materials

learning outcomes.
Robert Mager
NOTES
Robert Mager (1958) and others did a survey of programming strategies. It
became clear to them that the sequencing of instructional events was not
based directly upon the student learning but on the programmer’s logical
thinking. Robert Mager developed an approach for writing objectives in
behavioral term in 1962. In this approach, the behavioral objectives are
emphasized in the strategy of programmed instruction. ‘Mastery Behaviour’
is emphasized. In the sequence of learning, ‘Mastery Step’ can fall
anywhere; it is not necessary that it should fall at the end of learning
sequence.
Roth Kopf
Roth Kopf suggested a new concept of learning in 1965. He gave a term
‘Mathemagenics’ for a process that gives birth to learning. He suggests that
there is a significant difference between nominal stimuli which can be measured
objectively and effective stimuli which must produce the behaviour in the
learner before it is measurable. Programmer have the illusion that they are
controlling students with selected stimuli, often forgetting the students are able
to tune out the most aggressive stimuli assaulting the eyes or ears or any
other sensory organs.
Mathemagenic behavior has three characteristics:
 The transformation of a nominal stimulus into an effective stimulus
 Some form of elaboration
 Processes exemplified by problem solving the inductive reasoning.
12.2.1 Fundamentals of Programming
The fundamental principles of programming have been developed in the
laboratories of psychology. Some fundamentals of programming are
therefore derived from experimental work on operant conditioning. It is
essential for the readers to understand the meaning of these fundamentals
to have the background of programming.
Stimulus
Julian I. Taber and others have defined that a stimulus is any condition,
event or change in the environment of an individual or organism which
produces a change in behaviour.
A stimulus is that aspect of the environment which guides or controls
the behaviour of an individual—‘controls’ in the sense of providing an event
or object in the environment in the presence of which the behaviour desired
by the teacher is highly likely to occur.
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Programmed Responses
Instructional Materials
A response is a dependent condition or variable because its form depends on
the nature of stimulus. The stimulus is an independent variable in any learning
NOTES situation. A response is a unit of behavior which forms a complex
performance of a learner.
Primary purpose of programming is to guide an individual’s
desirable responses. It is then possible to arrange the stimulus conditions
which will result in the desirable response. A response has an effect upon
future behaviour. A student’s responses are crucial in learning performances.
Stimulus control of behaviour
The response of an individual depends on a given stimulus. Thus, stimulus
can be considered to control behaviour. The desirable response is emitted by
producing an appropriate stimulus. The number of stimuli that control or
influence behaviour increase with maturity. The development of complex
forms of behaviour is possible because of a learner’s increasing
responsiveness to new sources of stimulation in his environment.
An effective learning sequence is an arrangement for the acquisition of
new controlling stimuli to guide behaviour.
The programmed learning strategy is concerned with the presentation
of subject matter stimuli in the environment of the learner. In programming,
appropriate stimuli are identified in contextual form which orients the learner
towards the terminal behaviours.
Repertoires
A chain of stimuli and responses is formed by sequential presentation. The
specific chain of stimulus and response is known as behaviour repertoire. A
specific chain of stimulus and response forms behaviour.
A programmer designs instructional material for emitting some the
responses which help in achieving terminal behaviours. A logical
arrangement of a group stimuli generate or develop behaviour repertoire. A
learner behaviour is formed by several specific behavioural repertoires. The
structure of behaviour repertoire is developed on the basis of instructional
objectives. The behaviour repertoire is the specific characteristic of a
learner.
The behaviour repertoires are of three types:
(a) The simple discriminative repertoire
(b) Serial repertoire, and
(c) Self-sustained repertoire.

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Reinforcement Programmed
Instructional Materials
The term reinforcement is defined as condition which increases the
probability of the desirable responses. Therefore, reinforcement is:
 ‘The occurrence of an event which increases the probability that the NOTES
same response will occur again in the presence of the same stimuli.’
 ‘The occurrence of a consequence which strengthens the behaviour
that produced that consequence.’
The concept of reinforcement, thus, implies that individuals are
influenced by the consequences of their behaviour. Such events as praise,
promotion, good grades and wages which follow behaviour can serve to
reinforce or strengthen preceding and ongoing activity. Reinforcing
consequences in general occur naturally as the function of the environment
and society in which a person lives.

12.3 LINEAR PROGRAMMING

The principles of programmed learning were first identified with regard to

learner programming and were formulated by B.F. Skinner. The principles of
programming imply the rules and systems by which programmed instruction
material functions and are constructed.
Basic Assumptions of Linear Programming
The linear programming is based on the following assumptions:
1. A student learns by being active. If he has to act in a certain manner
after the learning courses, he must be allowed to act in that manner
during the learning course.
2. A student learns better and is motivated to learn more if he is told that
he is to write if he takes steps in the right direction.
3. A student learns better if the task which he has to learn is analyzed into
sub- tasks which are sequenced properly, so that he can learn one step
at a time, beginning with a step which he already knows.
4. The sequence of these sub-tasks would be reproduced so that any
person other than the designer can verify the sequence which leads to
change in the behavior of the students in a specified manner and that it
does so consistently. This implies that its objectives can be measured.
5. For specific strategies in organizing students for learning and arranging
of cognitive processes and motivation, these principles are derived
from psychology of cognitive, motivation and learning field theories.

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Programmed 6. No strategy can be considered to be effective unless it guarantees the
Instructional Materials
learning of students for whom it is designed. The designer may
specify the pre- requisite relevant background necessary on the part of
the learner.
NOTES
Characteristics of Linear Programmes
(a) It is individualized i.e. one person learns at a time. The device speaks
to him without the presence of a teacher.
(b) The device presents material to be learnt in minimal increments. It
operates on the principle that we learn better in small steps and we
also learn better if we avoid errors. By proceeding in small steps, we
obviously reduce the likelihood of error.
(c) That which is to be taught is rigorously ordered. Because of the
desire to hold unexpected error by students to a minimum, each step
in the learning process has to follow logically as well as closely to the
one preceding it.
(d) Students progress at their own pace. Instead of being restricted to a
class- room situation wherein average student sets the pace for all
students in the room, each user of a programmed instructional device
learns as quickly as he is able to. His rate of working is established by
his performance alone.
(e) The student’s answer is almost checked simultaneously against the
correct response, which appears before the next question is asked. If
the answer is incorrect, he can easily locate the reason for his error.
The Rationale of Linear Programming
David Cram has given the rationale of the linear programming in the
following manner:
In linear programming, B.F. Skinner prefers constructed response. He has
given reasons for using constructed responses:
(a) Recall is more effective in the learning process than recognition.
(b) The act of responding tends to cause learning; student should not
emit incorrect response.
In linear programming small steps are used for two reasons:
(a) If the act of responding tends to cause learning, each step must
be small enough so that the student is very likely to answer
correctly.
(b) Too many errors are discouraging whereas correct answers are
rewarding to provide the reinforcement to learner.
Self-Instructional Programmed text emphasizes that the learner should perform in a very
170 Material
specific way. This is very clear that it is different from the traditional
procedure of teaching where the learner moves in a very general way. It is
evident from the various
aspects of programming as enumerated above that these are based on the (3) To assess his
science of behaviors theory of reinforcement and learning principles. own
performance by
Types of Linear Programming
comparing his
The linear programmed texts are available in various forms such as book response with
form, computer format and teaching machine format. It can be identified correct
mainly in six types: response.
1. Construct response: It is a basic Skinnerian type in which a learner
has to construct response while going through such formats of
programmed text.
2. Multiple choice type: This type has been designed by Sydney L.
Pressey. In this type of format, the learner has to select a response on
each frame. Now, it is presented in frame sequence type of
programme.
3. Conventional chaining: It has been developed by John Barlow. In
this type of format, each frame is connected to the second frame and
the response to the second frame becomes a part of the stimulus of the
third and so on.
4. Skip-linear: It uses the skipping device as it helps in handling
problems of review and over-review. Here, a bright learner can skip
over a few frames and dull or poor learner can take all frames of
programmed material.
5. Criterion frames: In linear programming, certain frames are called
criterion frames which are used to direct the learner along linear path
according to their responses to these critical situations. The criterion
frames decides whether the student should go through a particular
sequence.
6. Ruleg system: It is one of the most important variety of linear
programming. In this, the content is organized in terms of rules first
then examples. The rule is given complete form and example is in
incomplete form. A learner has to construct response to complete the
example.
7. Egrule system: It is opposite to rules system. In this, example is given
first and then rule. The example is presented in complete form but
rule is incomplete form. The learner has to complete it by constructing
response. Generally in linear programming construct response and
discriminant response type are used in developing instructional
material of this type.
Objective of Linear Programming
The linear programming as strategy of teaching and learning has the
following objectives to be achieved:
(1) To assist the learners to learn at his own pace.
(2) To help the students to learn without the physical presence of a
teacher.
 Programmed Instructional Materials

NOTES

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Programmed (4) To present the material in controlled manner in a logically related
Instructional Materials
step. The programmed materials are designed in the light of these
objectives.
NOTES
Steps in Developing Programmed Material
The different programmes have suggested various steps in preparing a
programmed material.
(A) Peter pipe has suggested six steps:
1. Selection of a unit to be programmed.
2. Writing assumptions about entering behaviours of the learners.
3. Defining appropriate objectives in behavioural terms.
(Terminal Behaviors)
4. Defining prerequisite knowledge and skill in behavioral terms.
(Entering behaviours)
5. Preparing criterion test.
6. Developing specific out-line of content to be programmed.
(B) John. B Decceco has suggested five steps for developing
programmed material
1. Select a unit or topic to be programmed.
2. Prepare a content out-line.
3. Defining objectives in behavioral terms.
4. Construct and administer a test of entering behaviours.
5. Construct and administer a test of terminal behaviours.
(C) These steps are not sufficient to develop a programmed material
because important steps such as writing frames and validation are not
mentioned in the above list. Thus, following steps are more practical
in designing programmed material.
1. Specify the goals of learning and educational objectives in terms
of what a student is expected to do when he completes a
programme.
2. Device a strategy of learning regarding the students begin,
which sequence of tasks would lead him most effectively
towards the goals and how much repetition is needed.
3. Write a series of frame stimulus response frames; each frame
gives some new information and also asks a question which a
student has to answer before he proceeds to another frame.
4. Edit the frames for their accuracy of subject matter and
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172 Material
 5. The programme is to be presented section by section first to Programmed
individual students and then to a group of students. Instructional Materials

6. After a revision is done based on try out, administer the

programme to a representative group of students. Programmes are
to be evaluated in terms of students’ performance. NOTES

Check Your Progress

1. Who introduced the concept of ‘Mathemagenics’?
2. What are the three types of behaviour repertoire?
3. List two objectives of programmed learning.

