A. T.

C H A H L Y

DESCRIPTIVE
GEOMETRY

THE HIGHER SCHOOL PUBLISHING HOUSE

Moscow
 TRANSLATED FROM THE RUSSIAN
BY A. E. TCHERNUKHIN AND TH. BOTTING

Printed in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

 CONTENTS
Authdr’s preface . ~
Preface . . . 9

Chapter I
Types of Projections
§ 1. Central projections 11
§ 2. Parallel projections . . 12
§ 3. Orthographic projections . 13

Chapter II
The Point ,
§ 4. The multiview drawing of a point 16
§ 5. The projections of different points in relation to the planes of
p r o je c tio n .............................................. 19
Problems and exercises . . . . 30

Chapter III
The Straight Line
§ 6. The multiview drawing of a straight lin e ......................................................33
§ 7. The projections and positions of straight lines relative to the planes
of projection . •........................................................................... 36
Problems and e x e r c is e s ..................................................................................40
§ 8. The true length of a line and its angle of inclination to the planes
of p r o je c tio n .................................................................................................... 42
$ 9. Relative position of points andlin e s ...............................................................44
§ 10. The division of a line in agivenr a t i o ........................................... 45
§ 11. Traces of l i n e s ............................................................................................ 46
Problems and e x e r c is e s ..................................................................................49
$ 12. Projections of parallel, intersecting and non-intersecting lines . . 49
$ 13. Projections of plane a n g l e s .................................................................. 53
Problems and e x e r c is e s ................................. 55

Chapter IV
Planes
$ 14. Given p l a n e s ....................................................................... 56
$ 15. Oblique p l a n e s ................................................................. 59
^ 16. Projecting p l a n e s ................................................................. 63
$ 17. Level lines and lines of maximuminclination in a plane . 69
Problems and e x e r c i s e s ...................................................... 77
3
 Chapter V
Lines and Planes
§ 18. Straight lines parallel toplanes. Parallel planes . . . . 80
Problems and exercises . ................................. . . . 85
§ 19. The intersection of p la n e s....................................... . . . 86
Problems and e x e r c i s e s .......... . . . 93
§ 20. The intersection of lines andplanes . . . . . . . 95
Problems and e x e r c i s e s ......... . . . . 99
§ 21. Straight lines perpendiculartoplanes . . . . . . . 100
§ 22. Perpendicular p l a n e s ....................................................................................103
Problems and e x e r c i s e s ...............................................................................106
§ 23. The determination of visibility of geometrical elements in multiview
d r a w i n g s ......................................................................................................... 107
Problems and exercises ..................................... . . . 111

Chapter VI
The Transformation of Projections
§ 24. Substituting planes of projection................................. . 112
Problems and e x e r c i s e s ........................................................... 128
§ 25. Method of rev o lu tio n ......................................... 130
§ 26. Revolution about axes perpendicular to planes of projection . 131
Problems and e x e r c i s e s .................................... 142
§ 27. Revolution about axes parallel to planes of projection 145
§ 28. The method of c o in c id e n c e ............................ 147
§ 29. Revolution with parallel transfer of projections . . . . 152
§ 30. Combined transformations of projections . . . . . . 153
§ 31. The use of related conformity in transforming projections . 155
Problems and e x e r c i s e s .................................... 157

Chapter VII
Representations of Geometrical Bodies
and the Developments of Surfaces
§ 32. Multiview drawings of geometrical bodies and projections of points
and lines on their s u r f a c e s ........................................................................ 159
§ 33. Development of the surfaces of geometrical b o d ies.................................163
Problems and e x e r c i s e s ................................................................. . 177

Chapter VIII
Intersection of Planes and Surfaces
§ 34. Plane sections of polyhedrons . . . . . . . . 178
§ 35. Plane sections of curved s u r f a c e s ........................................................... 181
§ 36. The transformation of'projections by oblique projection and relative
conformity when constructing plane sections of surface . 183
Problems and e x e r c i s e s ........................................................... . 193

Chapter IX
Intersection of Lines and Surfaces
§ 37. Construction of points of intersection of lines and surfaces with the
help of projecting p la n e s .................................................... ". . 196
§ 38. The use of oblique planes to determine points of intersection of lines
and surfaces . . . . . .’ . . . . . 200
Problems and exercises -. . , , *. . 205
4
 Chapter X
Intersection of Surfaces
§ 39. Construction of the intersection of surfaces using projecting planes . 206
§ 40. Construction of the intersection of surfaces by means of oblique
p l a n e s ...........................................................• ............................................... 214
§41. The rftethod of sphericalsectio n s...................................................................223
§ 42. Transformation of projections and oblique projection used to
determine the intersection ofsu rfaces.............................................................226
Problems and e x e r c i s e s ................................................................................. 232

Chapter XI
Axonometric Projection
§ 43.’ G e n e r a l ................................. .............................................. 233
§ 44. The elements of rectangular axonometricprojection . . 236
§ 45. The construction of rectangular axonometricprojections . 240
§ 46. Oblique axonometric pro jectio n s...................................... 256
Problems and e x e r c i s e s .................................................... 260

Chapter XII
Curved Lines and Curved Surfaces
§ 47. Curved l i n e s ........................................................... 262
§ 48. Cylindrical and conical helical lines . . . 264
Problems and e x e rc is e s ........................................ 269
§ 49. Curved s u r f a c e s .................................................... 269
§ 50. Surfaces of r e v o l u t i o n ....................................... 277
§ 51. Cylindrical s c re w s .................................................... 281
§ 52. Planes tangent to curvedsurfaces. . . . 287
Problems and e x e r c is e s ........................................ 294
Appendix. The use of models in descriptive geometry . 295
 AUTHOR’S PREFACE
Descriptive Geometry and Engineering Drawing are among the
first engineering subjects taught at institutions of higher education.
These subjects are essential if the students are to obtain a funda­
mental knowledge of the design and construction of machines and
mechanisms.
Descriptive geometry, as a specific field of knowledge, like many
others, arose and developed as a direct result of man’s creative
labour.
The remains of fortresses, palaces and other structures found
in India, Egypt, Greece, and other countries where there
existed ancient culture, show that they were built in accordance
with representations resembling modern drawings and conforming
to the laws developed by descriptive geometry. A statue discovered
during the excavations of ancient Babylon shows a man holding on
his knees a slab with a structural drawing on it. The representations
of plans and parts of building have also been found on the walls
of Egyptian pyramids.
In our times Russian scientists and engineers have played an
important role in the development of descriptive geometry and
engineering drawing. Descriptive geometry in Russia was taught
as early as 1810 in the St. Petersburg Institute of the Road Engi­
neering Corps, now called the Leningrad Institute of Transport
Engineering. Russian scientists have written a number of books on
descriptive geometry, including such comprehensive courses as
Fundamentals of Descriptive Geometry by Prof. I. A. Sevostya-
nov, Descriptive Geometry by Prof. P. A. Galaktionov, as well
as the textbooks A Course of Descriptive Geometry, On Curved
Lines and Curved Surfaces, Manual of Engineering Drawing
by Prof. A. C. Reder, the books Complete Course of Descriptive
Geometry and Course of Linear Perspective Drawing by Prof.
N. N. Makarov. Many other books were written by various authors
during the first half of the 19th century.
The Soviet period in the history of methods of representation is
marked, above all, by broad research work, better organization and
improvements in the methods of teaching descriptive geometry,
drawing and technical sketching in technical colleges and institutes.
7
 Soviet scientists working in this field have contributed important
theoretical works on diverse aspects of descriptive geometry. One
such example is the work carried out on what are known as con­
ditional representations by Prof. N. P. Chetveroukhin, which has led
to the establishment of an entirely new branch of descriptive geom­
etry. Others are the work on the problem of the precision of graphi­
cal constructions by Prof. D. I. Kargin, on the use of axonometric
projections in architectural drawings by Prof. A. I. Viksel, on the
use of methods of descriptive geometry in physical and chemical
research by Academician N. S. Kournakov, Prof. V. N. Forma-
kovsky and Prof. A. E. Anosov and, in mechanics, the work of the
lecturers G. A. Ananov, E. A. Radov and many others.
Scientists who will work in the field of descriptive geometry are
being trained at many institutes of the Soviet Union, in Moscow,
Leningrad, Kiev, Tbilisi and other cities, where special departments
of descriptive geometry and engineering graphics have been
organized.
 PREFACE

