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Discrete Structure And Graphic
Theory
PYQ Solutions
2023 – DEC
2019 – DEC
2019 – MAY
2018 – DEC
2018 – MAY
2017 – DEC
Compiled By – Aeraxia.in
 DSGT November 2023 Paper solution

Q1. a) Prove using Mathematical Induction that 2 +5 +8+............+(3n-1) = n(3n+1)/2

Ans: Base Case: Prove that the formula holds for the smallest value of n (usually n = 1).

(1 mark)

(1 mark)

(1 mark)

(1 mark)

LHS =

= =

RHS = = (1 mark)
The left side matches the right side. Therefore, the statement holds for k+1.
By mathematical induction, the given statement is proved for all positive integers n.

Q1. b) Explain the term poset. Consider a set D165. Find the elements of this set & draw the Hasse
diagram for this poset.
Ans: POSET: Consider a relation R on a set S satisfying the following properties:
1. R is reflexive, i.e., xRx for every x ∈ S.
2. R is antisymmetric, i.e., if xRy and yRx, then x = y.
 3. R is transitive, i.e., xRy and yRz, then xRz.
Then R is called a partial order relation, and the set S together with partial order is called a partially order
set or POSET and is denoted by (S, ≤). (1 mark)

The divisors of 165 are D165={1,3,5,11,15,33,55,165} (1 mark)

R = {(1,1), (1, 3), (1, 5), (1, 11), (1, 15), (1, 33), (1, 55), (1, 165), (3, 3), (3, 15), (3, 33), (3, 55), (3, 165), (5,
5), (5, 15), (5, 55), (5, 165), (11, 11), (11, 33), (11, 55), (11, 165), (15, 15), (15, 165), (33, 33), (33, 165),
(55, 55), (55, 165), (165, 165) } (1 mark)

(2 marks)
Q1. c) How many strings of length 7 either begin with 2 zeros or end with 3 ones?
Ans:
Bit Strings of length 7 either begin with two 0s or end with three 1s
= Strings of length 7 begin with two 0s + Strings of length 7 end with three 1s - Strings of length 7
either begin with two 0s or end with three 1s (1 mark)

Now Strings of length 7 begin with two 0s:

First Digit : 1 way ( it has to be 0)

Second Digit : 1 way ( it has to be 0)

Third Digit : 2 ways

Fourth Digit : 2 ways

Fifth Digit : 2 ways

Sixth Digit : 2 ways

Seventh Digit : 2 ways

No of ways = 1 x 1 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 32 ways (1 mark)

Now Strings of length 7 end with three 1s:

First Digit : 2 ways

Second Digit : 2 ways

Third Digit : 2 ways

Fourth Digit : 2 ways

Fifth Digit : 1 way (it has to be 1)

Sixth Digit : 1 way (it has to be 1)

Seventh Digit : 1 way (it has to be 1)

No of ways = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 1 x 1 x 1 = 16 ways (1 mark)

Now Strings of length 7 either begin with two 0s or end with three 1s:

First Digit : 1 way (it has to be 0)

Second Digit : 1 way (it has to be 0)

Third Digit : 2 ways

Fourth Digit : 2 ways

Fifth Digit : 1 way (it has to be 1)

Sixth Digit : 1 way (it has to be 1)

Seventh Digit : 1 way (it has to be 1)

No of ways = 1 x 1 x 2 x 2 x 1 x 1 x 1 = 4 ways (1 mark)

= Strings of length 7 begin with two 0s + Strings of length 7 end with three 1s - Strings of length 7
either begin with two 0s or end with three 1s

= 32 + 16 - 4

= 44 bit strings (1 mark)

Thus 44 bit strings of length 7 either begin with two 0s or end with three 1s.

Q1. d) Explain the term partition set with suitable example.