12.4 BRANCHING PROGRAMMING

Branching programming got started by way of an ordinary practical training

problem. In 1954, Norman Crowder, a psychologist with the United States
Air Force, was asked to investigate the training of aircraft maintenance men.
These technicians were being taught to ‘trouble shoot’ or repair faults, in a
bomber navigation system.
Crowder found that trouble-shooting was best learned through
solving problems, using the real equipment, and under guidance from a
qualified human tutor. Unfortunately, qualified tutors were few. He solved his
problem with the aid of a film-project, a screen and a panel of buttons. He
built a simulator which stood in for the real bomber-navigation system and,
at the same time, acted very much like a private tutor.
Theory of Branching Programming
Originally, the branching programming has no theoretical basis because
Crowder developed the strategy on the basis of his training experience.
The following theoretical basis may be attributed to this strategy:
(1) This style provides more information per frame. It also employs
multiple choice response pattern, i.e., a student is required to
discriminate and choose the one right answer which is presented along
with a number of other plausible but incorrect answers. Learners who
make the wrong choice from among those presented, are asked to
follow another trade or branch which corrects their error or further
classifies the point in questions. The branching sequence may continue
for a number of frames, again depending on students’ responses,
before he finds himself on the main track.
(2) The assumption in branching programming, according to David Cram
is that a wrong response does not necessarily hinder the learning of a
correct response. The response is useful mainly in guiding the student
through the

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Programmed programme. Each response is used to test the success of the latest
Instructional Materials
communication to the student and in that sense, it lets the programme
know, where to take the student next. It follows the method of trial
and error.
NOTES
(3) In a branching programme, the response takes the form of a choice
of various answers. The student is much more likely to err in this
programming. He is almost encouraged to do so. The wrong answers
suggested by the programme are certainly chosen to correspond with
popular misconception that frequent errors that are shown by
experience is likely to occur at particular stage of instruction.
(4) Such a programme works like this: We arrange a logical sequence of
information, and we put it to the student. He is given him just as
much information as we think he can handle. This will vary from one
sentence to several paragraphs. But each new unit of information is
followed by multiple- choice question, (i.e. we ask a question and
allow the student to check his own answer against list of several
alternative answers. Only one of these answers will be correct; the
other will represent plausible errors which the student could only have
reached by following particular false trial.
The above pattern of multiple-choice questions is only necessary
whenever we want to say something special to students who cannot get
the right answer straight away. At other times, we may prefer to use
one of the following forms:
 Constructed –Response questions,
 Constructed-Choice questions,
 Block questions
 Linear sequence.
(a) Constructed-Response Questions: These are the questions to
use when we want the student to decide on (construct) his answer
without being shown any alternatives. We pose the question in the
normal way and we ask the student to write down his answer.
We leave it to the student to decide on the rightness of his
answer. We are not offering remedial help against his going
wrong but he can return to look over the previous page.
(b) Constructed-Choice Questions: The student is asked to write
down his answer to a direct question and then turn a page to
check his answer. When he reaches the next page, he is reminded
of the question and is given a set of alternative answers from
which he must choose the one. If he chooses an incorrect answer,
then we give him remedial help in the unusual way.
(c) Block-Question: These questions, like the comprehension
questions, are commonly used to test by using a passage of
Self-Instructional
174 Material reading in an English
 examination. The student is presented with quite a chunk of Programmed
information and is expected to answer several questions about Instructional Materials
it. This format would be quite wrong for the initial teaching.
The student is being asked to process a lot of information and
make several involved responses. Furthermore, he will neither be NOTES
given immediate knowledge of results or individual remedial help.
(d) Linear Sequences : Sometimes, we may want to use linear
sequence in our basically branching programme, particularly
when we have to get the student to do some memorizing
formulate, symbols related technical terms, arbitrary but fixed
procedures. This is the kind of learning that will need more
practice— much more than will conceptual understanding.
Fundamental Principles of Branching Programming
The fundamental principles of branching programming are as follows:
(1) Principle of exposition: The learner should receive the whole
phonemena which should be so exposed to him. It means a student
learns better if the whole concept is presented to him. The complete
information is provided on Home Page. It serves two purposes -
teaching and diagnosis.
(2) Principle of diagnosis: The principle refers to identify the weaknesses
of learner. After exposition, it is assessed whether he could learn the
concept or not. If he could not learn, the causes for it is ascertained.
A multiple- choice format is used to diagnose the weakness of the
learners.
(3) Principle of remediation: The diagnosis provides the basis for
remediation. The remedial instruction is provided on Wrong Page. If a
learner chooses wrong alternative, he has to move to a Wrong Page,
where remedial instruction is provided to him and directed to return
to home Page. He is asked to choose the right response. It is known as
a principle of remediation.
Assumptions of Branching Programming
The branching programming is based on the following assumptions:
(1) It assumes that a student learns better, if he is exposed to the whole
concept. It helps in comprehending concept. It is also known as
expository programme. One unit is presented at a time.
(2) The second assumption is that the wrong responses do not necessarily
hinder in learning but they help in diagnosis and provide remediation
for their weakness.
(3) The third assumption is that a student learns better if remediation is
provided simultaneously for his weakness. The teaching and
remediation should go side by side for effective learning

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Programmed (a) Teaching: The learner goes through the instruction to
Instructional Materials
comprehend the concept or information.
(b) Response: At the end of instruction, multiple-choice is given to
choose the correct response. The learner has to select a response
NOTES (covert). In this situation, learner has to discriminate and the
response is intrinsic.
Branching Programming as a Tutorial Strategy
The branching programme also functions as a tutorial strategy. A teacher
or programmer presents the whole content which he intends to teach. The
ideas, concepts and facts involved in the content are presented in a sequence.
The multiple- choice question is given after presenting the content unit.
Characteristics of Branching Programming
Norman A. Crowder raises several objections against the linear programming.
He tries to remove objections in his branching programming. Thus,
branching programming has the following characteristics:
 It is an individualized instruction. Every learner gets opportunities to
learn according to his own needs and requirement. The learner decides
his path of learning.
 The learner gets freedom to respond. He has to select a response from
the given multiple- choice question.
 The errors of the learners do not necessarily hinder in learning but
wrong responses helps in diagnosing the difficulties of the learner.
The remedial instruction is provided simultaneously.
 The branching programme works as a tutorial strategy. It gives
emphasis on difficulties and needs of each and every learner.
 It is easier to develop branching programme frames or instructional
material than linear programme.
 The research findings have revealed that it is effective for realizing
higher cognitive objectives of learning.
 The intrinsic programming is effectively used for teaching as well as
remedial purpose.
 It provides psychological as well as social motivation to the learners.
 It can be used for conceptual as well as descriptive content of teaching.
 It is used as a device to facilitate the individual variations.
 The branching is mainly concerned with teaching and instruction rather
than learning.

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176 Material
 Programmed
12.5 CONSTRUCTION OF ACHIEVEMENT Instructional Materials

Let us analyse the various steps in the construction of achievement.

Pre-Tryout NOTES

The writing of the programme is carried under the following heads:

(1) Writing the draft frames in a sequence i.e. from simple to complex.
(2) Editing the draft frames by a team of experts usually consisting of (i)
Subject matter expert, (ii) A skilled writer, and (iii) A programmer.
Try-Out and Revision
This step is carried on as under:
(i) Giving the programme to a few individual learners, finding out their
reactions and making necessary changes in the light of reactions.
(ii) Trying out the programme on a group of learners at a few places and
making changes on the basis of reactions.
(iii) Trying out the programme in the field.
Evaluation
Evaluation enables the programmer to judge the success or the failure of
the programme. It is done on internal as well as external criteria. Internal
evaluation is done in terms of three aspects (i) Error rate, (ii) Programme
density, and (iii) Sequence progression. External measures include (a)
Criterion test, (b) Gain ratio, and (c) Learner’s attitude.
The programmer or the evaluator applies 90-90 criterion. In other
words, the statements or the frames where ten per cent or less number of
learners give incorrect responses are considered to be valid. The statements
or the frames in which more than ten per cent learners give wrong responses
are deleted.
12.5.1 Development of Programmed Instruction
Programmed instruction is based on some psychological principles.
Therefore, developing a good programme involves a number of techniques and
requires several specialized skills. The making of a programme is very
challenging and time- consuming process. The programmer must have
mastery over the subject-matter which he is intending to work on. He should
also be acquainted with approaches and techniques of programming.
It is the assumption of programmers that a designer should have
seventy- five per cent mastery of the content and twenty-five per cent skills
and awareness of programming devices. The dynamics of programme
development may be considered a cyclic process. The freshers have to be
very careful.
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Programmed There has been a changing emphasis of programmed instruction from
Instructional Materials
1960 to 1970 which has greatly influenced the dynamics of programme
development. As a result, a number of approaches of programme
development are available in the literature.
NOTES
12.5.2 Steps for Development of Programmed Instruction
It is evident from the above details of steps of programme development that
none of the approach is complete in itself. With the help of reviews of these
approaches and recent terms of programmed instruction, a comprehensive
outline has been evolved for preparing a programme most effectively. This
approach is much more practical from development of a programme. The
following ten steps are used for this purpose:
 Selection of a topic to be programmed.
 Identifying objectives in taxonomic categories.
 Writing objectives (entering and terminal) in behavioural terms.
 Content analysis and developing instructional sequence.
 Construction of criterion test.
 Deciding appropriate strategies and paradigm for the programme.
 Writing frames and individual tryout.
 Revising, editing and preparation of final draft with the help of group
tryout.
 Evaluation of the programme and master validation.
 Preparation of a manual of the programme.
12.5.3 Guide to Self- Instructional Material
Programmed instruction material is developed for specific purpose and for a
specific type of learners. Every programmed material has its target
population which possesses the required entering behaviours for the
programme. It is an individualized instruction which compensates the
individual differences of the learners. Therefore, programme user requires
some information about the programmed material which he intends to use for
his students. In this chapter, a guideline is provided for the users of
programmed material.
A programme user must know at least two types of awareness about
the programmed material:
i. Selection of programmed material, and
ii. Procedure for using the programme.
These two types of information are essential for the effective use of
a programmed material.

