Chapter 9  Hormone release stops once an appropriate level in

The Endocrine System the blood is reached

The Endocrine System Hormonal Stimuli of Endocrine Glands

 Second messenger system of the body  Endocrine glands are activated

by other hormones
 Uses chemical messages (hormones) that are
released into the blood

 Hormones control several major processes

 Reproduction

 Growth and development

 Mobilization of body defenses

 Maintenance of much of homeostasis  Changing blood levels of

certain ions stimulate hormone
 Regulation of metabolism
release
Hormone Overview

 Hormones are produced by specialized cells

 Cells secrete hormones into extracellular fluids

 Blood transfers hormones to target sites

 These hormones regulate the activity of other cells

The Chemistry of Hormones

 Amino acid-based hormones

Location of Major
 Proteins Endrocrine Organs

 Peptides

 Amines

 Steroids – made from cholesterol

 Prostaglandins – made from highly active lipids

Mechanisms of Hormone Action Pituitary Gland

 Hormones affect only certain tissues or organs (target  Size of a grape

cells or organs)
 Hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus
 Target cells must have specific protein receptors
 Protected by the sphenoid bone
 Hormone binding influences the working of the cells
 Has two functional lobes
Control of Hormone Release
 Anterior pituitary – glandular tissue
 Hormone levels in the blood are maintained by
 Posterior pituitary – nervous tissue
negative feedback

 A stimulus or low hormone levels in the blood

triggers the release of more hormone Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
  Six anterior pituitary hormones  Regulate hormonal activity of the gonads

 Two affect non-endocrine targets  Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

 Four stimulate other endocrine glands (tropic  Stimulates follicle

hormones) development in ovaries

 Characteristics of all anterior pituitary hormones  Stimulates sperm

development in testes
 Proteins (or peptides)
 Gonadotropic hormones (continued)
 Act through second-messenger systems
 Luteinizing hormone (LH)
 Regulated by hormonal stimuli, mostly
negative feedback  Triggers ovulation

 Causes ruptured follicle to

become the corpus luteum

 Stimulates testosterone
production in males

 Referred to as
interstitial cell-
stimulating hormone
(ICSH)

Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary

 Oxytocin
Growth Hormone (GH)
 Stimulates contractions of the uterus during
 General metabolic hormone labor
 Major effects are directed to growth of skeletal  Causes milk ejection
muscles and long bones
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
 Causes amino acids to be built into proteins
 Can inhibit urine production
 Causes fats to be broken down for a source of energy
 In large amounts, causes vasoconstriction
Functions of Other Anterior Pituitary Hormones leading to increased blood pressure
(vasopressin)
 Prolactin (PRL)

 Stimulates and maintains milk production
following childbirth

 Function in males is unknown

 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) f

 Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal
cortex

 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

 Influences growth and activity of the thyroid

 Gonadotropic hormones
Thyroid Gland  Stimulate the kidneys and intestine to absorb
more calcium
 Found at the base of the throat
 Raise calcium levels in the blood
 Consists of two lobes and a connecting isthmus
Adrenal Glands
 Produces two hormones
 Two glands
 Thyroid hormone
 Cortex – outer glandular region in three
 Calcitonin
layers

 Medulla – inner neural tissue region

 Sits on top of the kidneys

Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex

 Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)

 Produced in outer adrenal cortex

 Regulate mineral content in blood, water,

and electrolyte balance
Thyroid Hormone
 Target organ is the kidney
 Major metabolic hormone
 Production stimulated by renin and
 Composed of two active iodine-containing hormones
aldosterone
 Thyroxine (T4) – secreted by thyroid follicles
 Production inhibited by atrial natriuretic
 Triiodothyronine (T3) – conversion of T4 at peptide
target tissues

Calcitonin

 Decreases
blood calcium
levels by
causing its
deposition on
bone

 Antagonistic to
parathyroid
hormone
 Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and cortisol)
 Produced by C
(parafollicular)  Produced in the middle layer of the adrenal
cells cortex
Parathyroid Glands  Promote normal cell metabolism
 Tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid  Help resist long-term stressors
 Secrete parathyroid hormone  Released in response to increased blood
levels of ACTH
 Stimulate osterclasts to remove calcium from
bone  Sex hormones
  Produced in the inner layer of the adrenal  Found on the third ventricle of the brain
cortex
 Secretes melatonin
 Androgens (male) and some estrogen
 Helps establish the body’s wake and sleep
(female)
cycles
Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
 May have other as-yet-unsubstantiated
 Produces two similar hormones (catecholamines) functions

 Epinephrine Thymus

 Norepinephrine  Located posterior to the sternum

 These hormones prepare the body to deal with short-  Largest in infants and children
term stress
 Produces thymosin
Pancreatic Islets
 Matures some types of white blood cells
 The pancreas is a mixed gland
 Important in developing the immune system
 The islets of the pancreas produce hormones
Hormones of the Ovaries
 Insulin – allows glucose to cross plasma
 Estrogens
membranes into cells from beta cells
 Produced by Graafian follicles or the placenta
 Glucagon – allows glucose to enter the blood
from alpha cells  Stimulates the development of secondary
female characteristics
 These hormones are antagonists that
maintain blood sugar homeostasis  Matures female reproductive organs

 Helps prepare the uterus to receive a

fertilized egg

 Helps maintain pregnancy

 Prepares the breasts to produce milk

 Progesterone

 Produced by the corpus luteum

 Acts with estrogen to bring about the

Pancreatic Hormones and Blood Sugar
menstrual cycle

 Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the

uterus

Hormones of the Testes

 Interstitial cells of testes are hormone-producing

 Produce several androgens

 Testosterone is the most important androgen

 Responsible for adult male secondary sex

Pineal Gland characteristics
  Promotes growth and maturation of male
reproductive system

 Required for sperm cell production

Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and Organs

 Parts of the small intestine

 Parts of the stomach

 Kidneys

 Heart

 Many other areas have scattered endocrine cells

Endocrine Function of the Placenta

 Produces hormones that maintain the pregnancy

 Some hormones play a part in the delivery of the

baby

 Produces HCG in addition to estrogen, progesterone,

and other hormones

Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine System

 Most endocrine organs operate smoothly until old

age

 Menopause is brought about by lack of

efficiency of the ovaries

 Problems associated with reduced estrogen

are common

 Growth hormone production declines with

age

 Many endocrine glands decrease output with

age