A partition of a set is a way to divide the set into non-empty, disjoint subsets in such a way that every
element in the original set belongs to exactly one subset. In other words, the subsets cover the entire set,
and no two subsets have common elements. Mathematically, if S is a set, and A1, A2, …,Ak are subsets of
S, then these subsets form a partition of S if the following conditions are satisfied:

Non-Emptiness: Ai ​≠ ∅ for all i. (1 mark)

Disjointness: Ai ∩ Aj = ∅ for all i ≠ j .(1 mark)
Covering the Entire Set: S = A1 ∪ A2 ∪ … ∪ Ak (1 mark)
Example: (2 marks)
Consider the set S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}. We can create a partition of S with the following subsets:
A1 = {1,4,5}
A2 = {2,6}
A3​={3}
This set of subsets forms a partition of S because:
Each subset is non-empty.
The subsets are disjoint (no common elements between any two subsets).
The subsets together cover the entire set S. So, {A1 ,A2 , A3​} is a partition of S.

Q1. e) State the Pigeonhole principle and show that If there are 10 marbles in the jar & you have a
jar filled with red, green, and blue marbles, you'll always have at least two marbles of the same
color.
Ans:
Pigeonhole principle (2 marks)
If n pigeon holes are occupied by kn+1 or more pigeons, where k is a positive integer, then at least one
pigeonhole is occupied by k+1 or more pigeons.

In this case, let's consider the marbles as the items and the colors (red, green, blue) as the containers. If
you have 10 marbles and three colors, you are distributing the marbles into three containers.

Now, apply the Pigeonhole Principle: If you distribute 10 marbles into 3 containers, and
10>3, then at least one container must contain more than one marble. (1 mark)

In the context of the jar filled with red, green, and blue marbles, this means that you must have at least
two marbles of the same color. If you don't, you would need each color to have at most one marble, but
that's not possible because you have more marbles (10) than the number of colors (3). Therefore, there
must be at least one color with more than one marble, guaranteeing that you have at least two marbles of
the same color in the jar. (2 marks)

Q2. a) Let A={0, 1 ,2, 3, 4, 5)

i) Explain the term group.
ii) Prepare the composition table for the above set w.r.t. the operation of addition
modulo 6.
iii) Determine whether it is a group.
iv)Whether elements of set A are invertible? If yes, then find the inverses of these
elements
v) Determine whether it is a cyclic group.

Ans:
i) A Group is a monoid, but it contains an extra inverse element, which is denoted by -1. An algebraic
structure (A, *) will be known as a group if it satisfies the following condition:
Closure: A is closed under operation * that means (a*b) belongs to set A for all a, b ∈ A
Associative: * shows an association operation between a, b, and c that means a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c for all a,
b, c in A.
Identity Element: There must be an identity in set A that means a * e = e * a = a for all a.
Inverse Element: It contains an inverse element that means a * a-1= a-1 * a = e for a ∈ A

(2 marks)
ii) Composition Table (2 marks)

+6 0 1 2 3 4 5

0 0 1 2 3 4 5

1 1 2 3 4 5 0

2 2 3 4 5 0 1

3 3 4 5 0 1 2

4 4 5 0 1 2 3

5 5 0 1 2 3 4

iii) (i )All the entries in the Composition table are elements of the set A. Hence A is closed with respect to
addition modulo 6(+6) (2 marks)
(ii)The composition +6 is associative. If a, b, c are any three elements of A, then
a +6 (b +6 c) = (a +6 b) +6 c

Let a = 1, b = 2, c = 3
1 +6 (2 +6 3) = (1 +6 2) +6 3
1 +6 5 = 3 +6 3
0=0
Hence, +6 is an associative operation. Since it is satisfying for all a, b, c, ∈ A
(iii) if a is any element of A, then from the composition table we see that
0 +6 a = a = a +6 0

0 +6 0 = 0 +6 0 = 0 0 +6 1 = 1 +6 0 = 1
0 +6 2 = 2 +6 0 = 2 0 +6 3 = 3 +6 0 = 3
0 +6 4 = 2 +6 4 = 4 0 +6 5 = 5 +6 0 = 5