The geometrical properties of objects are usually studied with

the help of their representations or drawings. By means of
drawings the form of objects may be shown, the dimensions and
relative positions of their various geometrical elements may be
determined.
Descriptive geometry is devoted to the exposition of the theory
and practice required for the solution of problems involving space
distances and relationships and the techniques of constructing
representations on a plane.
The fundamental objectives of descriptive geometry are:
1. The study of methods of constructing drawings of objects or
projects.
2. The study of techniques for determining the forms and
dimensions of objects with the help of drawings, i. e., the reading
of drawings.
3. The study of the methods of solving problems involving forms
in space by means of plane-geometry drawings.
Descriptive geometry is the theoretical foundation of engineer­
ing drawing which, in turn, is the preparatory graphical course
required for studying all general engineering and special subjects.
Descriptive geometry develops the capacity for imagining
objects in space which is essential for reading drawings.
Every engineer must have a good knowledge of the techniques
used to represent objects by drawings. He must, so to say, be able
to think in three dimensions. Creative engineering without this
ability is quite impossible.
In this book descriptive geometry is dealt with step by step.
Numerous examples are given to illustrate all theoretical aspects
outlined and the methods of constructing projections.
In this work the geometrical elements of objects in space are
denoted in the following manner:
Points — A, B, C, . . .
Straight lines — a ,b ,c ,...
Segments or portions of straight lines — AB, CD, E F ,...
Planes — a, p, y, 8,. . .
9
 The principal planes of projection:
the horizontal plane — 771;
the frontal or vertical plane — 772;
the profile plane — /73.
The axes of projection or ground lines — Ox, Oy, Oz.
The traces of oblique planes — k, I, m.
The trace-projections of projecting planes — aj. p2, Y3- • • •
New positions of points — A, B, C, ..., A, B, C ,...
Sequence of points — A', B ',. . . , A", B " ,...
Coincidence of two elements — a = b. A \ ^ B \ , . . .
This system of notation is further developed:
1. On the horizontal plane of projection /71 the projections of
points — A\, B j, Ci, D \,... ,.A'V B\, A'i, B[\ ...
The projections of straight lines — at, b\, C\, du ...
The projections of portions of lines — A\B\, C\DU .EiFi......
A,A B ^ l, AXA';,...
The horizontal trace of an oblique plane — k\.
The horizontal trace-projection of a plane a i./7 i—ai.
2. On the frontal plane of projection fl2 the projections of
points — A2, B2, C2, D2, . . . , A'2> B'2, A2, B2, ...
The projections of straight lines — a2, b2, c2, d2, . . .
The projections of portions of lines — A2B2, C2D2, E2F2, ... ,
A2A'2, B2B2, A2A2, ...
The frontal trace of an oblique plane — l2.
The frontal trace-projection of a plane aJj/72—a2.
3. On the profile plane of projection /73 the projections of
points — A3, B3, C3, D3...... A'3, B'3, A”, B”, . . .
The projections of straight lines — a3, b3, c3, d3, .. .
The projections of portions of lines — A 3B3, C3D3, E3F3, ... ,
A a'3, b3b\ a3a;,...
The profile trace of an oblique plane — m3.
The profile trace-projection of a plane a.ETI3—a3.
 C h a p te r I
TYPES OF PROJECTIONS
§ 1. Central Projections
In descriptive geometry the construction of plane-geometry
drawings, representing three dimensional designs of objects, is
based on the m e t h o d of p r o j e c t i o n s * .
In Fig. 1 points A and.S are shown situated in space in front
of plane If**. Through these points a straight line is passed to pierce

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

plane FI in point A\. This point is called the central projection of

point A. Point A is termed the original point, point S — the centre
of projection, the plane FI — the plane of projection, and the straight
line SAA\ — the projecting line or projector.
The centre of projection S may be also called the pole and this
type of projection — polar projection. A curve ABC and its central
projection A\B\C\ on plane FI are shown in Fig. 2. The bundle of
rays originating at the centre S and projecting the curve ABC forms
a projecting cone. Central projection may also be called conical
projection. The curve A \B {C\ is the intersection of the projecting
cone with the plane of projection. It is necessary to understand the
concept of central projection, although it is not dealt with in detail
in this book.
* The word “projection” comes from the Latin projicere — to hurl or throw.
** FI is the first letter of the Russian word miocKocTb meaning plane.

11
 § 2. Parallel Projections
If the centre of projections 5 is considered to lie at infinity, it
follows that all the projecting rays are parallel. In order to draw
these rays it is necessary to know the direction of projection. The
representations thus obtained are called parallel projections.

Fig 3. shows the construction of the parallel projection A\ of point

A on the plane of projection IJ. The lines to which the projecting
ray AA\ is parallel gives the direction of projection.
The parallel rays which project the points of curve ABC (Fig. 4)
form a cylindrical surface, that is why parallel projections are also
called cylindrical projections.
The given direction of projec­
tion may form an oblique angle with
the plane of projection or it may
be perpendicular to the plane.

In the first case the parallel projections are called oblique projec­
tions (Fig. 4), in the second case right-angle projections (Fig. 5).
An example of oblique parallel projection is the representation
of a right dihedral or quadrant formed by the horizontal plane (/7i)
and the vertical frontal plane (772) (Fig. 6). This drawing is con­
structed according to the rules of frontal axonometric projection.*
* Axonometric projection, which includes frontal projection, is discussed in
Ch. XI.
12
 When representing objects by means of frontal axonometric
projection straight lines and their lengths, angles and figures, lying
in planes parallel to the frontal plane /72, are projected onto that
plane /72 without distortion. As for plane TIi, the right angles of the
quadrant are seen there as angles of 45® and 135°, and the length of
7
6 7

Fig. 7 Fig. 8

lines is distorted, unless they are parallel to Ox and Oy. This

drawing, Fig. 6, will frequently be referred to in this book.
Various ways of representing a cube by means of parallel pro­
jection are shown in Figs. 7, 8 and 9. First, this g j
representation is constructed by means of oblique
projection onto, a plane parallel to the front face
of the cube (Fig. 7), then by means of right-angle
projection onto a plane inclined to all the sides of
the cube (Fig. 8) and, finally, by means of right-
angle projection onto a plane parallel to the front
face of the cube (Fig. 9). 5
In engineering practice right-angle projection
is most widely used because of its comparative
simplicity, the precision of construction it allows, and the possibility
of obtaining dimensions without distortion. Right-angle projection
is usually termed orthographic or orthogonal projection.

§ 3, Orthographic Projections
Orthographic projection is illustrated in Fig. 10. The space
within the right dihedral or quadrant formed by the horizontal
plane lit and frontal plane /72 contains an object having all its
faces either, parallel or perpendicular to the corresponding plane
of projection. For instance, the upper face, and other faces parallel
to it, are parallel to plane 77i and at the same time perpendicular to
plane /72, and so on.
13
 Let the planes /7j and /72 be the planes of projection onto which
the object is to be projected. Projecting lines are passed through
its vertices perpendicular to the planes of projection. Then the
points, where the projectors, perpendicular to plane TI\, pierce that
plane, determine the horizontal projection of the object. The points
where the projectors perpendicular to plane /72, pierce that plane.

Fig. 10 Fig. 11

give the vertical or frontal projection. In Fig. 10 one vertex is

indicated by the letter A and its horizontal and frontal projections
by A\ and /42, respectively.
The projections of the object on planes 771 and /72 make it pos­
sible to visualize the form of the object itself. In order to do this
it is necessary to imagine two groups of projectors perpendicular
to planes 77, and 772, respectively, and passing through the vertices
of the horizontal and frontal projections of the object. Then, the
form of the object and its position within the limits of the dihedral,
formed by the planes 77j and 772, will become apparent as the result
of the intersection of the projectors passing through the two pro­
jections of the same points. For instance, point A is the point
of intersection of the projector passing from point A\ perpendicu­
lar to plane 77j with the projector passing from point A2to plane IJ2.
From the drawing in Fig. 10 it can be seen that instead of the
right angles, actually formed by the intersection of the edges of the
object, acute and obtuse angles are obtained on the horizontal
14
projection. To avoid such distortions of the right angles on the draw­
ings the plane of projection n u together with the horizontal projec­
tion of the object, is rotated about the straight line of intersection
of planes /7i and /72 — line Ox — until plane 771 coincides with
plane 772. The direction of rotation is indicated by an arrow. This
rotation is shownjn Fig. 10 as completed. The new position of pro­
jection Ai being A\ and of plane TI\ being Il\. When the horizontal
projection of the object is brought into coincidence with plane /72
there are no distortions of the right angles.
In Fig. 11 the planes IT{ and /72 are shown as coinciding, and
the orthographic projections of the object in these planes of projec­
tion are given. Such a representation of an object by two or more
of its orthographic projections is called a multiview drawing.
 C h a p t e r If
THE POINT
§ 4. The Multiview Drawing of a Point
The following important facts regarding the projections of a
point should be carefully noted:
1. O ne p r o j e c t i o n a l o n e does not d e f i n e the
p o s i t i o n of a p o i n t in s p a c e . This can readily be under­
stood from Fig. 12 in which the point A and its orthographic projec­
tion A, on plane 171 are shown. On the projector from point A per-

Wi
Fig. 13

pendicular to plane 771 any number of points B, C, and so on, may

be taken, all of which will be projected onto the plane as
one and the same point, i. e., A\ = B \ ^ C \ . If plane 77i, with the
projection A \ ^ B \ = C\, is brought into coincidence with the plane
of the drawing (Fig. 13), then the only thing that can be determined
is the distance from the base of the perpendicular passing through
point A to the sides of the square that indicates part of the plane
of projection 77i. It is not possible to determine from this drawing
(Fig. 13) the altitude of point A in space in relation to plane /71.
2. The p o s i t i o n of a p o i n t i n s p a c e may be deter­
mined if, instead of a single projection, both projections of a point
16
on two planes of projection which intersect at right angles are
constructed. Two such planes of projection 771 and /72 are shown in
Fig. 14, a. The line of intersection of the horizontal plane /7Xand
the frontal plane fl2 — line Ox — is called the ground or reference
line. The ground line Ox divides each of 4he projection planes into
two flaps, or semi-planes. The horizontal plane IJ\ is divided into the
^h\ Top flap,
plane ff2
( Rear flap, plane
n,)

