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Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing

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DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.91027-4

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 Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing
Steven M Manson, Dudley B Bonsal, and Melinda Kernik, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
Eric F Lambin, Georges Lemaître Centre for Earth and Climate Research, Earth and Life Institute, Université catholique de
Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium; and School of Earth Sciences and Woods Institute for the Environment, Stanford University,
Stanford, CA, USA
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
This article is a revision of the previous edition article by E.F. Lambin, volume 13, pp. 13150–13155, Ó 2001, Elsevier Ltd.

Abstract

Remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) analysis involves the use of technology to gather, manipulate,
and analyze spatial data to understand a range of phenomena. Remote sensing entails obtaining information about the
Earth’s surface by examining data acquired by a device, which is at a distance from the surface, most often satellites orbiting
the earth and airplanes. GIS are computer-based systems that are used to capture, store, analyze, and display geographic
information. These two approaches are used widely, often together, to assess natural resources and monitor environmental
changes. Social scientists can gain insights into fine spatial and temporal dynamics of a range of social phenomena in
environmental contexts by analyzing time series of remote sensing data, by linking remote sensing to socioeconomic data
using GIS, and developing with these data a range of digital models and analyses. This article examines remote sensing and
GIS in general, with an emphasis on the former, and then explores how these approaches may be used together to address
a range of issues. It also emphasizes the role of remote sensing and GIS for use by social scientists engaged in the envi-
ronmental and ecological scholarship.

Analysis with Remote Sensing and Geographic aimed at understanding land-use dynamics, its driving forces,
Information Systems and its impact on society. Remote sensing and GIS support
the analysis of changing landscapes in a variety of ways:
Remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) land-cover mapping, monitoring of land-cover change, iden-
analyses are complementary approaches that social scientists tification of land-use attributes, spatial stratification and
use to gather, manipulate, and analyze spatial data. Remote extrapolation of regions based on land-use patterns, devel-
sensing is the science and art of obtaining information about opment of spatial models, and application to an ever-
the earth from a vehicle, which is at a distance from the surface, increasing number of social science questions.
most often satellites orbiting the earth and airplanes. These
craft carry sensors that capture images of the earth surface
across a variety of spectra including visible light, heat, and Remote Sensing and the Environment
radar. GIS are computer-based systems that are used to capture,
store, analyze, and display spatial information (see the entry on Humans ‘see’ the world by sensing electromagnetic radiation
GIS for details). These two technologies are used widely across in the form of visible light with their eyes and interpreting the
the social and natural sciences to assess natural resources, resultant signals with their brains. In many respects, remote
monitor environmental changes, and understand a range of sensing functions in a similar fashion; a sensor housed in
social phenomena as they pertain to environmental and a satellite or aerial vehicle captures images of different wave-
ecological issues. length ranges reflected and emitted by the earth’s surface.
In this article, we examine remote sensing, GIS, and their These images are then interpreted by computer, often with
application to social science scholarship in environmental human assistance, and processed into spatial data that are
contexts. The modern field of remote sensing began with then stored, manipulated, mapped, and analyzed. The char-
aerial photography in the twentieth century and matured with acter of the returned wavelengths depends on surface attri-
the launch of satellite sensors that have acquired multispectral butes, such as the composition of the material, surface
data over the entire globe since the 1970s. A range of natural moisture, and state of vegetation. Different features can be
and human features can be identified within an image via identified within an image based on the specific ‘spectral
a variety of methods. The analysis and interpretation of signature’ (or specific combinations of wavelengths) of
remote sensing data typically is performed through image different surfaces, such as the green of a forest or gray of
classification and through change detection after the raw data concrete, and their spatial patterning, such as the readily
have been preprocessed. GIS facilitates the interpretation of identifiable edges of agricultural fields or the branching of
remote sensing data by linking biophysical information road networks. For environmental and ecological research,
measured by remote sensing to maps of natural and cultural a good understanding of the biophysical processes controlling
landscape attributes, to field measurements, and to socio- the radiation of a surface is necessary to interpret the remotely
economic information. GIS also offers many different forms sensed signal in terms of surface attributes. Forest cover, for
of spatial analysis and modeling that draw on these data. example, can exhibit varying spectral signatures depending on
Remote sensing and GIS are important approaches for studies age of the trees, their dryness, or degree of thinning.