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178 Material
Some Problems in Selecting a Programmed Material Programmed
Instructional Materials
A programmer usually faces the following problems in selecting a
programmed material:
If a programme does not cover one or two points which the NOTES
programmer feels it should be taught.
Solution: Use the problems and either write additional material to
cover the points that are not included in it or it should be taught orally by
the teacher.
(1) If there is no criterion test of what the programme intends to
teach.
Solution: Write to the author of publisher and demand to supply
a copy of the test. If this is not possible, user might consider
drawing up a test of his own based on what the programme
teaches. In this type of test all the teaching points of the
programme is to be covered.
(2) The programme requires written answers and user does not wish
to purchase a new set of programme every year.
Solution: Either (a) get user’s students to write on their exercise
books or plain papers. or (b) The answer Sheets may be
cyclostyled or printed which may serve the purpose of the users.
(3) What happens at the end of the programme if students want to
revise it?
Solution: Either (a) supply another response sheets which may
be cyclostyled or printed for this purpose, or (b) students may
use their usual exercise books or separate sheet of paper.
(4) Does the use of programme exclude additional work by the
teacher or instructor?
Solution: The answer is forcefully no. The purpose of the
programme is usually for students to be able to go through it
according to their own. It usually functions as self instruction.
This may involve the use of practical materials, laboratory work,
references to other books and group discussion. A teacher
should not intervene while a student is going through the
programme. If students require some guidance, then he should
assist them in removing the difficulties. Teacher may use some
teaching aids to use the programme more effectively.
(5) Different students will work at different speeds in going through
the programme. What should be done when students finish the
programme at different times?
Solution: This is an organizational problem of the programme
and one which will be dealt with under the heading of
programme use. The user should not interfere with his own
choice of programme as

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Programmed
Instructional Materials
such. A teacher encounters the same problem with conventional
teaching.
NOTES It may be reduced to minimum by the use self-instructional material.
These above points are to be considered properly in selecting a
programmed material for the effective use.
Remedial Instructions
The same practical considerations as suggested for basic instruction should
be kept in mind. As regards the remedial instruction, there are two ways in
which the programme may be used.
1. Where a student finds difficulty in the course of learning, the teacher
may direct him to a programme which will provide additional help
which he requires. Any student who needs one can find it. It should be
given after the classroom teaching.
2. Where a number of students have difficulty in grasping the subject-
matter in the class room teaching, the teacher should use their remedial
instruction for removing the causes of difficulties. It may be advisable to
group; these should work on remedial instruction after the class-room
teaching. The supervision should be done. As they are going through
remedial instruction, the teacher should ask the students in removing
their difficulties in learning the instruction.

12.6 ADVANTAGES OF SELF-INSTRUCTIONAL

MATERIAL
Some of the advantages of self-instructional material are as follows:
 Learners will work individually.
 Students can proceed at their own pace and at time convenient to
them. A slow learner is not embarrassed.
 This offers a method of teaching project leaders and others in local
communities.
 Those who setup programmed instruction units may be motivated to
plan their efforts more deliberately and more thoroughly than with
traditional teaching.
 It may be less complicated to keep materials in current programmed
instruction unit than it is to update in a textbook.
 Programmed materials can be prepared for and adapted to fit almost
any local situation related to nationality, economic or cultural
variations in a community.
 Material can be exchanged from country to country and from state to
state, giving flexibility and variety to extension offering.
Self-Instructional
180 Material
 Programmed
Instructional Materials
Check Your
Progress
4. State two characteristic of branching programming. NOTES
5. List two advantages of self-instructional materials.
12.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS

1. Roth Kopf suggested a new concept of learning in 1965. He gave a

term ‘Mathemagenics’ for a process that gives birth to learning.
2. The behaviour repertoires are of three types:
(a) The simple discriminative repertoire
(b) Serial repertoire, and
(c) Self-sustained repertoire.
3. The linear programming as strategy of teaching and learning has the
following objectives to be achieved:
 To assist the learners to learn at their own pace.
 To help the students to learn without the physical presence of a teacher.
4. Branching programming has the following characteristics:
 It is an individualized instruction. Every learner gets opportunities
to learn according to his own needs and requirement. The learner
decides his path of learning.
 The learner gets freedom to respond. He has to select a response
from the given multiple- choice question.
5. The advantages of self-instructional materials are as follows:
 Learners will work individually.
 Students can proceed at their own pace and at time convenient to
them. A slow learner is not embarrassed.

12.8 SUMMARY

 The history of programmed instruction dates back to Socrates who

developed a programme in Geometry. The origin of modern
programmed instruction arose from the psychology of learning and not
from technology. Learning effectuates a change in behaviour.
 Harvard psychologists B.F. Skinner and James G. Holland devised the
auto- instructional methods which have served the present generation as
the basis for the present work in programmed learning. Skinner
attempted to apply Self-Instructional
Material 181
Programmed
Instructional Materials his operant conditioning theory of learning to teaching and preparing
instruction.
 Norman A. Crowder developed a strategy known as ‘Branching
NOTES Programming or intrinsic programming’. He gave main emphasis on
task analysis rather than learning condition.
 Robert Mager (1958) and others did a survey of programming
strategies. It became clear to them that the sequencing of instructional
events was not based directly upon the student learning but on the
programmer’s logical thinking.
 Roth Kopf suggested a new concept of learning in 1965. He gave a
term ‘Mathemagenics’ for a process that gives birth to learning.
 The fundamental principles of programming have been developed in
the laboratories of psychology. Some fundamentals of programming
are therefore derived from experimental work on operant conditioning.
 Julian I. Taber and others have defined that a stimulus is any
condition, event or change in the environment of an individual or
organism which produces a change in behaviour. A response is a unit
of behavior which forms a complex performance of a learner. The
response of an individual depends on a given stimulus.
 A chain of stimuli and responses is formed by sequential presentation.
The specific chain of stimulus and response is known as behaviour
repertoire. The term reinforcement is defined as condition which
increases the probability of the desirable responses.
 The principles of programming imply the rules and systems by
which programmed instruction material functions and are constructed.
 Six types of linear programming are Construct Response, Multiple
Choice Type, Conventional Chaining, Skip-Linear, Criterion Frames,
Ruleg System, and Egrule system.
 Norman Crowder developed branching programming on the basis of
his training experience. This style provides more information per frame.
It also employs multiple choice response pattern.
 The fundamental principles of branching programming are principles
of exposition, principles of diagnosis, and principles of remediation.
 During the writing of a programme, draft frames are prepared in a
sequence. The programme is given to a few individual learners to
recognize their reactions to it. Further, the evaluation is done on
internal or external criteria.
 Developing a good programme involves a number of techniques and
requires several specialized skills. The making of a programme is very
challenging and time-consuming process. The programmer must have
mastery over the
Self-Instructional
182 Material
 subject-matter which he is intending to work on. He should also be Programmed
acquainted with approaches and techniques of programming. Instructional Materials

 Programmed instruction material is developed for specific purpose and

for a specific type of learners. It is an individualized instruction
which compensates the individual differences of the learners. Therefore, NOTES
programme user requires some information about the programmed
material which he intends to use for his students.
 A programme user must know about the selection of programmed
material, and procedure for using the programme.

12.9 KEY WORDS

 Linear programming: It refers to mathematical techniques of

maximizing or minimizing a linear function of several variables.
 Stimulus: Stimulus refers to any condition, event or change in the
environment of an individual or organism which produces a change
in behaviour.
 Behaviour repertoire: The specific chain of stimulus and response
is known as behaviour repertoire. A logical arrangement of a group
stimuli generate or develop behaviour repertoire.
 Remedial instructions: Remedial instruction is guidance provided
to students in need of special assistance.

12.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. Write a short note on programmed learning.
2. What are the principles of linear programming?
3. What are the objectives of linear programming?
4. Define the basic elements of branching programming.
Long-Answer Questions
1. Analyse the process of branching programming.
2. Describe the steps involved in the process of construction of the
achievement test.
3. Explain the advantages of self-instructional material.

Self-Instructional
Material 183
Programmed
Instructional Materials 12.11 FURTHER READINGS

Aggarwal J.C. 2009. Essentials of Educational Technology Innovations in

NOTES Teaching- Learning. NewDelhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.
Gronlund, N.E. 1981. Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching. New York:
Collier MacMillan.
Jain, Praveen. M. 2014. Methodology of Teaching English Tools,
Techniques and Methods. Jaipur: Aavishkar Publishers.
R.A. Sharma. 2005. Programmed Instruction an Instructional Technology.
Meerut: Surya Publication.
Vallabi J.E, 2014. Teaching of English Principles and Practices. Hyderabad:
Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.

Self-Instructional
184 Material
UNIT 13 DEVELOPMENT OF Development of
Creativity Through
English Teaching
CREATIVITY THROUGH
ENGLISH TEACHING NOTES

Structure
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Meaning and Development of Creativity
13.2.1 Features of Creativity
13.3 Approaches for Developing Creativity
13.3.1 Development of Creativity
13.4 Reading Skills
13.5 Compostion Writing Skills
13.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
13.7 Summary
13.8 Key Words
13.9 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
13.10 Further Readings

13.0 INTRODUCTION

Creativity is to use imagination or original ideas, especially in the production

of an artistic work. There is a need to introduce creativity in English
teaching and this unit will discuss why creative thinking educators can
radically transform English teaching.
The approaches towards creativity and the ways in which creativity
can be enhanced will be delved into. The concept of reading and writing skills
will also be explained. While reading is a process that negotiates the meaning
between the text and its reader, writing is one of the most important
productive skills in language teaching and learning.