Front Flap,
plune nt
( Bottom flap ,
plane (12)

m__ b)

front and rear flaps and the frontal plane IJ2 into the top and
bottom flaps.
The planes 77] and 772 divide space into four quarters or quadrants.
The first quadrant is limited by the front flap of plane /7, and the
top flap of plane 772, the second — by the rear flap of plane /7, and
the top flap of plane 772, the third — by the rear flap of plane 77, and
the bottom flap of plane 772 and, finally, the fourth quadrant is limited
by the front flap of plane /7i and the bottom flap of plane /72
(Fig. 14, a).
To construct the multiview drawing planes 77, and /72 are made
to coincide with the plane of the drawing. Assuming plane /72 to
be the plane of the drawing, plane 771 is rotated about the ground
line Ox so that the front flap of plane 771 coincides with the lower
flap of plane /72. The rotation is indicated by arrow k. The rear flap
of plane 77j is brought into coincidence with the top flap of plane
772 by rotation in the direction of arrow I (Fig. 14, b).
3. T h e o r t h o g r a p h i c p r o j e c t i o n of a p o i n t onto
planes Tl\ and t l 2 is illustrated in Fig. 15.
The given point A is shown in the drawing (Fig. 15, a) as lying
within the f i r s t q u a d r a n t . By drawing a perpendicular from
point A onto plane 77j point A\ is obtained. This is the horizontal
projection of. point A. To obtain the projection of point A on plane
n 2 from point A a perpendicular is drawn to plane /72. The base
A2 of this perpendicular is the frontal projection of point A.
The plane determined by the projectors AA\ and AA2 is
2 1444 17
perpendicular both to plane TI\ and plane /72. Therefore it is also
perpendicular to the ground line Ox — the line of intersection of
III and n2. The plane intersects the ground line in a point. Since
this point lies in both plane ITi and plane /72, it is denoted by a
double subscript as A X2.
The figure AA\A\2A2 is a rectangle. Therefore, if it is required to
find the frontal projection A2 of point A, given point A and its
projection Ai, the procedure is as follows:

nJ <

flJ2

<
u

[ f t

1. From the horizontal projection A x of point A a perpendicular

is drawn to the ground line Ox which intersects Ox in point A l2.
2. From A t2 in plane 772 we erect a perpendicular to Ox to
intersect with projector AA2 in point A 2which is the required frontal
projection of point A.
To obtain the m u l t i v i e w d r a w i n g of point A plane /7U
containing projection A\, is made to coincide with plane n 2 by
rotating it about the line Ox. The new position of point A\
(Fig. 15, a) is then point A x. The radius of rotation of point A\ is
the length of line A\A\2 and the centre of rotation is point A X2. Since
the rotation of point A x takes place in a plane perpendicular to
ground line Ox, then, after rotation, point A x will lie on the straight
line passing through points A2 and A X2.
It follows that in the multiview drawing (Fig. 15, b) the two
projections A\ and A2 of the original point A a r e l o c a t e d on
o n e a n d t h e s a m e l i n e A XA2 p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e
g r o u n d l i n e Ox. This line is called a vertical projector.
Let us take note of the fact that the portions of the straight lines
A \A i2 and AA2 are equal, as are ^42^4j2 and AA\, since they are
opposite sides of a rectangle (Fig. 15, a). The length of AA2
determines the distance from point A to the frontal plane n2. On
the multiview drawing (Fig. 15, b) the d i s t a n c e of p o i n t A
18
 f r o m p l a n e IJ2 is g i v e n by t h e l e n g t h of AjA\2, i. e.,
t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e h o r i z o n t a l p r o j e c t i o n A\ of
t h e p o i n t t o t h e g r o u n d l i n e Ox.
The distance of point A from the horizontal plane of projection
/7, — the altitude of point A — is equal.to A2A i2 (Fig. 15, a). On
the multiview drawing (Fig. 15, b) the d i s t a n c e of p o i n t A
f r o m p l a n e 171 is g i v e n by t h e l e n g t h of l i n e A2Ai2.
i. e., by t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e f r o n t a l p r o j e c t i o n
A2 of t h e p o i n t t o g r o u n d l i n e Ox.
4. In order to read the multiview drawing of point A (Fig. 15, b),
i. e., to establish the position of the point in space in relation to the
planes of projection T7\ and I72, one should imagine that the draw­
ing is folded along the ground line Ox until the planes 17i and Tl2
are perpendicular. The lower part of the drawing then occupies the
position of the front flap of the plane T7\, and the top part of the
drawing — that of the top flap of the plane Il2. Then imagine
that through points Ai and A 2 lines, perpendicular to the respective
planes 77\ and IJ2, are drawn. The intersection of these per­
pendiculars determines the position of point A in space.
§ 5. The Projection of Different Points
in Relation to the Planes of Projection
1. P o i n t s s i t u a t e d i n t h e 2, 3 a n d 4 q u a d r a n t s .
A point in a system of two planes of projection /7i and Tl2 may
lie in one of the four space quadrants, on one of the plane flaps or,
finally, on ground line Ox.

B2
AB,

bj

We have already seen one of the possible positions of a point.

Point A was located in the first quadrant (Fig. 15, a, ft). The
distinguishing feature of the multiview drawing of such a point
(Fig. 15, b) is that its horizontal projection lies under the ground
line Ox, while the frontal projection lies above this ground line.
In the case of point B, which is in the second quadrant
2* 19
 (Fig. 16, a), both projections on the multiview drawing are located
above the ground line Ox (Fig. 16, b), becausd the horizontal
projection Bi of this point moves with the rear flap of plane TIi
which is made to coincide with the top flap of plane 772.
Point C is located in the third space quadrant (Fig. 17, a). On
the multiview drawing (Fig. 17, b) the horizontal projection C\ of

<>C/

x Qi o

point C is located above line Ox, since after rotation Ci will lie in
the top flap of plane /72, while the frontal projection C2 lies under
ground line Ox.
Point D (Fig. 18, a), which is in the fourth space quadrant, has
both its projections on the multiview drawing (Fig. 18, b) located
under the ground line Ox, since the horizontal projection D\ of point
D coincides with the lower flap of plane /72.
On the combined multiview drawing e2 fi}
(Fig. 19) the projections of all the points A, f ill
B, C and D are shown for the purpose of 'I
comparison. C,?

20
 The horizontal and frontal projections of points A and C in the
o d d - n u m b e r space quadrants (/ and 3) are located on
o p p o s i t e sides of ground line Ox, where as both projections of
each of the points B and D, in the e v e n - n u m b e r space quad­
rants (2 and 4), lie on o n e a n d th e s a m e side of the ground
line Ox.

• 2. The next group of points consists of points, l y i n g i n t h e

p l a n e s of p r o j e c t i o n IJ\ and /72. When their position in
space is being determined it is necessary to take into account that
the distance from these points to the planes on which they lie is
zero. Therefore one of the two projections of these points on the
multiview drawing must lie on ground line Ox, whereas the second
projection will coincide with the original point itself.
For example, if point E (Fig. 20, a) lies on the front flap of
plane /7lt then its frontal projection £2 in the multiview drawing
(Fig. 20, b) is located on the ground line Ox and the horizontal
projection E\ coincides with point E (E\ s E ).
In Fig. 20, a point K lies in the rear flap of plane n lt point L —
in the top flap of plane /72, and point M in the lower flap of plane
/72. One of the projections of each of the points K, L and M coincides
with the point itself', whereas the second, lies on ground line Ox.
3. Finally, when p o i n t N is l o c a t e d on g r o u n d l i n e
Ox, both its projections N\ and W2 coincide with the original
point N.
In the multiview drawing Fig. 20, b are shown the projections
of points E, K, L, M and N.
From what has been outlined above the following conclusions
may be drawn:
21
 1. If the horizontal projection of a point in the multiview draw­
ing lies below the ground line Ox, then the point itself is located in
space in front of the frontal plane of projection TI2. If the projection
lies above the ground line, then the point itself lies behind plane /72.
2. If the frontal projection of a point lies above the ground
line Ox, then the point itself is situated above the horizontal plane
of projection 771. If
this projection lies
below the ground line,
the point itself lies
under this plane._
3- If one of the
projections of the
point lies on the
ground line Ox, then
the original point lies
in one of the planes of
projection IJi or FT2.
4. If both projec­
tions of the point
coincide and lie on
ground line Ox, then
the original point also
lies on this line.
4. Projections
on t h r e e p l a n e s .
Let us now examine
the orthographic
projection of points
on three mutually
perpendicular planes
of projection, intro­
ducing the third plane
n 3 (Fig. 21, a).
The plane /73 is
called the profile
plane of projection
b) and the projections on
FiZ 21 it are called profile
projections. The profile
plane of projection n 3 intersects the planes of projection 771 and /72,
respectively, in the ground lines Oy and Oz, both of which are
perpendicular to ground line Ox. From the drawing (Fig. 21, a) it
may be seen, that O x±IJ3, O y \.n 2 and Oz JLi/7i.
The planes of projection IJU n 2, IJ3 divide space into eight parts
called octants. There are two systems of numerating the octants —
22
right-hand and left-hand. In this text-book the right-hand system
is used throughout, since the disposition of the views or projections
then corresponds to that accepted in engineering drawing courses.
The sequence of numeration using the right-hand system of octants
is shown in Fig. 21, a. The sequence of the first four octants (/, 2, 3
and 4) coincides with the sequence of the four quadrants formed
by the intersection of the planes of projection FI\ and 772. The
octants 5, 6, 7 and 8 are situated to the right of the plane 773 in the
same order as the octants 7, 2, 3 and 4. In Fig. 21, a all the octants
are numbered except the seventh, situated under plane Tlx behind
plane #2 and to the right of plane 773.
Each of the ground lines is divided by the planes TI\, FI2 and 773
into two parts. Generally the letter O is used to indicate the
point of intersection of the ground lines. The direction of the line x
to the left of point O is assumed to be positive, and to the right of
O — negative. The direction of the portion of the ground line Oy
which is towards the observer is taken as positive and that of the
opposite portion away from the observer, as negative. Similarly the
direction of the upper part of Oz, i. e., above point 0 , is taken as
positive and that of the lower part, as negative.
The transition from space representation of the three planes of
projection to the multiview drawing is carried out as follows. First
the horizontal projection plane TI^ is revolved about the ground
line Ox until it coincides with the frontal plane of projection 772.
This rotation is carried out in a clockwise direction, viewing x
from the left, as shown in Fig. 21, a by arrows k and I. Then
the profile plane of projection 773 is rotated about ground line
Oz until it coincides with the frontal plane IJ2. This second rotation
is carried out counter-clockwise, the axis z viewed from the top
(shown by arrows m and n). Thus we obtain the multiview drawing
of the planes of projection ITu 772 and 773 (Fig. 21, b). Since the
frontal plane of projection TI2 is taken as the plane of the drawing
and remains stationary, the ground lines Ox and Oz contained in it
will not change their positions on the multiview drawing.
When the plane 77x coincides with the plane 772, the positive
direction of the Oy line coincides with the negative direction of the
Oz line, and conversely, the negative direction of the Oy line coin­
cides with the positive direction of the Oz line.