64 International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2nd edition, Volume 10 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.91027-4

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 Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing 65

Spectral, Spatial, and Temporal Domains of landscape spatial pattern encompasses, for example, the
patch size distribution of forests, the location of agricultural
Remote sensing platforms vary in their spectral, spatial, and
plots, the shapes of fields, or the number and configuration of
temporal characteristics or domains. Spectral range refers to the
landscape elements. Landscape spatial pattern is seldom static
part of the electromagnetic spectrum in which the sensor
due to natural changes in vegetation and to human interven-
operates. The term ‘multispectral’ denotes a sensor that can
tion. Remote sensing offers the possibility to analyze changes
capture many different slices or ‘bands’ of the spectrum (e.g.,
in spatial pattern at the scale of landscapes. Textural informa-
several shades or red, green, and blue in the visible wave-
tion of images can be measured using a variety of indices such
lengths) while panchromatic refers to a sensor that collects one
as variance or mathematical morphology.
electromagnetic band (e.g., resulting in black and white or
The temporal domain of a sensor can refer to the amount of
greyscale images). Some sensors are termed hyperspectral
time any given snapshot covers and how frequently a given area
because they can capture hundreds of discrete parts of the
is sampled by the sensor. Snapshots are usually instantaneous
spectrum (Jensen, 2005; Campbell, 2007). Consider the range
(akin to the way that a camera takes a photo at a single instant
of different approaches and sensor characteristics:
of time) but some sensors will average electromagnetic radia-
l In the visible and near-infrared (heat) range of the electro- tion collected over a short period of time. Aerial imagery is
magnetic spectrum, the land surface generally is character- collected at an interval chosen by the producers but is usually
ized using vegetation indices, which are arithmetic flown on annual or less-frequent basis given the expense
combinations of spectral bands. The most widely used of (although the advent of drones, or unmanned aerial vehicles,
these indices is the normalized difference vegetation index. may make aerial remote sensing much more available).
Vegetation indices derived from remote sensing data are Satellites, in comparison, are expensive to place in orbit, but
related to several variables quantifying vegetation activity once aloft they capture imagery on a very frequent basis,
and state, such as the fraction of photosynthetically active ranging from a couple of weeks down to a few days. This
radiation absorbed by the vegetation canopy, canopy attri- frequency, also termed the return interval, can affect the utility
butes (e.g., green biomass or green leaf area index), or state of imagery for any given use. For instance, fast-moving
of the vegetation (i.e., vegetation vigor or stress). Seasonal phenomena like flooding may require frequent aerial
variations of vegetation indices are related to vegetation imagery, while seasonal monitoring of deforestation trends can
phenology and biome seasonality. be accomplished by platforms with a lower frequency.
l In the thermal range of the spectrum, the heat of the land
surface can be derived and is related to surface energy Remote Sensing Platforms
balance, moisture availability, and evapotranspiration.
Empirical studies have demonstrated the usefulness of There is an ever-increasing number and variety of sensing
thermal data to locate dense forest boundaries and monitor platforms suitable for environmental and ecological investi-
the growth cycle of crops, including for irrigated systems. gations. Technological considerations combined with cost and
l Active sensors are those that emit radiation and measure desired use have resulted in several families of sensors with
how much is returned. Light Detection and Ranging comparable characteristics.
(LIDAR) involves pulses of laser light that can create high-
resolution representations of 3D surfaces. Microwaves are l Moderate spatial-resolution platforms are characterized by
also used, where the intensity of microwaves returning a number of satellite sensors that have been acquiring
from a given surface depends on the geometric charac- multispectral data over the entire globe since the 1970s, at
teristics of the surface (i.e., shape and orientation of a spatial resolution of dozens of meters. The most widely
objects, as well as their surface roughness) and its elec- used among these sensors are Landsat Multispectral Scanner
trical characteristics (i.e., reflectivity and conductivity of (spatial resolution of 80  80 m), Landsat Thematic
materials). Both active and passive microwave sensing are Mapper (30  30 m), and SPOT High Resolution Visible
possible, where active systems (commonly known as Imaging Instrument (20  20 m for the multispectral
radar) supply their own source of energy or illumination product and 10  10 m for the panchromatic product).
while passive systems sense energy that is naturally l Coarse resolution sensors include the Advanced Very High