13.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the concept of creativity in teaching
 Discuss the approaches to development of creativity
 Explain reading and writing skills

Self-Instructional
Material 185
Development of
Creativity Through 13.2 MEANING AND DEVELOPMENT OF
English Teaching
CREATIVITY

NOTES Oxford Dictionary defines creativity as ‘the use of the imagination or original
ideas, especially in the production of an artistic work.’ This is fine, albeit
somewhat limited to the world of art. This is how many view creativity;
however, we fail to see that creativity is part and parcel of our daily life. The
website businessdictionary.com has a more fitting definition of creativity: ‘A
mental characteristic that allows a person to think outside of the box, which
results in innovative or different approaches.’ The reason this definition is
more suitable is the fact that it talks about ‘thinking outside the box’. In other
words, it looks at something in a different manner with fresh eyes. It mentions
results; therefore, it is concerned with a tangible outcome that can be
measured in some way. Finally, ‘innovative or different approaches to a
particular task’ confirm the notion that tasks, no matter how mundane, can
be given a new lease of life. This is easily adopted in our profession; after all,
we are all about tasks. The learning through idea is deeply ingrained in our
approach to teaching and learning.
Why be Creative?
As teachers, we struggle with the notion of creativity. After all, we are very
often given a syllabus of some kind to follow. Whether it is prescribed
formally or agreed to with our students, it is there and as long as we deliver
what is asked of us then we are fine. The truth is there are many reasons to
work from the prescribed text rather than re-work tried and tested published
materials. It is easier: One can trust the author as an authority and follow
their advice on how to deliver the unit. If students are given a course book
they expect to use it; after all, they have paid for it. The list is endless. It is
less time consuming; objectively, creativity takes a certain amount of time.
There is the light bulb moment, the production of the material and the plan.
However, creativity does not mean doing away with the course book; far
from it. It does not mean that as teachers we do what we think is best; it
does not mean that we have to re-invent the wheel every time and it
certainly does not mean we need special talents. Being creative, on the other
hand, means accounting for our students’ preferences and learning styles. It
means changing things round and switching them up to make them more
interesting. It means opening the lessons up to other possibilities to broaden
our students’ horizons not only on content, themes and topics, but also for
themselves. Using creativity in class just might inspire our students to be
more creative in their lives.
The challenge we face is being creative within our context, within the
confines that are set for us while respecting policies and procedures we must
uphold.
Self-Instructional
186 Material The meaning of the term ‘creativity’ in ELT and education are highly
varied and at times conflicting. Hence, for our purposes, it is vital to establish
a definition of creativity that makes sense within the context of ELT, one
which derives from two converging definitions. In the Act of Creation,Arthur
Koestler (1964) maintains
that rather than seeing creativity as the creation of something out of nothing Development of
it is more appropriate to conceive of it as the act of rearranging or Creativity Through
English Teaching
regrouping already existing elements. He claims that creativity ‘uncovers,
selects, re-shuffles, combines, synthesizes already existing facts, ideas,
faculties, skills. The more familiar the parts, the more striking the new NOTES
whole’ It may be argued that creativity is a democratic phenomenon which
all teachers and learners may embrace both as individuals and
collaboratively because its strength lies in the interaction of the qualities
these possess.
However, fostering learners’ creativity in the classroom is impossible if
one does not identify oneself as a creative practitioner.
Creative Thinking Educators
The myth that creativity is only about creating works of art or enabling
learners to be artistic is detrimental to teachers’ efforts to be creative. As
language speakers, we are all creative individuals. It takes a lot of creativity
for a child to acquire a language and for a learner to use the language they
are taught.
However, as language teachers we can be even more creative when
we think of new possibilities for language teaching and learning. Being
creative means daring to do things differently, thus expanding the boundaries
of what we know about teaching and learning in order to discover new
worlds within the confines of our classrooms.
In fact, Csikszentmihalyi (1996) defines the creative individual as
‘someone whose thoughts or actions change a domain, or establish a new
domain’. Being creative means not just doing what trainers and other experts
tell us we should be doing, but rather trusting our intuitions as educators to
break new ground, research our practices, experiment with new pedagogies,
and try out new activities or spin- offs of things we are used to doing. Being
creative means we are not just followers but leaders, not just consumers but
creators, not just an audience but sharers. Being creative means we do not
let the dictums of others straightjacket us, but rather demonstrate the
willingness to question everything and to apply multiple perspectives to
every issue and problem we encounter. Creative teachers are not just born
creative.
Creativity is a state of mind. It is a boundary that we need to cross in
order to discover our potential to do things differently and be an inspiration
for others. According to Alda (2007), the most brilliant educators are the
ones who have failed many times in their quest to achieve success, whether
this be an amazing lesson, wonderful feedback, or a learner’s attainment of
seemingly impossible aims. Being creative means being willing to transcend
our fears in order to discover that we can be right sometimes besides being
wrong at other times.
Self-Instructional
13.2.1 Features of Creativity Material 187

Creativity is a multi-facetted quality, which may be why it has proved so

difficult to define. As Amabile (1996) points out, ‘a clear and sufficiently
detailed articulation
Development of
Creativity Through
English Teaching of the creative process is not yet possible’. Yet, we readily recognize
creativity when we meet it, even if we cannot define it precisely. For all
practical purposes this is enough. There are of course, some features that are
NOTES
almost always present in a creative act.
Newness/originality
The core idea of ‘making something new’ is at the heart of creativity. But
novelty is not alone sufficient for something to be recognized as creative. It is
also necessary for creative acts to be recognized and accepted within the
domain in which they occur. They need to be relevant and practicable – not
just novel.
Immediacy
This is sometimes described as the ‘Eureka’ moment. Many creative
geniuses report that their insights came to them in a flash of sudden clarity.
However, it is rare that an idea comes fully worked out. The initial flash of
insight usually needs to be worked on and elaborated before it is fully
realized. The truly creative act usually evokes feelings of pleasurable
recognition on the part of others. A typical reaction would be, “Why didn’t I
think of that?”
Curiosity/play
Creativity usually seems to involve some kind of ‘playing around’ with things,
with asking the question ‘What if . . .?’, and the ability to think outside the
box. This playful attitude seems to be one of the essential characteristics of
creativity, and is especially important when applying creativity to teaching
and learning.
Inspiration
The belief that creativity is a mysterious, unknowable gift from God is
widespread and ancient. Very few contemporary writers on creativity would
subscribe to this idea; however, there is broad agreement that much creative
activity is largely unconscious. The belief that creativity is a God-given
quality encourages the unhelpful idea that only a few, chosen, people are
endowed with this gift. It is true that Historical- creativity, which involves
producing something no one in history has ever created before, is the stuff of
genius. But Personal-creativity is available to everyone; it involves
individuals making creative discoveries which are new to them, if not to
history.

13.3 APPROACHES FOR DEVELOPING

CREATIVITY
Our intention here is not to provide a set of oven-ready activities but rather
to suggest some approaches which can be used to develop various forms of
creativity.
 Use heuristics at all levels: ‘All levels’ suggests that many of the
Self-Instructional
188 Material heuristics (and others not mentioned here for reasons of space) can be
used for
teacher
 decisions, for developing materials, for varying classroom routines, and Development of
for devising student activities. It will be for the teacher to decide Creativity Through
English Teaching
exactly how a given heuristic is applied. A heuristic is a kind of ‘rule
of thumb’. Rather than applying a formula with a pre-determined
outcome (an algorithm), heuristics work by trying things to see how NOTES
they work out.
 Do the opposite (Fanselow, 1974, 2010): Essentially, it involves
observing the routines and activities we consciously or unconsciously
follow, doing the opposite and then observing what happens.
Examples would be: if you always stand up to teach, sit down; if you
teach from the front of the class, teach from the back; and so on.
 Reverse the order: Here you would do things backwards. For
example, in dictation, instead of giving out the text at the end, you
would give it out at the beginning, allow students to read it then take
it away, then give the dictation; if you normally read texts from
beginning to end, try reading them starting at the end, etc.
 Expand (or reduce) something: For example, increase (or decrease)
the length of a text in various ways; increase (or decrease) the time
allotted to a task; increase the number of questions on a text; increase
(or decrease) the number of times you do a particular activity. Maley
(1994, 1996) suggests twelve different generic procedures, including
this one, to develop more interesting activities/materials.
Can we plan for creativity?
Creative ideas cannot just be thrown into a lesson because they add a fun
element. Creativity must have an aim within the lesson plan and to
determine this we need to understand the stages of (and their purpose in) a
lesson. The first and foremost thing to keep in mind is that you are planning
a lesson to deliver to a specific person or specific group of people.
Therefore, we must take our students into consideration first: their age,
cultural and educational background, interests, preferences, etc.
Understanding the purpose of every step of our lesson will help us get the
students back on track if we go off tangent. Finally, understanding purpose can
help us determine when to shake things up in order to engage, motivate and
help our students achieve those outcomes.
Creativity in translation is manifested across many levels such as:
According to Phili (2017), following are the grounds where translation may
be regarded as one important creative activity. She has advocated that
there are many intricate domains that a translator visits and follows a
divergent thought process. Hence, it enters into realm of creativity.
i. Personal translation style: Translators will always instill something
personal in their work. The outcome is directly linked to the person
who produced it. Each translator approaches a text in a different way. Self-Instructional
Should a text be given to more than one translator, then we would Material 189