∴0 is identity element.
iv) From the composition table we can also see the left inverses of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are 0, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1,
respectively. Since,
0 +6 0 = 0 3 +6 3 = 0
1 +6 5 = 0 4 +6 2 = 0
2 +6 4 = 0 5 +6 1 = 0
Hence it is group
iv) All elements are having the inverses. Therefore all elements of set A are invertible. (2 marks)
v) The composition is commutative as the corresponding rows and columns in the position are identical.

vi) The number of elements in the set A = 6

∴ (A, +6) is a finite Abelian group of order 6.

vi) It is cyclic group (2 marks)

<1> = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,0}
<2> = {2, 4, 0}
<3> = {3, 0}
<4> = {4, 2, 0}
<5> = {5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0}
<0> = {0}
It is cyclic group since <1> = <5> = A

Q2. b) Let A = {a1, a2, a3, a4, a5} and let R be a relation on A whose matrix is

MR=

Find out transitive closure of R using Warshall's algorithm.

Ans: Let MR= W0, n = 5

(2 marks)
First we Compute W1 so that k = 1
∴ Check for column 1 and row 1 of W0
i j i j
p1 : (a1, a1) p2 : (a4, a1)
i j i j
q1 : (a1, a1) q2 : (a1, a4)
To obtain W,1 we must put 1’s in positions (a1, a1), (a1, a4) (a4, a1), (a4, a4)

(2 marks)
 (2 marks)

(2 marks)

(2 marks)

Q3. a) A large software development company employs 100 computer programmers. Of them, 45
are proficient in Java, 30 in C#, 20 in Python, six in C# and Java, one in Java and Python, five in
C# and Python, and just onc programmer is proficient in all three languages above. Determine the
number of computer programmers that are not proficient in any of these three languages.

Ans.: Let U denote the set of all employed computer programmers and let J, C and P denote the set of
programmers proficient in Java, C# and Python, respectively. Thus:
|U| = 100

|J| = 45

|C| = 30

|P| = 20

|J ∩ C| = 6

|J ∩ P| = 1

|C ∩ P| = 5

|J ∩ C ∩ P| = 1 (2 marks)

Principle of Inclusion and exclusion of three sets

|J ∪ C ∪ P| = |J| + |C| + |P| + |J ∩ C| + |J ∩ P| + |C ∩ P| + |J ∩ C ∩ P| (2 marks)
= 45 + 30 + 20 - 6 - 1 - 5 + 1
= 84 (1 mark)

the number of computer programmers that are not proficient in any of these three languages

|(J ∪ C ∪ P)’ | = |U| – |J ∪ C ∪ P| (2 marks)

= 100 – 84
= 16 (1 mark)

16 programmers are not proficient in any of the three languages.

Q3. b) Explain the terms Conjunctive & Disjunctive Normal Form with suitable examples.

Disjunctive Normal Forms (DNF) :

A formula which is equivalent to a given formula and which consists of a sum of elementary products is
called a disjunctive normal form of given formula. (2 marks)
Example : (P ∧ ~ Q) ∨ (Q ∧ R) ∨ (~ P ∧ Q ∧~ R) (1 mark)

Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF) :

A formula which is equivalent to a given formula and which consists of a product of elementary sums is
called a conjunctive normal form of given formula. (2 marks)
Example : (P~ ∨ Q) ∧ (Q ∨ R) ∧ (~ P ∨ Q ∨ ~ R) (1 mark)

Q3. c) Determine the sequence bn, whose recurrence relation is bn, = 2bn-1 + 1 with initial condition
b1 = 7.
Ans.: b1 = 7
b2 = 2 X b1 + 1 = 2 X 7 + 1 = 14 + 1 = 15
b3 = 2 X b2 + 1 = 2 X 15 + 1 = 30 + 1 = 31
b4 = 2 X b3 + 1 = 2 X 31 + 1 = 62 + 1 = 63 (2 marks)
Given rec. relation is
bn = 2bn-1 + 1
= 2(2bn-2 + 1) + 1
= 4bn-2 + 3
= 4(2bn-3 +1) + 3
= 8bn-3 + 7
= 8(2bn-4 +1) +7
= 16bn-4 +15
= 24bn-4 + 23 + 22 + 21 + 20
 = ……………….
= 2n-1bn-(n-1) +2n-2 + 2n-3 + …… + 22 + 21 + 20
= 7x 2n-1 + (2n-2 + 2n-3 + …… + 22 + 21 + 20 )