emitted or reflected from the Earth’s surface, albeit at Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) on the NOAA series of
extremely low levels. The capacity of microwave remote orbiting platforms, which have been used widely for moni-
sensing to collect data in all weather conditions combined toring changes in the attributes of the Earth’s surface. These
with the fine spatial resolution of the data opens prom- data cover the period from June 1981 to date. The daily
ising avenues for land-cover assessment and monitoring. NOAA AVHRR Local Area Coverage data have a spatial
This technology has, however, not yet reached the same resolution of about 1.1 km, which is well suited for moni-
operational level as optical remote sensing. toring seasonal vegetation dynamics at the scale of the land-
scape. Other useful sensors with a 1-km resolution are the
The spatial domain refers to the resolution of the sensor ERS Along Track Scanning Radiometer, SPOT VEGETATION,
(the smallest discrete area it can identify on the ground), its and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer,
range or extent (the amount of area it can capture at one time), which also has some sensors with a finer-scaled 250-m
and the spatial patterns that may be discerned from an image. resolution that is used for a range of applications.
A major attribute of a landscape is its spatial pattern, namely l Fine spatial resolution sensors are capable of generating
the arrangement in space of its different elements. The concept imagery with spatial resolutions as fine as 1 m or lower in

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66 Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing

panchromatic mode and 4 m in multispectral mode. These sequential land-cover classifications. For every sampling unit of
systems are also characterized by short temporal resolution, these classified images, the land-cover categories at the two
with repeat intervals on the order of days. Such imagery also dates are compared. The comparison of successive maps can
provides greater spatial details on the land surface and result in failure to detect subtle changes when land-cover
opens new applications especially relevant for social classes are too broad. Thus, rather than detecting changes on
sciences, such as urban studies. Much of the data from fine the basis of land-cover categories, change detection is often
resolution sensors comes from commercially operated better performed on the basis of the continuous variables
satellites such as GeoEye and WorldView-2. defining these categories, whether these are reflectance values
l Several active microwave sensors are also available: the measured by a satellite sensor or biophysical attributes derived
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) on the ERS-1 and JERS-1 from these sensors (e.g., percent forest cover). Change detec-
satellites, and the Advanced SAR sensor as part of the tion is an area of ongoing research and development (Coppin
ENVISAT mission. The cloud-penetrating capability of et al., 2004; Kennedy et al., 2009).
microwaves makes them an ideal tool for work in areas with
a permanent cloud cover. LIDAR is increasingly common
through national and state initiatives. While coverage is Geographic Information Systems
patchy, a growing number of governments are conducting
surveys of entire jurisdictions, and the library of private data A GIS offers a powerful approach for handling spatial data. It is
is expanding very quickly. designed for the collection, storage, and analysis of objects and
phenomena where geographic location is an important char-
acteristic (Longley et al., 2010). GIS data are of two primary
Developing Remotely Sensed Data
kinds: locational and attribute. Locational data specify the
Just as humans must mentally interpret signals garnered with spatial position of entities or phenomena, while attribute data
their eyes, remotely sensed images must be developed from the describe their characteristics. The location of a building, for
raw electronic signals collected by sensors into data suitable for example, can be specified in a spatial coordinate system such as
human interpretation and computer processing. This process is longitude and latitude, while attributes describe characteristics