5. It is often convenient to e s t a b l i s h t h e p o s i t i o n of
p o i n t s by g i v i n g t h e i r c o o r d i n a t e s relative to the
system of three coordinate planes. If the point A is assigned by
rectangular coordinates,' the planes of projection 77j, U2 and 773
serve as the planes of the system of coordinates. The point O of
intersection of axes x, y and z is then the p o i n t of o r i g i n
(Fig. 22, a). The coordinates of point A are three values x, y
and z, when: 1) the absolute magnitudes of x, y and z are respec-
23
tively equal to the lengths AA3, AA2, AA\, i. e., the distances of
point A from the planes II3, II2 and I I 2) x> 0 , if A lies to the left
of II3; x<0, if A lies to the right of n%\ 3) y > 0, if A lies in front of
/72; y < 0, if A lies behind /72; 4) z > 0, if A lies above /7j; z < 0, if
A lies under II\. Knowing the coordinates of a point it is possible
to construct the projection of the point and, conversely, by means

of the multiview drawing the coordinates of a point may be

determined.
The planes AA\A2, AA2A3, AA3A U n lt II2 and n 3 form the
rectangular coordinate parallelepiped.
The coordinate signs for all the octants are given in the
table.
6. I
C oordinates situated in th e f i r s t o c t a n t .
Octants X
1 >
1 z Its coordinates x, y, z are
respectively equal to 7, 13 and
Sign s of the C oordinates
18 mm. This should be checked
1
from the drawing. The construc­
•-t- H- +
2 -f — +
tion of the coordinate parallel­
3 *r — — epiped of this point consists in
4 -k- 4- — marking the points i4i2, 7113 and
5 — + + A23 on the lines Ox, Oy and Oz.
6 — — +
7 This is done by stepping off a
8 — + — distance of 7 mm from point O
on the ground line Ox, a distance
of 13 mm on the ground line Oy
and a distance of 18 mm on Oz- The other edges of the
parallelepiped are drawn parallel to these segments.
It should be noted that any two projections of point A are con-
24
 tained in each of the faces of the coordinate parallelepiped, when
this face does not coincide with the plane of projection. For
example, the horizontal and frontal projections, A i andA2, lie in the
profile face AA\A\2A2. The horizontal ajid profile projections, A\
and As, lie in the frontal face AA1A13A3 and, finally, the frontal and
profile projections, A2 and A3, lie in the horizontal face AA2A23A3 of
the parallelepiped. Therefore, to
obtain two projections of a point,
given its coordinates x, y and z,
it is necessary to construct
only the corresponding face of
the coordinate parallelepiped.
The projections A 1 and A2 of
point A (7; 13; 18) are shown in
Fig. 23. First from, point O on
the line Ox mark off the distance
x= 7 mm (0/112 = 7 mm). After
that on a line, drawn from A [2
parallel to the line Oy, the
distance A l2A, = 13 mm is
marked off. Finally, from point
A 12 a line is drawn parallel to pig 23
axis Oz, and the distance A l2A2=
-18 mm is marked off on it.
If it is necessary to construct a point by its assigned coordinates,
'this may be done by constructing one coordinate open polygon.
Thus in Fig. 23 point A and its projection A\ are obtained by draw­
ing the coordinate open polygon OA\2A\A.
The construction of the Horizontal and frontal projections of
point A in the multiview drawing (Fig. 22, b) is the same as for
any point located in the first space quadrant (Fig. 15, b). The
construction of the profile projection A3 of point A is carried out
as follows: 1) through point A2 draw a horizontal projector, which
is the line of altitude, and 2) from point A23 lay off along this line,
to the right of Oz, distance A23A3= 13 mm {y= 13).
Point A3 is the profile projection of point A. This is so because
1) the distance of the profile projection A3 from the ground line Ch/3,
which coincides with the x axis, is the same as the distance from
frontal projection A2 to the x.axis, and 2) A 2 3 A 3 and A\A\2 are equal
to y, given by the coordinates of point A.

7. Let us now consider the construction of the multiview draw­

ings of points located in the other seven octants. Point B lies in the
s e c o n d octant (Fig. 24). Its projections B\B2 and B3 in Fig. 24, a
are obtained by constructing the profile face (BB1B12B2) and the
horizontal face ( B B 2 B 2 3 B 3 ) of the coordinate parallelepiped.
In the multiview drawing (Fig. 24, b) the two principal projec-
25
tions B i and B2 of point B are located to the left of point 0 and
above ground line Ox. The construction of these projections
corresponds to that of points B\ and B2 in Fig. 16, b.
The profile projection B3 is located to the left of Oz since, after
the plane /73 has been revolved about the ground line Oz, the rear
half of this plane coincides with the left half of plane fJ2. The

Fig. 24

construction of the profile projection B3 of point B is carried out

as follows: 1) through the frontal projection B2 a horizontal projec­
tor is drawn parallel to Ox; 2) on this projector, to the left of Oz,
lay off the distance y equal to the distance (B\B\2) at which projec­
tion B i lies from the ground line Ox.

<*} *
Fig. 25

Point C lies in the t h i r d octant (Fig. 25, a) and in the multi­

view drawing (Fig. 25, b) the positions of its principal projections
Ci and C2 are the same as those of the projections of a point in the
third quadrant (Fig. 17, b), namely, the horizontal projection lies
above the ground line Ox, and the frontal projection lies under Ox.
26
To construct the profile projection C3 by means of these two projec­
tions the horizontal projector of point C is drawn through point C2.
On it, to the left of Oz, mark off the negative distance — y, which
is equal to the length of CiCi2.
Point D is situated in the f o u r t h octant (Fig. 26). Its projec­
tions Du D2 and D3 in the drawing (Fig. 26, a) are constructed with
z

the help of the profile face (DD\Dy2D2) of the coordinate parallel­

epiped and the frontal face (DDiDi3D3) .
The principal projections Di and D2 of point D in the multiview
drawing (Fig. 26, b) are constructed in full accordance with the
construction of a point situated in the fourth quadrant (Fig. 18, b).
To construct the profile projections D3 of point D by means of these
projections, through the frontal projection D2 a horizontal projector
is drawn and on it, to the right of Oz, the positive coordinate y,
which is equal to D\DX2, is laid off. From the multiview drawing of
points A, B, C and D situated in the 1, 2, 3 and 4 octants, respec­
tively, it can easily be seen that the profile projections of these
points are located in the parts of the multiview drawing (divided
by the x, y, z axes, as shown in Fig. 22, b) the numbers of which | / | ,
|2j, |5| and j?j coincide with the numbers of the octants. So
projection A3 of point A of the first octant lies in the top right part
|7| of the multiview drawing (Fig. 22, b). The projection B3 of
point B of the second octant lies in the top left part j2j of the draw­
ing (Fig. 24, b). The projection C3 of point C of the third octant
lies in the lower left part |3| of the drawing (Fig. 25, b). Finally,
the projection D3 of point D of the fourth octant lies in the lower
right part \4\ of the drawing (Fig. 26, b). This will help the student
to orientate himself more quickly when constructing the three
projections of points situated in the first four octants. It will also
27
 Fig. 28
fry,

b)
Fig. 29

28
help him to determine, by means of the multiview drawing, in which
octant a point is located in space.
The points E, F, K and L, situated respectively in the fifth, sixth,
seventh and eighth octants, are shown in Figs. 27 to 30. The
sequence of the construction of their multiview drawings is the
same as for points A, B, C and D, i. e., the principal projections of