witness more than one translation

Development of version. Creativity is inherently personal and through a personal
Creativity Through
English Teaching translation style, translators manifest their creative approach.
ii. Ability to connect the dots: In a translation, there are many dots to
connect before the best result is achieved. The tools (dots) translators
NOTES
inadvertently mix together span from a feel of language, translation and
writing skills, in- depth understanding of the cultural context in play, the
ability to read between the lines to the more technical aspects of their
work such as CAT tools, glossaries, resources.
iii. Copy writing skills: Translators often provide copy writing services
as a way to diversify and as a natural extension to translation. They
could even be considered brilliant copywriters in that they are able to
approach texts from a ‘translator’s perspective’, focusing on clarity and
precision avoiding wording that can be misinterpreted.
iv. Artistic personality: There are many translators who are also artists,
in the true sense of the word. Not surprisingly, a tad of research has
revealed a creative ‘alias’ for quite a few linguists who, besides their
main professional activity, are engaged (either as a hobby or on a
professional level) in creative activities: a photographer, a hard rock
singer, a designer of book covers, a branding expert, an Italian tenor,
a singer with studies in vocal music, a poet/baroque trombonist, a
novelist, a painter and more. An artistic activity could well be
paralleled to the translating psyche which elaborates, adapts and
metamorphoses information, a ‘source’ into something else, a ‘target’
or in the language of an artist: a painting, a photograph, a novel. Art is
(also) about translating feelings.
v. Creatively perceptive: Translators do not read superficially. They
assimilate and elaborate information as part of their work process.
Knowledge inspires. The more you know, the more you want to
explore, create, and find solutions. Translators are creative because they
soak up the knowledge in the world.
vi. Language as a creative tool: Language is indisputably creative. Like
an artist who uses colours and mixes them in combinations that serve the
purpose of an art project, translators will similarly use language as a
tool with which to produce their work. Considering translators know at
least two languages, their creativity is stimulated even more. They are
enriched by languages and they know how to complement possible
‘voids’ in one language with information from another. Creativity is
more likely to surface when speaking more than one language.
What do we do to our students when we work only within the confines of
a course book?
Asking students to work within the confines of a course book places
them all in the same box in which they will not fit as they are all different.
Self-Instructional Try placing a square block through a circular hole. It is unfair to ask them to
190 Material
conform to something they don’t own and something they haven’t
participated in creating. In doing so,
we create dependent learners who only know how to work within a course Development of
book and lack the ability to apply their newly found knowledge to new Creativity Through
English Teaching
circumstances and the real world. As a result, low motivation levels ensue
along with their frustration at only being able to be effective in a classroom,
if at all. If conforming is counterproductive it is also because it does not NOTES
promote critical thinking, a process through which we observe, analyze,
apply, evaluate, question, reflect, reason, communicate, etc. If we are too
concerned with completing a unit rather than helping our students reach
those outcomes, we are robbing them of the opportunity to grow. We see
this only too often in systems that are intensely concerned with examinations
and certification. It is universally agreed that educators are inevitably role
models, therefore as role models we have to promote creativity, thinking out
of the box and using critical thinking skills. We owe it to our students to
demonstrate how these are used in learning and how they can be applied to
all other spheres of life.
13.3.1 Development of Creativity
Bringing down the confines, the following are some ways to develop
creativity:
 Drama and mime: Although role-plays have been one of the long-
time favourite activities in course books, we can hardly call them
creative. Language is not only about the words we utter but the
emotions, gestures and expressions that we use to convey meaning.
Encourage students to creatively act out their dialogues by using
exaggerated emotions and facial expressions. This will surely induce
laughter, which in turn will make learning memorable. Grammar too can
benefit from a little drama in class. Let’s take tenses as an example.
Make students write a sentence or two using whatever tense or aspect
of tense they wish on strips of paper. Collect the strips in a bag or hat
and ask for a volunteer to start off the activity by picking a strip of
paper and miming the sentence written on it. The student who guesses
the sentence and tense aspect is next to mime.
 Do things upside down: Observe what your students expect and do
the contrary! Do not follow exercises blindly as they are in your
course book, both the order of activities and the tasks themselves. Re-
write the instructions or simply ask the students to close their books as
you will dictate the new instructions to them. Consider a reading
comprehension task – instead of making students answer
comprehension questions after reading the text, get them to close their
books and dictate the answers to the questions in the book. Instruct
students to create questions to the answer.
 Give students importance: Tell students that they are going to be
material writers. Divide the class into small groups. Select a reading
or a listening text from the course book and present it to the class.
Self-Instructional
Have a short discussion about what type of tasks they normally do Material 191
with a text from the course book such as true or false, multiple-
choice, vocabulary exercises, and so on. Advise students that the
different groups will create different tasks to make
Development of a whole lesson when put together. Obviously, when done, each group
Creativity Through
English Teaching has to deliver their task to the other students – just as you do while
teaching!
 Art attack: Drawings are amongst the most expressive media that we
NOTES
use to convey meaning. Even the worst drawing tells a story. This
activity can be done by using both reading and listening texts. Ask
students to read or listen to a text and draw their interpretation of what
they ‘see’ while reading or listening. How do they interpret the authors’
thoughts and meaning through their drawings? Encourage them to
explain their drawing to the class as feedback.
 Personalization: This is definitely that one activity which drives
learning home. Encourage students to personalize language as much as
they can. If they’re bored of being asked the same question over and
over again – “What about in your country?” – make students dig
deeper and deeper into the roots of their cultures, tales of their nations,
and in the corners of their kitchens; encourage them to tell their
story. Everyone has a story. One example of a task that gets students
sharing their knowledge and ideas is to delete parts of a text and ask
the students to replace them with their own ideas, thus creating a
modified text which is relevant to them. Show and Tell is another
activity in which students bring something to class (such as a photo,
picture or object) and talk about it for a set amount of time. Top ten
list tasks are an effective way of encouraging students to contribute
something of their own. While collaborative learning is preferred,
individual work time is still important and these activities lend
themselves well to both. It is imperative that the students are made to
feel relevant.
To conclude, we will look back to the beginning of this paper and re-
evaluate the struggle we face as teachers. We have determined what
creativity is and is not, and how to foster it and introduce it in our lessons. It
now seems less of a struggle. We have dispelled the myth that creativity is
for the few who are blessed with artistry. By adopting small changes and
tips to ignite our course book we too can master creativity effectively. We all
have a creative spark rooted in us somewhere. All we have to do is tap into it
and tackle small bits at a time. After all Rome was not built in a day, so we
cannot expect ourselves or our students to adapt to change at a fast pace or
in huge chunks. Patience is a virtue; virtue is a grace. With hindsight we, the
authors, have realized how all those tiny steps have made the difference in
our teaching and our students’ learning and motivation.
Encouraging Creativity
These are just a few ways in which we might try to engage learners in
activities that unlock their creativity, developing their ability to think
Self-Instructional creatively. We have looked at the following:
192 Material
 Creating stories and poems
 Response frameworks
  Engaging the emotions Development of
Creativity Through
 Activating the senses English Teaching
 Thinking time Imagery as a prompt
 Visualization
NOTES
 Elaboration and adding detail
It’s so important to try to be creative in your teaching, even when it is
hard to fit it in with everything else you are supposed to do, because creative
teaching is real, passionate teaching. Creativity is at the heart of genuine
learning. You can teach objectives, but if you fail to engage the learners’
creative processes, then the real learning is likely not to be there. Creative
communication comes from the heart, so getting learners to communicate
something that is meaningful to them is valuable and holds a personal
significance. Further, it will encourage a deeper kind of learning. In addition
to that, in terms of your own teacher development, if you ignore creativity in
the way that you teach, you are possibly denying yourself valuable
opportunities for self-development. So, it may be difficult, and time-
consuming, but it’s worth it. As Martin Luther King Jr. said, ‘Almost always,
the creative, dedicated minority have made the world better.’

Check Your Progress

1. Define creativity.
2. What are the features of creativity?

13.4 READING SKILLS

‘Reading is a process that negotiates the meaning between the text and its
reader’.
Sub-Skills of Reading
 Skimming: Skimming is a style of reading in which the reader just
takes a glance at the text available to him/her. It is also called as
casual reading without a particular objective. For example, reading
newspapers, magazines, novel/fiction reading, etc.
 Scanning: Scanning is a style of reading in which the reader looks for
some particular piece of information out of large texts. It is also called
serious and focused reading. For example, reading newspaper or
magazine for getting certain information useful for the reader. Reading
the book for getting answers to a particular question or research paper
and article reading can be considered as scanning.
Importance and Development of Reading Skills
‘Reading is basic to Democracy’, opined Prof. Krishna Kumar (Former
Director, NCERT). Reading is a cognitive process of language development Self-Instructional
by glancing at Material 193
Development of written text for knowing its meaning. Reading is one of the most used skills
Creativity Through
English Teaching in conventional language teaching. Reading is an active process, although it is
called receptive skill for language acquisition. The activity of reading is
primarily practiced for getting information from the written texts. India is a
NOTES multilingual country yet English language plays a central role in almost
every affair of Indian life. The first activity in language teaching begins
largely with reading which is widely practiced as well. The importance of
English language is paramount in the era of globalization in India.
Types of Reading
Generally, there are two types of reading used in Indian schools and by the
Indian learners i.e. reading aloud with adequate production of voice, and
silent reading in which sound is not produced. A brief description of both
the types of reading is given below.
 Loud Reading: Loud reading is a type of reading conventionally
practiced for reading in India. Higher pitch and voice production for
uttering words and sentences are considered as loud reading. It also
helps learners to understand the content in a better way, especially in
the case of the poor power of attention. It also promotes rote learning.
 Silent Reading: Silent reading is a type of reading mostly practiced
by mature readers. Here, production of high pitch and voice is not
required, rather an utterance of sound and words are kept unheard by
others. It is helpful for fast reading and a better understanding of the
concept.
Extensive and Intensive Reading
Extensive reading is for the sake of pleasure and it is usually a long and
exhaustive text of reading, such as novel reading, story reading, etc.
Intensive reading is a reading activity for gaining detailed and
specific knowledge about a particular subject, such as reading a text book
for getting an answer, reading the newspaper for editorials, etc.
Referencing/Study Skills
Referencing skill mostly consists of the use of dictionary skill, thesaurus skill
and use of encyclopedia while reading comprehension.
 Dictionary skill: Use of dictionary for better reading comprehension
has been widely practiced by new language users especially while
reading. In modern times, the new technologies have offered various
type of dictionary, such as electronic dictionary, mobile app based
dictionary, computer-based dictionary, an inbuilt dictionary with MS
Word, etc. These electronic and ICT based dictionaries have
revolutionized the perfect use of English language.
 Thesaurus: Thesaurus is popularly used for higher education in India,
Self-Instructional
194 Material but modern English medium schools have also started usage of a
thesaurus in
 its ELT syllabus. Development of
Creativity Through
 Encyclopedia skill: Encyclopedia is a higher and advanced form of English Teaching
the dictionary for a conceptual and theoretical understanding of the
word and its concept. It provides the detailed and historical origin of
the word along with meaning and illustrations which help advanced NOTES
level learning to comprehend the subject- specific concept, not merely
the word meaning.
To sum up, reading is one of the most popular learning activities
among all language skills, because most of the time learners use their visual
sense. Reading is the immediate follow-up activity of visual experiences.
Therefore, reading is no more considered a passive activity rather an
active process of reading comprehension. Prior knowledge of the language,
grammar and vocabulary are core to reading comprehension. Inference and
prediction of words and its meanings in the texts are important for a learner
to understand the writing in a complete sense. In another word, encoding and
decoding of the written text by the reader which is intended by the
author/writer is called reading in the real sense.

13.5 COMPOSTION WRITING SKILLS

Writing is one of the most important productive skills in language teaching

and learning. Popularly, writing and speaking are considered as a final
product, but writing is also an essential part of the process of language
production. Therefore, the successful production of language in terms of
writing can only be conceived with good command over the process and
background work for a final piece of writing.
Stages of Writing
Pre-writing: Pre-writing is the first stage of writing which begins with
planning. This stage requires thorough background knowledge about the
topic and a proper direction towards the execution of writing plans.
Writing: This is the actual stage of putting the ideas into the paper with the
help of topic planning, using adequate vocabularies and grammatical
arrangements. It also requires a proper combination of coverage of topic with
an introduction, central theme and concluding the topic. The last stage of
writing consists of editing and proofreading before coming to the final draft
of the writing.
Process of Writing
Writing is considered as a process as well as product in the expression of
language. A learner has to follow the steps given below before completing a
writing task.
 Conceive the idea: Conceiving the idea is the first process to begin
the writing where previous knowledge of the writer and proposed
topic for writing is amalgamated.
Self-Instructional
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Development of
Creativity Through
English Teaching  Planning to execute writing: This is the process where the writer
plans to describe the different parts of writing. It includes the structure
for introduction, the main body of the theme of topic and conclusion
NOTES which are done in paragraphs and stepwise.
 Actual writing: This is the phase of the drafting under which the
writer actually writes with the help of adequate use of vocabulary and
grammar. It requires thematic clubbing of ideas into an essay or article
form. This phase is a rough draft of the writing subject to revision in
the next part.
 Reviewing and Editing: This is the process of writing considered as
most important because it applies proofreading, language and content
editing and finalization of the draft as well. It can also be considered
as the pre-stage for publication.
 Final draft: This is the process of providing finishing touch,
modification and beautification stage of an article or essay to be sent
for publication.
To sum up, writing is a comprehensive skill used for the final
production and expression of thoughts. It has been the foremost powerful
mode of expression to reach the wider audiences. The effective writing skill
is considered as an agent of change in the society and its illustrations can be
observed through almost every significant movement in the world. As
writing is also regarded as one of the most challenging language skills, the
core of writing is the mastery of vocabulary, grammar and a sound reading
habit in the related area. Writing is the expression of the writer on
particular topic/thought but it should always be reader- friendly and
targeted to the audience.