= 7x 2n-1 + [ sum of a G.P. =(arn –a)/(r-1) ]

=7x 2n-1 + 2n-1 -1
= 8x 2n-1 -1
= 23x 2n-1 -1
= 2n+2 -1 (4 marks)

Q4. a) What is a lattice? Determine whether following Hasse diagram represents a lattice

LUB: (3 marks)
៴ a b c d e f g h i

a a b c d e f g h i

b b b e d e h g h i

c c e c g e f g h i

d d d g d g i g i i

e e e e g e h g h i

f f h f i h f i h i

g g g g g g i g i i

h h h h i h h i h i

i i i i i i i i i i

GLB: (3 marks)

៴ a b c d e f g h i

a a a a a a a a a a

b a b a b b a b b b

c a a c a c c c c c

d a b a d b a d b d

e a b c b e c e e e

f a a c a c f c f f
 g a b c d e c g e g

h a b c b e f e h h

i a b c d e f g h i

It is Lattice each pair is having GLB and LUB

Q4. b) Consider (3, 8) an encoding function e :B3–>B8 defined as

e (000) = 00000000 e (001) = 10111000 e (010) = 00101101 e (011) = 10010101 e (100) = 10100100
e (101) = 10001001 e (110) = 00011100 e (111) = 00110001
How many errors can ‘e’ detect & correct?
Ans:
Let N = {00000000, 10111000, 00101101, 10010101, 10100100, 10001001, 00011100, 00110001}
Be the set of all code words

⊕ 00000000 10111000 00101101 10010101 10100100 10001001 00011100 00110001

00000000 0 4 4 4 3 3 3 3

10111000 4 0 3 4 3 3 3 3

00101101 4 3 0 4 3 3 3 3

10010101 4 4 4 0 3 3 3 3

10100100 3 3 3 3 0 4 4 4

10001001 3 3 3 3 4 0 4 4

00011100 3 3 3 3 4 4 0 4

00110001 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 0

∴ Minimum distance = 3 (2 marks)

Error detection:
Encoding function e:B3→B8 can detect K or fewer errors if
min distance = k + 1

3=k+1

∴k=2

∴ Encoding function can detect 2 or fewer errors. (2 marks)

Error correction:

Encoding function e:B3→B8 can correct K or fewer errors if min distance = 2k + 1

3 = 2k + 1
∴ k = 1.
∴ Encoding function can correct 1 or fewer errors. (2 marks)
Q4. c) What are the necessary conditions for the isomorphism between 2 graphs? Determine
whether following 2 graphs are isomorphic

Ans:
Conditions for graph isomorphism:

Any two graphs will be known as isomorphism if they satisfy the following four conditions: (4 marks)

1. There will be an equal number of vertices in the given graphs.

2. There will be an equal number of edges in the given graphs.
3. There will be an equal amount of degree sequence in the given graphs.
4. If the first graph is forming a cycle of length k with the help of vertices {v1, v2, v3, …. vk}, then
another graph must also form the same cycle of the same length k with the help of vertices {v1,
v2, v3, …. vk}.

Number of vertices: both 11. (1 mark)

Number of edges: both 10. (1 mark)

G1 = {V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, V6, V7, V8, V9, V10, V11}
G2 = {U1, U2, U3, U4, U5, U6, U7, U8, U9, U10, U11}

Degree of each Degree of each node

node in G1 in G2

V1 = 1 U1 = 1

V2 = 2 U2 = 2

V3 = 4 U3 = 2

V4 = 2 U4 = 2

V5 = 2 U5 = 2

V6 = 2 U6 = 4

V7 = 3 U7 = 3

V8 = 1 U8 = 1

V9 = 1 U9 = 1

V10 = 1 U10 = 1

V11 = 1 U11 = 1

There is no degree sequence between G1 and G2 Hence the graph is not isomorphic. (2 marks)
Q5. a) If the addition & multiplication modulo 10 is defined on a set of integers
A={0, 2, 4, 6, 8}.Then determine whether this algebraic system is a ring.