Fig. 30

these points on the planes TJ\ and 772 are constructed first, and
then their projections on plane IJ3 are found using the method
already outlined.
It should be noted that:
1. The horizontal and frontal projections of points which are
located in the 5, 6, 7 and 8 octants are seen in the multiview draw­
ing in the same order as the points of the 1, 2, 3 and 4 octants,
correspondingly located in space. In other words, the projections of
points in the odd-numbered octants (5 and 7) are located on both
sides of the ground line Ox, the projections of points in the even-
numbered octants (6 and 8) are both on one side of Ox.
2. The profile projections of points located in the 5, 6, 7 and 8
octants are situated in those parts of the multiview drawing (divid­
ed by lines x, y, z, as shown in Fig. 22, b), the numbers of which
are obtained by subtracting 4 from the number of the corresponding
octant. In this way the projection E3 of point E in_the fifth octant
(Fig. 27, b) is situated in the top right-hand part |/| of the multi­
view drawing. The projection F3 of_ point F in the sixth octant
(Fig. 28, b) lies in the top left part 12\ of the drawing. The projec­
tion K3 ofjjoint K in the seventh octant (Fig. 29, b) lies in the lower
left side |5J of the drawing and, finally, the projection L3 of point
L in the eighth octant (Fig. 30, b) is situated in the lower right
p a r | 4\ of the drawing.
29
 3. Since the values of x for points located in the 5, 6, 7 and 8
octants are negative, the horizontal and frontal projections of these
points in the multiview drawing are situated to the right of Oz.

Problems and Exercises

1. Does one projection of a point determine the position of that

point in space?
2. Prove that two projections of a point completely determine
its position in space.
3. Prove that in the multiview drawing two projections of a
point are located on one line perpendicular to the ground lind.
4. How is the distance from plane TI\ of the projection of a point
determined in the multiview drawing?
5. How is the distance from plane I72 of the projection of a point
determined in the multiview drawing?
6. What is the position in space, in relation to plane IJU of a
point, the frontal projection of which is a) above the ground line
Ox, and b) below it?
7. What is the position in space relative to plane FI2 of a point,
the horizontal projection of which is a) below the ground line Ox,
and b) above it?
8. How are the principal projections situated in the multiview
drawing of a point which is a) in the first quadrant, b) in the
second quadrant, c) in the third quadrant, and d) in the fourth
quadrant?
9. How are the principal projections located in relation to the
ground line Ox in the multiview drawing of a point which lies a) in
the front flap of plane n u b) in the top flap of plane n>2, c) in the
bottom flap of plane 772, and d) on the ground line Ox?
10. How is the profile projection of a point determined in the
multiview drawing by means of its two principal projections on
planes 771 and /72?
11. In which octant is a point located if a) its coordinates x, y
and ^ are positive, if b) x and z are positive and y negative, and if
c) x is negative and y and z positive?
12. Which are the positive and which are the negative coordi­
nates of points located in the a) second, b) fifth, c) seventh,
d) eighth octant?
13. Construct the three-dimensional drawing and the multiview
drawing of points A (5; 15; 7), B (10; — 15; 20), C (15; — 10; — 12)
and D (20; 8; — 16). The coordinates are given in mm.
Hi n t . First determine in which octant the given points are
located, imagining the broken coordinate line for each of the points
(see Fig. 23 and the corresponding explanation).
14. Write down the coordinates of the points, given in Fig. 31,
and state in which space quadrants these points are located.
30
 Hi n t . It is necessary to imagine that the drawing is folded
along ground line Ox as in Fig. 15, b and that through the projec­
tions of each point perpendiculars are drawn to the planes of pro­
jections III and /72 respectively.
15. Given point A (20; 10; 15), construct point B symmetrical to
the given point A in relation to plane /72, point C symmetrical to
point A in relation to plane 77j, 2
and point D symmetrical to point
/
A in relation to the ground line <'f B, d2
Ox. ( *p*
Hi n t . Point A is located in
the first quadrant (all the three
coordinates x, y and z are posi­ c, h .Fz *2
tive). Therefore point B lies / h
in the second quadrant, point C
in the fourth and point D in the i>
D, >
third. k > K,
16. Construct the three- C2
dimensional view and the multi­ y
view drawing of points A, B and Fig. 31
C, point A being in the second
octant, point B in the fifth and point C in the seventh.
17. Write down the coordinates of the points A, B and C and
state in which octants these points are located (Fig. 32).
Hi n t . The text explaining Figs'. 22, 24, 25 and 26 should be
studied.
18. By means of the pairs of projections of points A and B,
construct their third projection and indicate the octants in which
these points lie (Fig. 33).
Hi n t . It should be borne in mind that in the multiview drawing
the horizontal and frontal projections of any point lie on the vertical
Z
*2, *3
h _______ h j 2

B,I
<

•B,
0
* >

1 o3 0
4 >

c
'Cl *3
y
Fig. 32 Fig. 33
31
projector, i. e., on the line perpendicular to ground line Ox, and the
frontal and profile projections on the horizontal line of altitude on
a line perpendicular to Oz.
It should also be recalled that +y on the vertical projector is
laid off from line Ox below that line and —y above it. On the
horizontal projector that same distance +y is laid off to the right of
line Oz, and —y to the left of that line.
 Chapter III
THE STRAIGHT LINE

§ 6. The Multiview Drawing

of a Straight Line
1. In order to obtain the orthographic projection of a straight
line on a plane, through the line a plane perpendicular to the plane
of projection is passed. The line of intersection of this plane with
the plane of projection is then the orthographic projection of
the line.
In Fig. 34 through a given line AB 8•
a plane a perpendicular to plane
/7j is passed. The intersection A XB Xof
plane a with plane FIX determines the
only possible projection of line A B *
on plane I7X.
Since a line is completely deter­
mined by any two of its points, instead
of drawing a plane, it is sufficient to
find the orthographic projections A\
and B x of points A and B on plane IJ\.
The line joining points A\ and B\
is the orthographic projection of AB
on plane IIX.
In Fig. 34 a line CD perpendicular to plane n x is also shown.
Perpendiculars to plane t l u passing through points C and D, will
coincide with the line itself and intersect plane /7i in one point
CX= DX.
It follows that the o r t h o g r a p h i c p r o j e c t i o n of a
s t r a i g h t l i n e oji a p l a n e is a s t r a i g h t l i n e e x c e p t
w h e n t h i s l i n e is p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p l a n e of
projection.
Similarly any straight line in a plane may be considered as
being the projection of a straight line.
* The word line in this book may be assumed to imply a straight line, unless
otherwise stated.
3 1444 33
 Let a plane a perpendicular to H\ (Fig. 34) be passed through
the straight line A\B\ whichjies in plane 77i. Then AB will be the
projection on plane /7i of a line, not perpendicular to 77i, for
example AB, drawn in plane a.
2. A s i n g l e p r o j e c t i o n of a l i n e d o e s n o t d e ­
t e r m i n e t h e p o s i t i o n of t h a t l i n e i n s p a c e , since it is

possible to draw in the plane a (Fig. 34) any number of lines both
parallel to n { or inclined to that plane, while all their projections
on plane IJi coincide with one line, i. e., A\B\.
3. T w o p r o j e c t i o n s of a l i n e f u l l y d e t e r m i n e i t s
p o s i t i o n in s pace.
Knowing the position of two projections of a line — the hori­
zontal A\Bi and the frontal A2B2 (Fig. 35, a) it is possible to pass
through A\B\ a plane a perpendicular to plane /7j and through A2B2
a plane p perpendicular to plane n 2. The line of intersection AB of
the planes a and p determines the one and only position in space
of the line, the projections of which were given.
Since two points fully determine the position of a line in space,
the construction of the multiview drawing of a line is therefore
reduced to the construction of the projection of two of its points.
It is common practice to assume the extreme points as these points,
if the line represented is of a given length.
To construct the multiview drawing of the line AB (Fig. 35, a)
the coordinates x, y and z of points A and B are determined and
transferred to Fig. 35, b. The pairs of projections obtained, i. e., A\
and B\ and A2 and B2 are then joined up. Lines A\B\ and A2B2 are,
respectively, the horizontal and frontal projections of line AB.
E x a m p l e . It is required to construct the multiview and the
three-dimensional drawings of line AB by means of the coordinates
of its points A (20; 15; 7) and B (6; 22; 23) (Fig. 36).
34 U P E b p t
 First let us construct the multiview drawing (Fig. 36, a ) :
1. Draw a horizontal line which is taken as the ground line Ox.
2. From point O lay off coordinates x=20 mm and x= 6 mm,
given by the coordinates of points A and B.
3. Through the points A n and Bn %o obtained draw perpen­
diculars to line Ox.
4. On these perpendiculars from points ^412 and Bn, below Ox,

lay off distances y, given by the coordinates of points A and B.