Check Your Progress

3. What is scanning?
4. What are the two types of reading?
5. What is intensive reading?

13.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS
1. Creativity is ‘the use of the imagination or original ideas, especially in
the production of an artistic work.’ Creativity ‘uncovers, selects, re-
shuffles, combines, synthesizes already existing facts, ideas, faculties,
skills.’
2. Creativity is characterized by originality, immediacy, curiosity, and
inspiration.
3. Scanning is a style of reading in which the reader looks for some
particular piece of information out of large texts.
4. The two types of reading are loud reading and silent reading.

Self-Instructional
196 Material
 5. Intensive reading is a reading activity for gaining detailed and Development of
specific knowledge about a particular subject, such as reading a text Creativity Through
English Teaching
book for getting an answer, reading the newspaper for editorials, etc.

13.7 SUMMARY NOTES

 Creativity is ‘the use of the imagination or original ideas, especially in

the production of an artistic work.’ Creativity ‘uncovers, selects, re-
shuffles, combines, synthesizes already existing facts, ideas, faculties,
skills.’
 As language speakers, we are all creative individuals. It takes a lot
of creativity for a child to acquire a language and for a learner to use
the language they are taught. However, as language teachers we can
be even more creative when we think of new possibilities for language
teaching and learning. Being creative means daring to do things
differently.
 Creativity is characterized by originality, immediacy, curiosity, and
inspiration.
 Some of the approaches to developing creativity includes the use of
heuristic at all levels, doing the opposite, reversing the order and
expanding or reducing something.
 Translation is also regarded as an important creative activity as
translators always instill something personal in their work.
 Some of the ways in which creativity can be ignited and developed
are by introducing the activity of drama and mime, doing things upside
down, giving students’ importance, introducing art activities such as
drawing, and encouraging students to personalize language.
 Reading is a process that negotiates the meaning between the text and
its reader. Skimming is a style of reading in which the reader just takes
a glance at the text available to him/her. Scanning is a style of reading
in which the reader looks for some particular piece of information out
of large texts.
 The two types of reading are loud reading and silent reading. While
Extensive reading is for the sake of pleasure, Intensive reading is to
gain detailed and specific knowledge about a particular subject.
 Referencing skill mostly consists of the use of dictionary skill, thesaurus
skill and use of encyclopedia while reading comprehension.
 Writing is one of the most important productive skills in language
teaching and learning. Pre-writing is the first stage of writing which
begins with planning. Writing is the actual stage of putting the ideas into
the paper with the help of topic planning, using adequate vocabularies
and grammatical arrangements

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Development of
Creativity Through
English Teaching
13.8 KEY WORDS

NOTES  Creativity: Creativity is to use of the imagination or original ideas,

especially in the production of an artistic work. Language teachers
employ creativity when then think of new possibilities for language
teaching and learning.
 Extensive reading: Extensive reading is for the sake of pleasure and
it is usually a long and exhaustive text of reading, such as novel
reading, story reading, etc.
 Intensive reading: Intensive reading is a reading activity for gaining
detailed and specific knowledge about a particular subject, such as
reading a text book for getting an answer, reading the newspaper for
editorials, etc.
 Thesaurus: Thesaurus is a reference book that contains the list of
synonyms, antonyms and related concepts.

13.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. What are some of the approaches to develop creativity?
2. Why is translation considered a creative act?
3. What are referencing skills?
4. Write a short note on reading skills.
Long-Answer Questions
1. Discuss the reasons why inclusion of creativity in important in teaching.
2. Explain the ways in which creativity can be developed.
3. Explain the different types of writing skills.

13.10 FURTHER READINGS

Collie, J. and S. Slater. 1990. Literature in the Language Classroom: A

Resource Book of Ideas and Activities. Cambridge: CUP.
Cook, G. 2000. Language Play, Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Maley, Alan and Tamas Kiss. 2018. Creativity and English Language Teaching:
From Inspiration to Implementation. London: Macmillan Publishers Ltd.
Heathfield, D. 2014. Storytelling with our Students. Peaslake: Delta Publishing.

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 Testing and Evaluation

UNIT 14 TESTING AND EVALUATION

Structure NOTES
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Concept of Evaluation and Assessment
14.3 Language Testing Techniques
14.3.1 Criterion Referenced Test
14.4 Concept of Tests and Examinations
14.4.1 Characteristics of a Good Test
14.4.2 Types of Tests
14.4.3 Importance of Test and Evaluation
14.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
14.6 Summary
14.7 Key Words
14.8 Self-Assessment Questions and Exercises
14.9 Further Readings

14.0 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, the concept of evaluation will be discussed in detail. The

assessment of learners helps us understand their progress and find gaps in the
teaching process. The unit will further discuss the types of tests and enhance
the understanding of language testing techniques.
The difference between test and examination will also be discussed in
detail. The importance and characteristics of testing and the features of a
good test will also be highlighted.

14.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the concept of evaluation
 Analyse the different types of tests and language testing techniques
 Describe the difference between test and examination
 Discuss the importance of tests and examinations

14.2 CONCEPT OF EVALUATION AND

ASSESSMENT

Evaluation is an act or process of determining the value of something.

Evaluation allows one to make a judgement about the desirability or value
of a measure. Self-Instructional
Material 199
Testing and Evaluation According to Prof. James M Bradfield, ‘Evaluation is the assignment of
symbols to phenomenon in order to characterize the worth or value of a
phenomenon, usually with reference to some social, cultural or scientific
standards’.
NOTES
The word ‘evaluation’ in education is a clear concept of the goals the
educator wishes to reach by means of instruction. It involves the ways and
means of measuring the extent to which these goals are realized in our
students. Evaluation consists of finding out the extent to which each and
every one of these objectives has been attained.
Singh (1998) holds the view that ‘Evaluation is a process of
collecting evidence about students attainment or growth on the basis of
which judgements are formed which in turn are used for making decisions.’
Therefore, information gathering, judgement forming and decision making
are the three components of evaluation.
Thus, evaluation makes provision for guiding the growth of individual
pupils, to diagnose their weaknesses and strengths, to point out areas where
remedial measures are desirable.
Objectives
The evaluation aims to:
 Differentiate between teaching and evaluation of English language
and literature.
 Follow the principles of evaluating the learning outcomes as distinct
from English literature.
 Develop formative test items in English language.
 Develop summative test items in English language.
 Mention the what, when, how and why of tests in English language.
 Give examples of oral and written tests in English language.
 Give examples of tests of vocabulary, grammar, comprehension and
composition in English language.
 Mention new types of tests requiring aural comprehension, speaking,
reading and writing.
Meaning of Assessment
Assessment is a tool that is useful for both teachers and children. On one
hand, assessment helps us understand what an individual child can do
keeping in mind her capability, age, need and speed of learning, her current
learning level, etc.
Assessment should not be done merely for awarding marks to children.
It is not important to decide who has got how many marks. The main
Self-Instructional
200 Material objective of
assessment is to help teacher find gaps in her teaching and decide on her Testing and Evaluation
next steps in the class. Assessment should make a child understand and talk
about the change that she sees in herself from where she was and recognize
her progress. It should be able to tell the teacher and the parents about the
needs of the children and the steps they should take to improve the NOTES
proficiency levels of children. Assessment presently is normally used for
passing and failing children or to emphasise the number of marks obtained.
But its scope is not so limited. In the process of assessment more than
measuring the level of achievement of the child, the effort is to understand
how to make teaching-learning process more effective.
Formative and Summative
For scholastic assessment there are two modes of assessment now being
prescribed. The first is called formative assessment which is a tool used by
the teacher to monitor continuously student’s progress in a non-
threatening, supportive environment. It consists of regular descriptive
feedback, a chance for the students to reflect on their performance, take
advice and improve upon it. The students are considered as an essential part
of assessment from determining criteria to assessing self or peers. The
formative assessment has a very great potential for improving student’s
performance with a scope for raising the self-esteem of the learner and
reducing the work load of the teacher.
The most important point to remember is that formative assessment is
carried out during a course of instruction and it is completely process linked.
It provides continuous feedback to both teachers and learners for taking
decisions in respect of appropriate modifications in the transactional and
learning activities.
The summative assessment on the other hand is conducted at the end
of the course to measure or sum up how much a student has learned from
the course. The assessment in this mode does not by itself provide a valid
measure of the growth and development of the learner.At its best, it certifies
the level of achievement at a given point of time. However, it may be
mentioned that it is an assessment of learning outcomes and it is generally
taken by students at the end of the unit or a term or semester to indicate the
‘sum’ of what the students has or has not learnt. Usually summative
assessment is carried out through paper and pencil tests which are basically a
one-time mode of assessment. The experts have pointed out good summative
assessments, tests and other graded evaluations must be demonstrably
reliable, valid and free from bias ( Angelo & Cross, 1993). Thus,
assessment of summative type has been used to sum up learning ( Black &
William, 1993) and it is intended to look at past achievements and involves
only marking and feedback grades to students. It is separated from teaching
and is carried out at intervals when achievement has to be summarized and
reported (Harlen, 1998).