(1 mark)

+10 0 2 4 6 8

0 0 2 4 6 8

2 2 4 6 8 0

4 4 6 8 0 2

6 6 8 0 2 4

8 8 0 2 4 6

(1 mark)

X10 0 2 4 6 8

0 0 0 0 0 0

2 0 4 8 2 6

4 0 8 6 4 2

6 0 2 4 6 8

8 0 6 2 8 4

(i) We have to show (A, +10)is an Abelian group (1 mark)

(a) +10 is closed operation, since Table 1 belongs to set A (1 mark)
(b) +10 is associative operation a +10 (b +10 c) = (a +10 b) +10 c

Let a = 0, b = 2, c = 4
0 +6 (2 +6 4) = (0 +6 2) +6 4
0 +6 6 = 2 +6 4
6=6
Hence, +10 is an associative operation.
Since it is satisfying for all a, b, c, ∈ G

if a is any element of A, then from the composition table we see that

0 +10 a = a = a +10 0
0 +6 0 = 0 +6 0 = 0
0 +6 2 = 2 +6 0 = 2
 0 +6 4 = 4 +6 0 = 4
0 +6 6 = 6 +6 0 = 6
0 +6 8 = 8 +6 0 = 8
∴0 is identity element
(d) From the composition table we can also see the left inverses of 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 are 0, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1,
respectively. Since,
0 +6 0 = 0
2 +6 8 = 0
4 +6 6 = 0
6 +6 4 = 0
8 +6 2 = 0
(e) The composition is commutative as the corresponding rows and columns in the position are identical.

(f) The number of elements in the set A = 5 (1 mark)

∴ (A, +10) is a finite Abelian group of order 5.

(ii) We have to show (A, x10) is semigroup.

(a) x10 is a closed operation from Table 2. Since all elements from Table 2 belong to set A. (1
mark)
(b) x10 is associative operation a x10 (b x10 c) = (a x10 b) x10 c (1 mark)
Let a = 2, b = 4, c = 6
2 x10 (4 x10 6) = (2 x10 4) x10 6
2 x10 4 = 8 x10 6
8=8
∴(A, x10) is a semigroup
(iii) We have to show, x10 distributive over +10 i.e. (1 mark)
a x10 (b +10 c) = (a x10 b) +10 (a x10 c) for all a, b, c ∈ A
Let a = 2, b = 4, c = 6
2 x10 (4 +10 6) = (2 x10 4) +10 (2 x10 6)
2 x10 0 = 8 +10 2
0=0
∴ x6 distributive over +6
(iv) (A, +10, x10) is commutative ring i.e.
a x10 b = b x10 a for all a, b, c ∈ A
Let a = 2, b = 4
2 x10 4 = 4 x10 2
8=8
(A, +10, x10) is commutative ring

b) A function f:R → R is defined by f(x) = x2

ls it i) injective ii) surjective ii) bijective

i) Injective (One-to-One): (2 marks)

A function is injective if distinct elements in the domain map to distinct elements in the codomain.
For f(x)=x2 , it is not injective because different values of x can map to the same value of f(x). For
example, f(−2)=4 and f(2)=4, so there exist distinct x values that map to the same f(x).

ii) Surjective (Onto): (2 marks)

A function is surjective if every element in the codomain is the image of at least one element in the
domain.
For f(x)=x2, it is not surjective because there are elements in the codomain (negative real numbers) that
are not the image of any element in the domain. For example, there is no x such that f(x) = −1 because
squaring any real number results in a non-negative value.

iii) Bijective (One-to-One and Onto): (2 marks)

A function is bijective if it is both injective and surjective.
Since f(x)=x2 is neither injective nor surjective, it is not bijective.

In summary:
f(x)=x2 is not injective.
f(x)=x2 is not surjective.
f(x)=x2 is not bijective.