These are respectively 15 and 22 mm, and above Ox lay off z = 7 mm
and z=23 mm. Note, the coordinates y and z are positive. The pairs
of points A\ and Bi. and A2 and B2 so obtained, are respectively the
horizontal and frontal projections of points A and B.
5. By joining the corresponding projections of the points A and
B the horizontal projection A\B\ and the frontal projection A2B2 of '
line AB are obtained.
In order to construct a space drawing of line AB (Fig. 36, b) , in
plane /7i straight line A\B\ is constructed using the coordinates x
and y of points A and B. In plane TI2 line A2B2 is constructed using
the coordinates x and z of points A and B. To obtain the represen­
tation of the point A and B in space, projectors, respectively par­
allel to Oz and Oy, are drawn through points A x and A2 and through
points B 1 and B2. The intersection of the projectors passing thrdugh w'
A\ and A2 gives the position of point A in space. The intersection
of the projectors passed through B x and B2 gives the position of
point B. Joining points A and B we obtain the three-dimensional
representation of line AB.
3* 35
 § 7. The Projections and Positions of Straight Lines
Relative to the Planes of Projection
1. An oblique line is inclined to all three planes of projection.
In Fig. 37, a the representation in space of an oblique line is given
and in Fig: 37, b, its multiview drawing.

On the multiview drawing it is seen that all three projections

of the line are inclined to the ground lines, i. e., to the x, y and 2
axes.
Each of the projections A\B\, A2B2 and A3B3 of the straight line
AB on the multiview drawing is shorter than AB itself. This can
0 easily be proved. In Fig. 38 the line
AB, its projection A \B { on plane /7(
and the projectors AA\ and BB\ are
shown.
4. Through point A\ draw a line A\C
parallel to AB. Angle A\B\C\ of the
triangle obtained is a right' angle
(BI£_Lplane/7;). If angle B XA XC is
a°, then A \B \—A\C cosa°, but A\C =
\ A =AB. Therefore A\B\= A B cos a°, and
it follows that all projections of AB
Fig. 38 such as A\B\ are shorter than the line
AB itself- If a° = 0, then A \B {=AB.
If a°=90°, then A\B\ —Q and line AB is projected onto plane /71 as
a point.
The angles a, p and y formed by the projections of line AB
with the ground lines x, y and 2, are not equal to the angle of in­
clination of the line itself to the planes of projection 771, /72 and /73.
36
For example, since the horizontal projecting plane ABB\AX (in(:>')a )
which lines projecting AB onto the horizontal plane Tl\ lie) is not
parallel to the plane Tl2, the angle at which the line AB meets plane
/7, is n o t e q u a l to the angle a between the ground line Ox and
projection A2B2 (Fig. 37, b).

2. Lines in special positions. A straight line parallel to the hori­

zontal projection plane IJi is called a horizontal line or simply a

horizontal (Fig. 39, a). Since all points of a horizontal lie at the
same distance from the plane 77], the f r o n t a l p r o j e c t i o n of
a h o r i z o n t a l is p a r a l l e l t o t h e g r o u n d l i n e Ox
(C2D2\\Ox ). T h e p r o f i l e p r o j e c t i o n C3D3 is p a r a l l e l t o
t h e l i n e Oy3. T h e h o r i z o n t a l p r o j e c t i o n of t h e hpri-;
z o n t a l l i n e gives its true length, i. e., C\D\ = CD (Fig. 39, b).
In the drawings the tjme length, or true value, is indicated by,
the letters T. V._
The angle between a straight line and a plane is the angle
formed by the line itself and its orthographic projection on the given
plane.
The angle p between the ground line Ox and the horizontal pro­
jection C\Dx of the horizontal CD in the multiview drawing is equal
to the angle of inclination of the horizontal to the frontal plane of
projection /72 arid the a n g l e y between the line Oyi, and the
horizontal projection C\D\ of the horizontal CD in the multiview
drawing is the angle of inclination of the horizontal to the profile
plane of projection /73 (Fig. 39, b) and < p o+ < y ° = 90°.
3. A line parallel to the frontal plane of projection 772 is called
a frontal line or simply a frontal (Fig. 40). Since all points of a
frontal lie at the same distance from plane /72, the h o r i z o n t a l
p r o j e c t i o n E\F\ of t h e f r o n t a l is p a r a l l e l t o t h e
l i n e Ox, t h e p r o f i l e p r o j e c t i o n E3F3 i s p a r a l l e l t o
t h e l i n e Oz, a n d t h e f r o n t a l p r o j e c t i o n is e q u a l i n
l e n g t h t o t h e p r o j e c t e d f r o n t a l (E2F2=EF, Fig. 40).
37
 Angle a between the ground line Ox and the frontal projection
E2F2 of the frontal (Fig. 40, b) gives the true inclination of the
frontal to the horizontal plane of projection II\. The angle y be­
tween the line Oz and frontal projection E2F2 of the frontal gives the
true inclination of the frontal to the profile plane of projection n 3
and <ta°+<tY °= 90°.

4. A line parallel to the profile plane of projection f l 3 is called

a profile line (Fig. 41).
Since all points of a profile line lie at the same distance from
the plane Il3 the h o r i z o n t a l p r o j e c t i o n P\R\ a n d the
f r o n t a l p r o j e c t i o n P2R2 of t h e p r o f i l e l i n e a r e per -
p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e g r o u n i 1i n e Ox, a n d t h e l e n g t h
z

41

of t h e p r o f i l e p r o j e c t i o n P3R3 is t h e t r u e l e n g t h of
t h e l i n e PR (Fig.41,6).
The angles a and p (Fig. 41, b) give the true values of the
angles of inclinations of the line PR to planes IJi and n 2, respec­
tively. The sum of the angles a and p is 90°.
38
 The profile line, shown in Fig. 41, is called an ascending line and
that, shown in Fig. 42, a descending line.
The side pieces of a ladder leaning against a wall illustrate the
former. The sides of a picture frame hanging at an angle on the
wall illustrate the latter. •
5. L i n e s p a r a l l e l t o t w o of
t h e t h r e e p l a n e s of p r o j e c t i o n .
Any line parallel to two planes of projec­
tion is obviously perpendicular to the third
plane of projection and therefore is project­
ed onto it as a point. In Fig. 43 lines AB,
CD and EF are shown. AB is parallel to
the planes of projection n 2 and /73, there­
fore the length of this line when projected
onto planes /72 and /73 is the true length of
AB, and its projection on plane n x is a
point. Line CD is parallel to the planes n x
and /73, so its projections on those planes
give the true length of the line. Its projec­
tion on plane 172 is a point. EF is parallel to
planes I7X and /72, and its projection on
those planes gives the true length of EF itself. On plane /73 its
projection is a point.
6. L i n e s l y i n g in t h e p l a n e s of p r o j e c t i o n . In
Fig. 44 is shown a line A B , lying in the plane IJ\. Its horizontal
projection A \B X coincides with the line itself (AXB \ ^ A B ) .

y, b)
Fig. 43

The frontal projection A2B2 lies on the Ox ground line

and the profile projection A 3B3 lies on the Oy ground
line.
In Fig. 45 the line CD lies in the plane /72. Its frontal projection
39
C2D2 coincides with the line itself (C2D2— CD), the horizontal
projection C\Di is situated on the ground line Ox and the profile
projection C3D3 lies on the ground line Oz.
If a line lies in the /73 plane, its profile projection coincides with
the line itself, the horizontal projection lies on the line Oy and the
frontal projection, on the line Oz.

7. Straight lines of limited length situated in the first quadrant

or in the first octant have already been examined above. If a line
lies in any other quadrant or octant, the construction of two or three
of its projections consists in obtaining the orthographic projections
on the planes of projection of the points limiting the line and join­
ing up the corresponding pairs of projection. The following three-
dimensional and multiview drawings serve as examples:
1. Line EF is a horizontal located in the second quadrant
(Fig. 46).
2. Line KL is a frontal located in the third quadrant (Fig. 47).
3. Line MN is an oblique line located in the fourth quadrant
(Fig. 48).
Problems and Exercises
1. When is the projection of a straight line itself a straight line,
and when does it become a point?
2. How many projections of a line are required to determine its
position in space? Why is one projection insufficient for this
purpose?
3. How are the projections of a horizontal located?
4. How are the projections of a frontal located?
5. What is the position of a line in space if its two principal pro­
jections, i. e., on IJi and /72, are perpendicular to the ground line Ox?
6. Describe the projections on planes IJU /72 and /73 of a horizon­
tal which is perpendicular to plane /72.
7. Describe the projections of a line which lies in the planes n u
n 2, /73.
8. In which space quadrants are the lines AB, CD and EF situated
40
 Z7,=Z?

Fig. 47 Fig. 48

41
if their coordinates are A (13; —5; 10), B (5; —9; 10), C (5; —10,
20), D (1 8 ;-1 6 ; 4) , E (14; 4; - 6 ) , F (18; 8; - 9 ) ?
Hi n t . In this case two planes of projections Tlx and /72 should
be visualized. Having determined the quadrant in which the limiting
points of the line lie, imagine them joined by a straight line.
9. Construct the multiview drawing, consisting of three projec­
tions, and the space drawing of line AB by means of two given

Fig. 49 Fig. 50

projections and determine the coordinates of the ends of the given

line (Fig. 49).
10. Construct the multiview drawing, consisting of three
projections of the line AB using the space drawing. Determine the
coordinates of the end points of the line (Fig. 50).
11. Construct the space drawing arid the multiview drawing,
two projections, of line AB using the coordinates of its limiting
points A (20; 30; 40) and B (5; 5; 10).