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Testing and Evaluation The two modes of assessment- formative and summative use various
tools and techniques. The formative uses flexible time while summative test
uses written- end of term procedure.
NOTES Assessment in English language teaching
According to ‘Lockwood and Mclean, ‘If assessment is to be a positive
force in education, it must be implemented properly. It cannot be used to
merely sort students or to criticize education. Its goals must be to improve
education. Rather than “teach to the test”, we must “test what we teach”.’
Assessment in teaching English language is a process of collecting,
analyzing and interpreting information about teaching and learning in order to
make informed decisions that enhance student achievement and the success
of educational programs.
Tools and Techniques Used in Formative and Summative Tests
Formative assessment (Flexible Timing)
Formative Assessment uses objective type, short answer, essay type,
assignments, quizzes & competitions, questions, projects, observation
schedule, debates, interview schedule, elocution, checklist, group discussions,
rating scale, club activities, anecdotal records, document analysis, tests and
inventories, portfolio analysis, etc.
Summative Assessment (Written-end of Term) uses objective type,
short answer, long answers, etc.
It is evident from the foregoing presentation that formative tests are
used during the teaching-learning processes and their purpose is to enhance,
add, support and monitor the learning processes in keeping with the desired
learning outcomes.
Aptitude Tests
Some of the types of aptitude tests have been discussed below:
General Proficiency
General Proficiency tests are used:
(a) To determine readiness for instructional programme. They are used
for finding out whether a student is ready to take up a training
programme.
(b) To classify or place individuals in appropriate language classes.
They distinguish degrees of proficiency so that language training may
be offered to each group suitable to the level.
(c) To diagnose the individual’s specific strengths and weaknesses. They
are diagnostic tests. There are different tests for each language skill or
every components of a skill.
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Achievement tests are used: Testing and Evaluation

(a) To measure the achievement of the instructional objectives. Such

achievement tests are administered to find the student’s progress
towards the objectives.
NOTES
(b) To evaluate the effectiveness of instruction.
Achievement tests are of two types:
1. Standardised Achievement Tests and 2) Teacher made Tests or
Classroom Tests.
1. Standardised achievement tests: Standardised achievement
tests are broadly classified into two classes, namely subjective
type tests and objective type tests.
 Subjective type tests: Subjective type tests include short
answer type questions and essay type questions. Short
answer type question tests mainly the semantic aspect of
the content and the ability to recall by the pupils. Essay
type questions are mainly used to know how well and deep
the student knows the particular topic of the subject.
 Objective type tests: Objective type questions are used to
test the knowledge of the student about the topic and the
subject.
2. Teacher made tests or classroom tests
Teacher made tests (or) classroom tests are broadly classified
into three types, namely (i) Written paper and pencil tests (ii)
Oral tests and (iii) Practical tests.
(i) Written paper and pencil tests: Written paper and pencil
tests are used to test the level of understanding of the
content by the student. It is further divided into three types,
namely (a) Objective type tests, (b) Short answer type tests
and (c) Essay type tests.
 Objective type tests: Objective type tests means the
teachers have to be objective. He cannot influence
his personal feelings on the papers that he corrects.
He does not have any hope to be biased in evaluating
a paper.
 Short answer type tests: Short answer type tests reveal
the true listening capacity of a student to the teacher
clearly.
 Essay type tests: Essay type tests are used mainly to
test the knowledge of the student in that particular
topic. Essay type questions are still persistently used
for mainly one reason that it has direct link with
social life. The skill of logical coherence that is
practiced in essay type questions

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Testing and Evaluation

helps us to use this logical reasoning in presenting our

cause to other family members or to our higher
officials. We may be strong in using the language, but
NOTES
when we use it logically it brings prosperity and peace
to us.
(ii) Oral tests: Oral tests are used to know the recital capacity
and the knowledge of the student. Conducting oral test in an
Indian large classroom is very difficult. There are many
hurdles in conducting oral test. Teachers of English should
persist on trying to conduct oral test.
(iii) Practical tests: Practical tests are mainly to be conducted so
that the student understands the concept of the topic so
easily and clearly. He has the chance to convert the
learning situation to using situation.Anything that is learnt
theoretically will have strong support when it is done
practically.

Check Your Progress

1. Define assessment.
2. What is summative assessment?
3. Define formative assessment.

14.3 LANGUAGE TESTING TECHNIQUES

The principal language testing techniques are

(a) translation
(b) dictation
(c) composition
(d) interview
(e) multiple choice items
(f) short answer questions.
 Translation: After the introduction of direct method of language
teaching, translation as a testing device has fallen into disuse. Passages
for translation from Mother tongue into English or English into Mother
tongue used to be given. The first may be used to test the writing ability
in the second language. The second is useful to test the comprehension
of the passage in English. Yet, there is always the difficulty of
properly and objectively assessing the language performance in using
this technique. Further, translation, by itself,

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 has been refined into an art. However, the State Board English Testing and Evaluation
syllabus in Tamil Nadu has introduced translation as a component.
 Dictation: Dictation as a test of auditory skill has an important place
in testing. Discrimination of phonemes is a component in this
technique. It has been used to test spelling for very long. But the NOTES
teacher must remember that phonological characteristics of the passage
dictated interfere in the proper assessment of speaking ability.
 Interview: Oral tests are difficult to administer successfully. There are
no specific criteria available and it takes a lot of time to assess the oral
skill in large classrooms. That is why oral skills are never assessed in
our system. As a result, oral Skill is not also given sufficient place in
classroom teaching. An interview with the examinee may be the only
possible way of assessing the speaking ability of the learners. The
examiner provides a large number of clues to the student during the
course of the interview and the responses of the student are marked
then and there. There is always an element of subjectivity in this
evaluation.
 Composition: The writing ability of the students is measured through
the composition tests. Students are expected to compose their own
free and extended responses to questions. They may be single
paragraph responses or essay type questions. There are chances for
the teacher to evaluate the student’s attainment in spelling,
punctuation, grammatical competence, paragraphing, organization of
ideas etc. Normally in our class room testing there are text based
items and general composition. Reproduction of memorized answers
does not indicate the writing proficiency of the student and they are
possible in text-based questions. Evaluation of written work is highly
subjective and difficult.
 Multiple Choice Items and Short Answer Items: The multiple-
choice item is an item which is a question or an incomplete statement.
It has a set of choices or responses. One of them is the correct
response and the others are distractors. Multiple choice items are
difficult to construct, but easy to assess. The student is allowed to
make a guess of the answer. Multiple choice test does not really test
the language skills of the learner. It is useful in testing spelling,
grammar and vocabulary.
Some of these difficulties may be avoided by giving short-answer
questions, which give the student the opportunity to compose his own
answers. They are useful in informal classroom situations. They are
easy to write and easy to score. The teacher must make sure that there is
no ambiguity in the question and that there should be only one correct
response.

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Testing and Evaluation

 Listening Skill: Dictation is one of the techniques for testing listening.

The teacher may read out a short story or a passage twice. And then
the students may be tested for their listening comprehension. The
NOTES
questions must be well structured to cover the main points of the story
or the passage. The students may be scored easily on their
performance. Tests of sound discrimination may also be constructed.
14.3.1 Criterion Referenced Test
We have seen that the type of ability test that describes what a person has
learned to do is an achievement test. The teacher in the classroom may be
concerned with the mastery of one specific skill by the student. For instance,
the teacher may have set as his objective, the mastery of listening skills or
the use of the present simple tense in appropriate place. If the student is able
to perform the set task, then the objective is realized. Here student A is not
compared with student B or student X in Chennai with student Y in Trichy.
The teacher is concerned with the level of mastery within the class, of a
specific skill or aspect of English usage. Tests concerned with the mastery of
such defined skills are called content- referenced or criterion- referenced
tests. The focus is here on assessing a standard of performance of a specific
skill. Most achievement tests are of this type.
There is another criterion. Here it is meant to test whether a student in
one State or University is comparable with a student in another State or
University of the same level. The point of reference is not the task, but the
performance in some more general reference group. A test used in this way
is called a norm-referenced task. Here the norm of acceptable performance is
set by group comparison. Such tests are used in many curricular decisions,
guidance work and research.

14.4 CONCEPT OF TESTS AND EXAMINATIONS

Reforms in examinations have not kept pace with reforms in teaching
English. Many changes have taken place with regard to the aims and
objectives of teaching English as a second language in India over the past
fifty years. Corresponding changes have been effected in syllabuses,
textbooks and methods of teaching English. But changes in the mode and
content of examinations have been marginal and superficial. Essay Type
questions have yielded place to Objective tests, but there has not been a
review of this reform for years now.
We have to satisfy the existing examination requirements and yet teach
good English to our students. An examination greatly influences what is
done in the classrooms and how it is done. So its final effect should be
salutary i.e. it should accord with course Objectives and syllabus. Testing
should be comprehensive including all skills of language.

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 We know that even after six years of studying English many students Testing and Evaluation
among those who have passed S.S.C. are not able to speak or write a few
sentences together in English correctly. Are we testing them adequately or
are we testing the wrong way most of the time?
Difference between a Test and an Exam NOTES

‘Examination’ is derived from ‘examen’which means the tongue of a balance.

We put the student and the expected standard in a balance. We tell the
student ‘This is what is required. Can you do it?’
Examinations test their achievement or proficiency at the end of a
study course or a level prescribed (BA/MA etc).
ATest is held more frequently during a course. In a test, we cover a
small portion. We tell him, ‘I told you this -Do you remember it?’ “Testum’
is an earthen ‘pot’ in which a mixture of metals was put and melted, in order
to find gold in it.
14.4.1 Characteristics of a Good Test
The characteristics of a good test are as follows:
Validity
In English, proficiency in skills is evaluated. A test in written English must
test the writing ability of the students and the test scores in the test must
correlate highly with the actual ability in the writing skill. Then the test may
be said to have validity. Validity is of different kinds such as Content Validity
and Empirical Validity.
Content Validity
Content validity refers to the items of the test representing adequately each
portion or part of the skill or content that is being tested. Let us suppose
that the test is meant to measure the student’s mastery of sentence structure.
An analysis is first made of the language structure and the items will be
based directly on each of them. The analysis must be acceptable to the
recognized authorities in the area. Then the test has content validity.
Empirical Validity
Empirical validity refers to the comparability of the test with an independent
outside criterion. There must be a high correlation between test scores and a
trustworthy external criterion. Empirical validity is of two kinds: predictive
validity and concurrent validity.
Face Validity
Face validity is the way the test looks to the examinees, test
administrators, educators.