Q5. c) Define the terms Euler path & a circuit

Determine whether following graphs have Euler path or a circuit

Ans:
An Euler path, in a graph or multigraph, is a walk through the graph which uses every edge exactly once.
(1 mark)
An Euler circuit is an Euler path which starts and stops at the same vertex. (1 mark)

Euler Path is π : 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 3, 5, 2, 4, 1 (1 mark)

Euler Circuit : 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 3, 5, 2, 4, 1 (1 mark)

From Theorem 2, if a graph G has more than two vertices of odd degree, then there can be no Euler path
in G. In the given graph there are 8 vertices with degree 3, so the given graph does not have an Euler
path. (2 marks)

Q6. a) Explain the following terms with suitable example (any 4)

i) Hamiltonian path & circuit (2 marks)
A Hamilton Path is a path that goes through every Vertex of a graph exactly once.
A Hamilton Circuit is a Hamilton Path that begins and ends at the same vertex.
ii) Bipartite graph (2 marks)
Formally, a graph G = (V, E) is bipartite if and only if its vertex set V can be partitioned into two non-empty
subsets X and Y, such that every edge in E has one endpoint in X and the other endpoint in Y. This
partition of vertices is also known as bi-partition.

iii) Adjacency matrix (2 marks)

If a graph has n number of vertices, then the adjacency matrix of that graph is n x n, and each entry of
the matrix represents the number of edges from one vertex to another.

An adjacency matrix is also called a connection matrix. Sometimes it is also called a Vertex matrix.

iv) Equivalence relation (2 marks)

A relation R on a set A is said to be an equivalence relation if and only if the relation R is reflexive,
symmetric and transitive.

v) Cartesian product (2 marks)

A cartesian product of two non-empty sets A and B is the set of all possible ordered pairs where the first
component of the pair is from A, and the second component of the pair is from B. The set of ordered pairs
thus obtained is denoted by A×B.
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}

Example:
Let A = {1, 2} and B = {4, 5, 6}
A × B = {(1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6)}

Q6. b) Solve the following using the laws of logic

p v q v (~p Λ ~q Λ r) ↔ p v q v r
Ans:
L.H.S = p ∨ q ∨ (¬p ∧ ¬q ∧ r)
= (p ∨ q) ∨ (¬p ∧ ¬q ∧ r) —-- Associative Law
= [(p ∨ q) ∨ ~p] ∧ [(p ∨ q) ∨ ~q] ∧ [(p ∨ q) ∨ r] —-- Distributive law (1 mark)
= [(p ∨ ~p) ∨ q] ∧ [p ∨ (q ∨ ~q)] ∧ (p ∨ q ∨ r) —-Commutative and associative law (1 mark)
= (True ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ True) ∧ (p ∨ q ∨ r) —-Complement law (1 mark)
 = True ∧ True ∧ (p ∨ q ∨ r) —-Identity law
= p ∨ q ∨ r —-Identity law (1 mark)
= R.H.S

Q6. c) f:R → R is defined by f(x) =x3

g:R→R is defined by g (x) = 4x2 + 1
h:R→R is defined by h (x) = 7x-2
Find the rule defining
i) fog
ii) gof
iii) (goh)of
iv) go(hof)
Ans:
i) fog = f[g(x)] (1 mark)
= f(4x2 + 1)
= (4x2 + 1)3 (1 mark)

ii) gof = g[f(x)] (1 mark)

= g(x3)
= 4(x3 )2 + 1
= 4x6 + 1 (1 mark)

iii) (goh)of
goh = g[h(x)] (1 mark)
= g(7x-2)
= 4(7x-2)2 + 1
= 4(49x2 - 14x - 14x + 4) +1
= 196x2 - 112x + 17
(goh)of = (goh)f(x) (1 mark)
= (goh) (x3)
= 196(x3)2 - 112(x3) + 17
= 196x6 - 112x3 + 17
iv) go(hof)
(hof)(x) = h[f(x)] (1 mark)
= h(x3)
= 7(x3) - 2
= 7x3 - 2
go(hof) = g(7x3 - 2) (1 mark)
= 4(7x3 - 2 )2 + 1