§ 8. The True Length of a Line and Its Angle

of Inclination to the Planes of Projection*
1. The line AB (Fig. 51) may be considered as the hypotenuse
of a right triangle ABC in space, the right angle ACB is formed by
the projector AAi and line BC which is drawn parallel to the hori­
zontal projection A\B\ of the line AB. One of the sides (BC) of the
triangle ABC is equal to the horizontal projection A \B U since parts
of parallel lines limited by other parallel lines are equal in length.
The length of the second side (AC) is equal to the difference z—z'
determined from the coordinates of points A and B.
On this basis the construction of the true length of AB
in the multiview drawing (Fig. 51, b) is carried out as follows.
Taking the horizontal projection A\B\ as one side of a right triangle,
through point A\ draw_a perpendicular to A\B\, lay off on it from
point A\ the length A\A equal to the difference coordinates z and
* The method of finding the true length of a line by means of conversion of
its projections is given in Chapter VI.
42
 using the given coordinates of points A and _B. The point A
obtained is joined to point B\. The hypotenuse AB\ of the right
Iriangle constructed gives the true length of AB.
The true length of a line may be determined by constructing
.r right triangle if the frontal projection of the line serves as the
first side. In this case the length of the second side will be equal to

the difference y — y determined by means of the given coordinates

of A and B. This construction is shown in Fig. 55.
Thus th e t r u e l e n g t h of i l i n e i n t h e m u l t i v i e w
d r a w i n g i s c o n s t r u c t e d a s t h e h y p o t e n u s e of a
r i g h t t r i a n g l e , o n e s i d e of w h i c h i s e q u a l in
l e n g t h t o o n e of t h e p r o . e c t i o n s of t h e l i n e a n d
t h e s e c o n d s i d e of w h i c h is e q u a l t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n t h e d i s t a n c e s of t h e e x t r e m e p o i n t s of
t h e l i n e f r o m t h e p l a n e of p r o j e c t i o n .
2. The t r u e angle of
i n c l i n a t i o n of a l i n e t o
t h e p l a n e of p r o j e c t i o n
may also be determined by con­
structing a right triangle. In Fig.
51, a angle ABC is the angle be­
tween line AB and plane /7j. Its true
valuejs given in Fig. 51, b by angle
A\B\A, i. e., by the acute angle a,
formed by the horizontal projection
A\B\, and the hypotenuse of the
right triangle A \B XA, with the help
of which the true length of line AB
was found. Fig. 52
43
 The true values of angles p and y, i. e., the angles of inclination
of line AB to the planes of projection /72 and /73 respectively, can
be determined by constructing right triangles. To find p°, the angle
of inclination of AB to /72, the first side should be the frontal projec­
tion. To find y, the angle of inclination of AB to /73, the side should
be the profile projection.
E x a m p l e . It is required to determine y°> the angle of
inclination of line AB to the profile plane of projection /73 (Fig. 52).
Construct the right triangle A 3B3A, the first side of which will
be the profile projection of line AB. The second side will be given
by the difference between the distances of the extreme points of A2
and B2. The angle y formed between projection A3B3 and hypo­
tenuse BZA is the required angle.
§ 9. Relative Position of Points and Lines
If a point in space lies on a line, the projections of that point
also lie on the corresponding projections of the line. To demonstrate
this let there be given the line A B , its projections A \B X and A2B2
and a point C on line AB (Fig. 53). To obtain the projections of
point C draw projectors CCi and CC2. The projectors lie respectively
in planes a and p, which project line AB onto planes Il\ and IJ2. It
follows that the projectors pierce the planes of projection /7i and
n 2 in points Ci and C2, and these points lie on the corresponding
lines of intersection of planes a and p with the planes of projection
/7i and Tl2, in other words they lie on the projections A\Bi and
A2B2, which is what had to be proved.
If one projection of the point lies on the corresponding projec­
tion of a line, while another projection of the point does not lie on
the corresponding projection of the line, then the point does not

Fig. 53
44
 Iio on the given line in space. Such a case is also shown in Fig. 53,
where the frontal projection Kz of point K lies on the frontal
projection A2B2 of line AB, while the point K itself does not lie on
Ihe line AB, since the horizontal projection Ki of point /C does not
lie on the horizontal projection A\B\ of the line AB.
E x a m p l e . It is required to mark on the given line AB a point
C at an altitude of 15 mm from plane /7|
(Fig. 54).
At a distance of 15 mm from the ground
line Ox draw a line parallel to it to inter­
sect the frontal projection A2B2 of line
AB.
The point of intersection C2 is the
frontal projection of the required point C.
The horizontal projection Cj of point C is
given by the intersection of a projector
drawn through C2, perpendicular to the
ground line Ox, with the horizontal projec­
tion A\B\ of line AB.

§ 10. The Division of a Line in a Given Ratio

If a l i n e i n s p a c e is d i v i d e d by a p o i n t i n t h e
r a t i o m: n, t h e p r o j e c t i o n s of t h i s l i n e a r e a l s o
d i v i d e d by t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p r o j e c t i o n s of t h a t
p o i n t i n t h a t s a m e r a t i o m: n.
In the triangle C2D2D (Fig. 55, b), with the help of which the
true length C2D of line CD has been found, draw a straight line
K2K _parallel to the side D2D. This line KzK cuts off a triangle
C2K2K. This triangle is similar to triangle C2D2D, and it follows

Fig. 55
45
that D2K2: K2C2= D K : KC2; in other words, the projection K2 of
the point K divides the projection C2D2 of the line CD in the same
ratio as point K divides line CD.
E x a m p l e . It is required to divide line AB in the ratio 2 :3
(Fig. 56).
Divide one of the projections, for example A\B\, into five equal
parts. From point A\ step off two parts, thus obtaining point Ki
and through K\ perpendicular to the ground line Ox, draw a
projector to cut A 2B2 in point K2■The points Ki and K2 are projec­
tions of point K dividing the line AB in the ratio 2 :3 as was
required.

§11. Traces of Lines

The point in which a line pierces a plane of projections is called
a trace of that line.
In a system containing three planes of projection 77u n 2 and
n 3 an oblique line has three traces — the horizontal, frontal and
profile. A line parallel to one of the planes of projection has two
traces, and a line parallel to two planes of projection has one trace.
In Fig. 57 an oblique line AB is shown. It pierces plane FIi in
point M and plane Tl2 in point N. Point M is therefore the
horizontal trace of the line AB and point N, its frontal trace.
In the multiview drawing (Fig. 57, b) the horizontal trace of
line AB can be found by determining the projection of the point
contained both in the given line and in plane 17\. In the frontal
projection plane Fl2 the projection of such a point is the point M2,
in which the frontal projection A2B2 of the line AB intersects the
ground line Ox on which lie the frontal projections of all points
contained in plane T7\, including point M. The horizontal projection
M\ must lie on the projector drawn from point M2 perpendicular
to the ground line Ox. It must, at the same time, lie on the projec-

Fig. 57
lion A\B\. Point M\ is therefore obviously the point of intersection
of those two lines.
It follows that the projections of the horizontal trace M of line
AB may be found as follows:
1. Extend the frontal projection A2R2 to the ground line Ox.
The point M2 obtained is the frontal projection of the required
trace M.

2. Through point M2 draw a perpendicular to the ground

line Ox.
3. Produce the horizontal projection A\B\ of the line to intersect '
the perpendicular in point M\. This point is the horizontal projection
of the required trace M and it coincides with the trace M itself
(AfjSsAf).
The frontal trace N of line AB is found in a similar manner.
First its horizontal projection N 1 is found. This is the point of
intersection of the horizontal projection A\B\ of line AB with the
ground line Ox, since line Ox contains the horizontal projections
of all points of plane /72. Then, through N\ draw a line perpen­
dicular to Ox to intersect the frontal projection A2B2 of line AB
in N2.
The construction of the profile traces of straight lines is carried
out by similar constructions. The multiview drawing (Fig. 58)
shows three projections of each of the traces, M, N and L, of the
line CD. To construct the profile trace L the point L2 is found. This
is the point where the frontal projection C2D2 cuts line Oz. This
point L2 is the frontal projection of the profile trace of line CD.
A perpendicular to the line Oz drawn through point L2 cuts
the profile projection C3D3 of the line in point L3 which is the profile
trace of line CD and coincides with the profile trace itself (L3^ L ) .
47
The horizontal projection L\ of the profile trace is the point of inter­
section of the horizontal projection C\DXof the line with the ground
line Oy\.
Attention should be paid to the fact that two of the three
projections of each trace are situated on the respective ground
lines (Ox, Oy, Oz), while the third coincides with the trace itself.
The traces Af, N and L
divide the line into parts
situated in different octants.
If the line CD, the projections
of which are shown in Fig. 58,
is considered as moving
from left to right, it passes
consecutively through the
fourth, first, fifth and sixth
octants.