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Testing and Evaluation Reliability
Reliability means the stability of test scores. There must be consistency in the
test. We may administer a test on any day of the week. Two parallel forms
NOTES of a test may be given to the same group on two different days. Even then
the scores must be the same. Further, whether A values the paper or B
values the paper, a student must get the same score. Whatever be the
circumstances in which a teacher values the paper, the scores must have no
chance of a change. If she values the paper on some other day, the candidate
will get the same score.
14.4.2 Types of Tests
First, in order to determine the general course objectives, divide the course
objectives into its specific components.
Tests are of different types:
(a) Teacher-made tests (paper and pencil tests) of the classroom and (b)
the format, large scale tests including Standardised Tests. Classroom
tests are prepared, administered and scored by the teacher. From the
results, students know what is expected of them from time to time.
(b) Standardised tests are used with thousands of candidates and are
prepared by specialists who, however, have no direct knowledge of
the examinees and have no opportunities whatsoever to check their
performance.
School tests and exams fall under general proficiency tests meant to
(1) classify students as ‘pass’/’fail’ (2) fix their class (standard) (3)
diagnose individual strengths and weaknesses (4) and apply remedial
measures. Diagnostic Tests can be prepared separately as per needs.
14.4.3 Importance of Test and Evaluation
An expert says ‘Tests are only a means to an end. Tests as hurdles, as
elimination devices, as basis for grades, interest me very little. But testing
which teaches us how to teach, how to counsel wisely and effectively how in
short, to help us assure that the human individual becomes what he can
become - that is worthwhile, that is everything’.
These words aptly summarize the purpose of testing, how they can go
on the wrong track, and how they can be made valuable tools of
instruction and education. But as we are aware, everything seems to be
going wrong with our testing and examinations. The S.S.C. exam sets the
pattern for the internal exams, like the half yearly, quarterly and even the unit
tests and other periodical slip tests. Suggestions for changing the nature and
content of our public exams have been made by commissions and
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committees from time to time. All the good work done by way of syllabus
208 Material reform, textbook production and Innovations in teaching
techniques seems to be rendered fruitless by the one and only Final Exam Testing and Evaluation
which dominates the scene. Parents and students face it with fear and
anxiety. The need for reforms is therefore very urgent.
It is said that teaching and testing go hand in hand. One should
reinforce and support the other. Educational testing should not be a one shot NOTES
affair once a quarter or once a year. It should be an integral part of the
teaching process. The feedback from testing should help improve teaching
and good teaching should prepare them for testing. Such comprehensive and
all pervasive testing is called evaluation. The total assessment of the student
must be made continuously all through the year. Evaluation involves
objectives of teaching, methods to achieve those objectives and then
checking how far they have been achieved in practice. This is real
evaluation which is the real purpose of tests and examinations. School
leaving exams on the other hand permanently brand the ‘Failed’ students as
non-learners, which is not the case. Education should help everyone to learn
things.
We teach language in order to develop the skills of comprehension
and expression. These are achieved through listening and reading, and
speaking and writing.
So our tests should fulfill the following purposes:
1. They should bring about qualitative improvement in teaching
and learning through an effective feedback mechanism.
2. The feedback findings should help us change our materials and
methodology from time to time.
3. They should help us improve the final exam.
4. They should help teachers diagnose the learning weaknesses of
students, in the various elements of language like sound,
structure (grammar) vocabulary and the four skills.
5. Tests and exams should help students acquire knowledge,
concepts, skills, interests, attitudes and values.
6. Tests help teachers locate difficult areas in the syllabus and teach
them intensively.
7. Tests help promote competitive spirit and motivation among
students.
8. Teachers can spot individual merits and weakness, and take
suitable measures.
9. By looking closely at the learning deficiencies of student, teachers
can improve their own teaching.
Speed Tests and Power Tests
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Speed tests are those tests in which the items are comparatively easy but the Material 209
time limits are so short that few or none of the candidates can complete all
items. Most
Testing and Evaluation

of the competitive examinations administer such speed tests. In power tests,

item difficulty increases gradually. Ample time is given so that all candidates
can attempt all items.
NOTES
Good Test
Tests play a great part in deciding the future of students.
To enable them to know their strength and weakness, tests should test
all their abilities adequately and correctly.
• A test should be based on clear aims and objectives in terms of
language elements and skills. Generally in our set up, it is not
possible to test the skills of listening and speaking. This could be
done with the help of modern technology and gadgets.
• A good test is valid; it should test what it seeks to test. It should
include all areas like comprehension and composition besides the
elements like vocabulary and structure.
• A test should indicate the specific language item to be tested.
• A test should neither be too easy nor too difficult. It should contain
a fair sample of all items.
• A test should promote learning and encourage good teaching.
• A good test should test all the language items through
contexualized passages, not through isolated sentences.

Check Your Progress

4. List the language testing techniques.
5. What do you mean by speed test?

14.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS
1. Assessment is a tool that helps us understand what an individual child
can do, keeping in mind her capability, age, need and speed of
learning, her current learning level, etc. In the process of assessment,
the effort is to understand how to make teaching-learning process
more effective.
2. Formative assessment is a tool used by the teacher to monitor
continuously student’s progress in a non-threatening, supportive
environment.
3. Summative assessment is conducted at the end of the course to
measure or sum up how much a student has learned from the course.

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 4. The principal language testing techniques are a) translation b) dictation Testing and Evaluation
c) composition d) interview e)multiple choice items f) short answer
questions.
5. Speed tests are those tests in which the items are comparatively easy
but the time limits are so short that few or none of the candidates can NOTES
complete all items. Most of the competitive examinations administer
such speed tests.

14.6 SUMMARY

 Evaluation is an act or process of determining the value of

something. Evaluation allows one to make a judgement about the
desirability or value of a measure. The word ‘evaluation’ in education
is a clear concept of the goals the educator wishes to reach by means
of instruction.
 Assessment is a tool that is useful for both teachers and children. On
one hand, assessment helps us understand what an individual child can
do keeping in mind her capability, age, need and speed of learning, her
current learning level, etc. In the process of assessment more than
measuring the level of achievement of the child, the effort is to
understand how to make teaching- learning process more effective.
 For scholastic assessment there are two modes of assessment now
being prescribed. The first is called formative assessment which is a
tool used by the teacher to monitor continuously student’s progress in a
non-threatening, supportive environment. The second type of
assessment is summative assessment. It is conducted at the end of the
course to measure or sum up how much a student has learned from
the course.
 The two modes of assessment- formative and summative use various
tools and techniques. The formative uses flexible time while summative
test uses written-end of term procedure.
 Assessment in teaching English language is a process of collecting,
analyzing and interpreting information about teaching and learning in
order to make informed decisions that enhance student achievement
and the success of educational programs.
 General proficiency tests are used to determine readiness for
instructional programme. Achievement Tests are used to measure the
achievement of the instructional objectives. Achievement tests are of
two types: standardized achievement tests and teacher made tests or
classroom tests. Standardized achievement tests are broadly classified
into two classes, namely subjective type tests and objective type tests.
Teacher made tests (or) classroom tests are broadly classified into
three types, namely (i) Written paper and pencil tests (ii) Oral tests and
(iii) Practical tests.

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Testing and Evaluation  The principal language testing techniques are a) translation b) dictation
c) composition d) interview e)multiple choice items f) short answer
questions.
 Passages for translation from mother tongue into English or English
NOTES into mother tongue are given to test the writing ability in the second
language and to test the comprehension of the passage in English.
 Dictation as a test of auditory skill has an important place in testing.
Discrimination of phonemes is a component in this technique.
 An interview with the examinee may be the only possible way of
assessing the speaking ability of the learners. The examiner provides a
large number of clues to the student during the course of the interview
and the responses of the student are marked then and there.
 The writing ability of the students is measured through the composition
tests. Students are expected to compose their own free and extended
responses to questions.
 The multiple-choice item is an item which is a question or an
incomplete statement. It has a set of choices or responses. One of
them is the correct response and the others are distractors. Multiple
choice items are difficult to construct, but easy to assess. The student
is allowed to make a guess of the answer.
 Short-answer questions give the student the opportunity to compose
his own answers. They are useful in informal classroom situations.
Listening skill is tested through dictation.
 Tests concerned with the mastery of such defined skills are called
content- referenced or criterion-referenced tests. The focus is here on
assessing a standard of performance of a specific skill. Most
achievement tests are of this type.
 While examinations test the achievement or proficiency of a student at
the end of a study course or a level prescribed (BA/MA etc), a test is
held more frequently during a course.
 Testing is characterized by validity and reliability.
 It is said that teaching and testing go hand in hand. One should
reinforce and support the other. Testing should be an integral part of
the teaching process.
 Speed tests are those in which the items are comparatively easy but
the time limits are so short that few or none of the candidates can
complete all items. Most of the competitive examinations administer
such speed tests. In power tests, item difficulty increases gradually.
Ample time is given so that all candidates can attempt all items.
 The only change in tests and exams in English over the years is the
substitution of the essay by the objective type questions. This is a
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212 Material
 compared to the vast innovations brought about in syllabus making, Testing and Evaluation
textbook writing and methods of teaching English. The result is that
after six years of study in schools, students are not able to speak or
write a few sentences in English. We test the wrong way our motto
should be to meet the requirements of the exams and still teach good NOTES
English to our students.
 Exams greatly influence the teaching of English, so the final result of
exams should be to promote the aims of teaching of English. Tests are
of different types- teacher -made tests for a small number and the
large scale standardized tests for thousands. The real purpose of tests
and exams should be not to demarcate students as pass/fail but to
help teachers to teach better and better, based on every test.

14.7 KEY WORDS

 Evaluation: Evaluation is an act or process of determining the value

of something. Evaluation allows one to make a judgement about the
desirability or value of a measure. The word ‘evaluation’ in education
is a clear concept of the goals the educator wishes to reach by means
of instruction.
 Assessment: Assessment is a tool that helps us understand what an
individual child can do, keeping in mind her capability, age, need and
speed of learning, her current learning level, etc. In the process of
assessment, the effort is to understand how to make teaching-learning
process more effective.
 Dictation: The action of speaking so that the listener can write down
the words. This is done to test the student’s listening skill.
 Criterion: Criterion is a standard or test by which things or people
can be judged.

14.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short-Answer Questions
1. Define the term evaluation.
2. State the difference between test and examination.
3. What is an empirical validity test?
4. What is reliability?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Discuss the different types of tests.
2. Explain the different language testing techniques.
3. Describe the characteristics and importance of test and
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Testing and Evaluation
14.9 FURTHER READINGS

Aggarwal J.C. 2009. Essentials of Educational Technology Innovations in

NOTES Teaching-Learning. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.
Gronlund, N.E. 1981. Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching. New York:
Collier Mac Millan.
Jain Praveen. M. 2014. Methodology of Teaching English Tools,
Techniques and Methods. Jaipur: Aavishkar Publishers.
R.A. Sharma. 2005. Programmed Instruction an Instructional Technology.
Meerut: Surya Publication.
Vallabi J.E, 2014. Teaching of English Principles and Practices. Hyderabad:
Neelkamal Publications Pvt. Ltd.

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