comprised of two stages: preprocessing and analysis. The such as stories or roofing style. Both components – location
analysis stage in turn consists of image classification to generate and attributes – are usually joined into a single data model, or
land-cover maps and, if desirable, change detection to monitor an internally consistent system of storing data on the computer.
land-cover changes (Jenson, 2005; Warner et al., 2009). The two most common models are termed raster and vector.
Preprocessing turns the raw images from the sensor into The raster model has its origin in remote sensing images and
a format suitable for analysis. This stage corrects geometric their square pixels or cells, where a layer of these cells repre-
distortions and georectifies the data, which entails positioning sents a discrete variable such as elevation or land-cover classes.
the image with respect to geographic coordinates. It may also The vector model instead encodes the world as points, lines,
modify and enhance the images, including transforming and areas and stores a series of variables associated with these
multispectral data into simpler formats amenable for subse- geometric entities.
quent analysis. Overall, the purpose of these operations is to Once data are stored in an appropriate data model, the GIS
transform the image data into a form for which earth surface offers a range of operations to operate on these data. Data
attributes can be readily interpreted by computers and humans. management capabilities include functions needed to store
Images are then classified, in that labels are attached to and retrieve data from an underlying database or across the
spatial sampling units (the pixels) in view of their response in internet and transform the data model, projection, or coor-
different spectral ranges. Vegetation and water, for example, dinate system. GIS automates many analysis and data
have characteristic responses in the visible and near-infrared manipulation functions, including variable classification and
ranges that make their associated pixels straightforward to reclassification, overlay operations, neighborhood opera-
identify. It may also include their spatial attributes, such as tions, spatial interpolation, statistical analysis, and analysis of
texture or pattern, or temporal changes, such as predictable connectivity. The output or reporting functions of a GIS can
seasonal changes in vegetation cover. The most commonly be used to produce maps, tables, or statistical results (see the
used classification techniques are based on statistical entry on GIS for details). GIS also offer a range of modeling
methods, although more advanced techniques are continu- and analytical methods for sophisticated analyses such as
ously being developed. For example, contextual classifiers representing hydrological flows, transportation modeling, or
label a pixel in the context of its neighbors in space and view-shed derivation.
thereby exploit spatial information of an image, such as more GIS facilitates the interpretation of remote sensing data by
readily discerning the boundaries of objects on the surface. virtue of matching data from images with other forms of spatial
Another approach is the use of neural networks, computer data via their location (Merchant and Narumalani, 2009).
programs that mimic the operation of the human brain to Examples include linking biophysical information measured
bring together a collection of simple classifier algorithms to by remote sensing to maps of natural and cultural landscape
solve a complex classification problem. attributes (e.g., soil type, topography, accessibility as measured
Another analytical step, usually pursuant to classification, is by various distances), field measurements (e.g., crop yield or
creation of time series of remote sensing data that can be used water quality), and socioeconomic information derived
to monitor changes in landscapes. Classic land-cover change through household surveys and other sources (e.g., indicators
detection techniques are based on the comparison of of well-being, rate of population growth, agricultural input

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 Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing 67

