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Bio Notes

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17 views2 pages

Bio Notes

Uploaded by

alina.murad13
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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1.

Introduction to Biology

● Biology: The study of life and living organisms.


● Characteristics of Life:
○ Cellular organization (made of cells).
○ Metabolism (energy use).
○ Homeostasis (maintaining a stable internal environment).
○ Growth and development.
○ Reproduction.
○ Response to stimuli.
○ Evolution (change over time).

2. Cell Structure and Function

● Cell Theory:
○ All living things are made of cells.
○ Cells are the basic unit of life.
○ All cells come from pre-existing cells.
● Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells:
○ Prokaryotes: No nucleus, simpler (e.g., bacteria).
○ Eukaryotes: Nucleus, more complex (e.g., plants, animals).
● Cell Organelles:
○ Nucleus: Contains DNA, control center.
○ Mitochondria: Powerhouse, produces energy (ATP).
○ Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.
○ Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Smooth (lipid production), Rough (protein
production).
○ Golgi Apparatus: Packages and distributes proteins.
○ Lysosomes: Digests waste.
○ Cell membrane: Regulates what enters and exits the cell.

3. Biological Molecules

● Carbohydrates: Provide energy (e.g., glucose).


● Proteins: Made of amino acids, used for structure, enzymes, transport.
● Lipids: Fats, store energy, make up cell membranes.
● Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA, carry genetic information.

4. Cell Membrane & Transport


● Phospholipid Bilayer: Makes up the cell membrane, hydrophilic heads and
hydrophobic tails.
● Passive Transport:
○ Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
○ Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a membrane.
○ Facilitated Diffusion: Uses protein channels to help move molecules across.
● Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP) to move substances against their
concentration gradient.

5. Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis

● Cellular Respiration: Process by which cells convert glucose into ATP (energy).
○ Stages: Glycolysis → Krebs Cycle → Electron Transport Chain.
○ Occurs in the mitochondria.
● Photosynthesis: Process by which plants use sunlight to produce glucose.
○ Equation: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + light → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂.
○ Takes place in the chloroplasts (plants).

6. DNA & RNA

● DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid, stores genetic information.


● RNA: Ribonucleic acid, helps in protein synthesis.
● Replication: DNA makes a copy of itself.
● Transcription: DNA is transcribed into RNA.
● Translation: RNA is used to make proteins.

7. Cell Division

● Mitosis: Division of somatic (body) cells to produce two identical daughter cells.
○ Stages: Prophase → Metaphase → Anaphase → Telophase → Cytokinesis.
● Meiosis: Division of germ cells to produce four non-identical gametes (sperm/eggs).
○ Reduces chromosome number by half (haploid).

8. Genetics

● Genes: Units of heredity.


● Alleles: Different forms of a gene.
● Dominant vs. Recessive: Dominant alleles mask recessive ones.
● Punnett Squares: Tool to predict genetic outcomes.
● Mendelian Genetics: Based on Gregor Mendel's work on inheritance patterns.

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