use). Scholars across the social and behavioral sciences use GIS investigations of land-use dynamics is that they require
to understand myriad issues and by focusing on quantitative a large data-collection effort in the field, at the household and
spatial analysis and using basic spatial concepts, such as the plot levels. Remote sensing, by measuring indicators of land
neighborhood or population density, in their research use, helps to define regions characterized by a similar land use
(UNESCO, 2010). and to identify spatial stratification of a study area in terms of
land-use patterns. As a result, findings obtained over specific
sites within a sampling unit that is homogenous in terms of
Application of Remote Sensing and GIS to Social land use can be extrapolated more readily to other areas with
Sciences of Environment the same characteristics. Spatial stratification that is performed
before field surveys can be used to fine-tune the sampling
Social and behavioral scientists use remote sensing and GIS to design and identify villages or households that will be used for
study social phenomena within the environmental and in-depth data collection and investigation. This strategy leads
ecological realms. These studies often rely on ‘socializing the to an optimized data-collection effort. Relatedly, the spatial
pixel,’ or discerning information embedded within spatial pattern of a changing landscape can provide insight into the
imagery that is directly relevant to the core themes of the social processes of land-cover change. Certain types of land-use
sciences, and using it to inform the concepts and theories change tend to fragment the landscape (e.g., expansion of
pertinent to those themes (Geoghegan et al., 1998). Creating smallholder farming, small-scale logging, overgrazing around
a direct link between spatially explicit land-cover information, deep wells), while other land-use changes increase landscape
as derived by remote sensing, and information on land-use homogeneity (e.g., mechanized cultivation or ranching over
change processes requires the ongoing development of new large areas). For example, in a classic study of land-use inten-
methods and models, which merge landscape data with data sification (Guyer and Lambin, 1993), remote sensing analysis
on human behavior. The majority of this work uses land use provided a means of matching the patterns from a haphazard
and land cover as the linchpin for analysis. sample of households with that of a larger population, based
on a few variables that were estimated both by household
survey (on the sample) and by remote sensing (on the entire
Land Use and Land Cover
population). The results tended to give greater confidence to
One of the preconditions for using GIS and remote sensing to inferences from the sample about ecological dynamics.
understand social processes within an environmental context is
an understanding of land-use dynamics, including the driving
Linking Household-Level Data with Remote Sensing Data
forces and societal impacts (Liverman et al., 1998; Verburg et al.,
2011). Remote sensing is used widely to map land cover and There is an ever-expanding array of methods for merging
land use. Classification algorithms generally succeed in identi- socioeconomic household survey data with remote sensing-
fying from about a dozen land-cover classes, including several based information (Liverman et al., 1998). The major chal-
succession stages of vegetation. Achieving this level of detail lenges of this work are twofold. First, defining appropriate
requires, however, a set of georeferenced field observations from spatial observation units, especially the appropriate level of
a sample of locations. Many current sensors do not identify aggregation of information derived from the domains of social
settlement types or different cropping systems very well, phenomena and natural environment. Second, developing
objectives that are increasingly desirable and possible with fine- appropriate linkages between household-level and remote
scaled platforms. Remote sensing also facilitates monitoring sensing data sets. While conceptually straightforward, these
changes in the spatial patterns of landscapes caused by land use. links can be difficult to implement operationally. In remote
Change detection can be used to identify dynamics such as an sensing, the unit of observation is the pixel, a division of space
expansion of the area under permanent or shifting agriculture, that is usually not directly associated to any social science unit
urban growth, or increase in eroded areas. Quantitative esti- of observation, such as individuals, households, or villages.
mates of rates of deforestation are derived from time series of Establishing the correspondence between biophysical and
remote sensing data, for example, and remote sensing has been socioeconomic variables requires taking into account the unit
used in semiarid regions to assess dryland degradation and to of decision-making, units of landscape transformation, and the
identify transformations of land use and cultivation. Remote spatial scale of ecological processes, such as a watershed or
sensing can also identify land-cover change ‘hot spots,’ defined landscape form. Linking remote sensing observations to
as areas where high rates of land-cover change have been socioeconomic data at the scale of the administrative units,
observed based on indicators such as land-cover fragmentation, which were used for the collection of socioeconomic data leads
occurrence of fires, and opening of new roads. Finally, remote to a loss of information as it obscures the variability within the
sensing in combination with GIS allows identification and units. Researchers have attempted to integrate remote sensing
measurement of key socioeconomic and ecological characteris- observations and field surveys at finer levels of aggregation,
tics of land-use systems, such as different forms of cultivation such as at the scale of individuals, households, or villages
and land-use trends (Buenemann et al., 2011). (Fox, 2003).

Spatial Stratification and Spatial Extrapolation Spatial Modeling

Remote sensing and GIS allow for the extrapolation of local Modeling-based scholarship joins remote sensing and GIS.
observations to larger areas. A common problem of in-depth With the application of remote sensing technology to the

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 68 Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing

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