In Fig. 59 the space drawing of line CD is shown with its traces

M, N and L.
E x a m p l e 1. Determine through which quadrants line AB
passes (Fig. 60).
Find the traces of line AB. The intersection of the frontal pro­
jection A2B2 with the ground line Ox gives the frontal projection
M2 of the horizontal trace. Af. By drawing a perpendicular from
point M2 to the ground line Ox to intersect A\B\, point Af 1, the
horizontal projection of the trace, is obtained. It coincides with the
trace M itself. Point N u where the horizontal projection A {B\ cuts
the ground line Ox, is the horizontal projection of the frontal trace.
A perpendicular to the ground line Ox from point N x intersects A2B2
in point N2f which is frontal projection of the frontal trace of line
AB and coincides with the frontal trace N itself.
Point A lies in the first quadrant, since the projection A\ lies
under the ground line Ox and the projection A2 lies above that line.
Point B lies in the third quadrant. The intermediate point C of
line AB is located in the fourth quadrant, since its projections Ci
and C2 lie below the ground line Ox. The part AM of line AB is
located in the first quadrant, part MN lies in the fourth and part
48
 \’B — in the third quadrant. So line AB passes through the first,
fourth and third space quadrants.
E x a m p l e 2. Determine the true length of the parts of line
.16, located in the various quadrants (Fig. 61).
The true lengths of AB and its parts will be determined by the
right triangle method. Let the projection A\B\ be the first side of
llie triangle. From point A\ draw a perpendicular to ^4i6i and from
point A\ lay off on it a distance equal to the difference between the
distances of points A2 and B2 from Ox, i. e., z — ( —z')_ = z+ z'.
Point A thus obtained is joined to point B\. The length of AB\ is the
true length of line AB.
To determine the lengths of the parts of line AB lying in the
different space quadrants, through the horizontal projections M i
and jV] of the traces M and N draw perpendiculars to the hori­
zontal projection A\B\. These perpendiculars intersect line i46] in
points M and N, respectively, and divide ;4Bi in the same ratio as
points M\ and N t divide the proj_ectton A\B\ of line AB. Measuring
the distance between points A, N, M and B\ the length of the part
AN lying in the first quadrant is found to be 25 mm. The length of
part NM in the second quadrant is 20 mm and, finally, the length
of part MB located in the third space quadrant is 13 mm.
Problems and Exercises
1. How is the true length of a line determined by means of
the right triangle method?
2. How can a line given in the multiview drawing by two pro­
jections be divided in the ratio m : n?
3. How are the horizontal and profile traces of a line
constructed?
4. Line AB is given by the coordinates of its extremities A (15;
15; 12) and B (5; 8; 4): a) find the true length of AB and the angles
of inclination of line AB to planes 77i, IJ2 and IJ3, i. e., angles a, p
and y; b) indicate through which octants line AB passes.
Hi n t . To answer this question (b) construct the traces M,
N and L of the assigned line AB.
5. Through point A (5; 8; 6) draw a line, the traces of which
on planes 77] and Tl2 lie at the same distances from the ground
line Ox.
Hi n t . The required line in the profile plane of projection 773
will pass through point A3making an angle of 45° with the axes Oz
and Oy3.
§ 12. Projections of Parallel, Intersecting
and Non-intersecting Lines
Two lines may occupy the following relative positions in space:
1) they may be parallel, 2) they may intersect, or 3) not intersect.
4 — 1444 49
 1. The corresponding projections of parallel lines are parallel to
each other.
If through the given parallel lines AB and CD projecting planes
are passed, they are parallel and their intersections with the plane
of projection TIX give two parallel lines A \B X and CiDx. These are
the orthographic projections of the given lines AB and CD on plane

B D

-X?

Fig. 63

III (Fig. 62). In the multiview drawing (Fig. 63) it can be seen
that corresponding projections of parallel lines AB and CD are
themselves parallel, i. e., i4[Bil|CiDi, A2B2WC2D2 and /I3B3IIC3D3.
2. Intersecting lines, for example AB and CD (Fig. 64), have a
common point K. Therefore the horizontal projection Ki and frontal
z

50
projection /C2 of this point must lie at the intersection of the
corresponding projections of the given lines.
The p o i n t s K\ and /C2, being projections of one and the same
point K in space, in the multiview drawing (Fig. 64, b) are situated
on one and the same perpendicular to the ground line.
This property of the intersecting lines is also true for a combi­

nation of other projections, for example, their frontal and profile

projections.
3. If two lines are not parallel and do not intersect, they are
called non-intersecting or skew.
In the multiview drawing (Fig. 65) the points of intersection
(/Ci and L2) of corresponding projections of non-intersecting lines
AB and CD (A\B\ with C\DXand A2B2 with C2D2) do not lie on one
perpendicular to the ground line Ox.
Through point A in space a line parallel to CD is passed and
through point C, a line parallel to AB. To avoid overburdening the
drawing, Fig. 65, these lines are not shown. The planes formed by
the two pairs of mutually parallel lines are parallel to each other.
These planes are called the planes of parallelism of non-intersect-
ing lines.
If the planes of parallelism of two non-intersecting lines are
perpendicular to one of the planes of projection (JIU 172 or /73), then
on that plane of projection the non-intersecting lines are projected
as parallel lines (Fig. 66).
If the planes of parallelism of non-intersecting lines are parallel
to one of the planes of projection (I7U 77^ or /73), then the non-inter-
secting lines are projected onto the remaining two planes of
projection as parallel lines perpendicular to the ground line
(Fig. 67).
E x a m p l e 1. At a distance of 14 mm from plane 772 draw a
frontal to intersect two parallel lines AB and CD (Fig. 68).
4* 51
 Draw a line at a distance of 14 mm below the ground line Ox
and parallel to it. This line intersects the horizontal projections
A\B\ and C\D\ of the given lines in points Ki and L\. The line
K\Li is the horizontal projection of the frontal. The frontal projec­
tions of points K and L are found in the usual manner. These are
found at the intersection of projections A2B2 and C2D2 with verticals
z z

passing through points Ki and L\. Points K2 and L2 are then joined
up. Line K2L2 is the frontal projection of the frontal KL.
E x a m p l e 2. Construct a parallelogram, one diagonal of
which is line AC (Fig. 69).

Since in a parallelogram opposite sides are equal and parallel,

we may take line AB of any length and direction as the side of the
parallelogram. Then through point C pass line CD equal and
parallel to line AB. Joining up corresponding projections of the
pairs of points A and D and B and C, we obtain two projections of
the parallelogram ABCD, which meet the stipulated condition.
52
 § 13. Projections of Plane Angles
1. A plane or linear angle formed by two straight lines, whether
it is an acute, right or obtuse angle, is projected onto a plane
in its true size, if both of its sides are parallel to that plane. This
statement follows from the theorem of elementary geometry which
states that angles formed by mutually parallel and similarly
directed sides are equal. R
In Fig. 70 the sides of the angle
ABC are parallel to the plane of
projection 77^ Orthographic projec­
tions of lines which are parallel to the
plane of projection IJi are parallel to
the lines themselves, since they are
the opposite sides of rectangles
formed by these lines, their projections
and the projectors, i. e., A\B\^AB and
/liCill-BC. So the angles AyB\C\ and
ABC, the corresponding sides of wich are parallel, are equal.
Nevertheless it should be noted that to obtain the projection of
an angle equal to the angle being projected, the parallel disposition
of the sides of the latter relative to the plane of projection is a
condition which, although sufficient, is not essential. It has been
proved by Prof. N. Chetveroukhin in his theorem* that it is possible

for linear angles in space to occupy such positions that, while

neither of their sides is parallel to the plane of projection, never­
theless the angles are projected orthographically onto the given
plane in their true size. In such a case the inclination of the sides of
the given angle to the plane of projection will necessarily be different.
* “Any angle a (0<a°<180°) may be considered as being the orthographic
projection of any other angle p (0<p®<180°).”
53
 2. If o n e of th e s i d e s of a r i g h t a n g l e is p a r a l l e l
t o t h e p l a n e of p r o j e c t i o n , t h e r i g h t a n g l e is
p r o j e c t e d o n t o t h e p l a n e i n i t s t r u e s i ze.
A right angle ABC in space is shown in Fig. 71, a. Its side
BC is parallel to the horizontal plane of projection 771 and its side
AB is neither parallel nor perpendicular to that plane. In this case
angle ABC is projected onto plane IJX in
its true size.
This may be demonstrated as follows:
the side BC is perpendicular to AB and
to BBi, since BBx± I J Xl and BC\\nx. There­
fore BC is also perpendicular to the plane
AB BXA Xwhich in Fig. 71, a is shaded. The
projection B XCX is parallel to BC itself.
Therefore the projection B XCX is also
perpendicular to the plane A B B XA X, and so,
perpendicular to the line A XB Xcontained in
that plane. In other words, angle A XB XCX
is a right angle.
From Fig. 71, b it may be seen that
the right angle ABC is projected onto the
horizontal plane n x without distortion, i. e.,
angle AiBiCi = 90°, precisely because the
side BC of the original angle is parallel to plane n x.
On the frontal plane of projection /72 angle ABC is projected as
angle A2B2C2 which is not equal to 90°. This is because neither of
the sides of angle ABC is parallel to plane /72. Angle A2B2C2 may
vary from 0 to 180°, depending on the position of its sides.
E x a m p l e . From a point A draw a line perpendicular to the
frontal BC (Fig. 72).
Since in this case the right angle will be projected onto plane
n 2 in its true size, we draw from point A2 a perpendicular to B2C2
and mark the point D2, where it intersects with B2C2. Having

54
found with the help of a projector point D\, points A\ and D\ are
then joined up. Then lines A\DX and A2D2 are the projections of
line AD which is perpendicnlar to BC.

Problems and Exercises

1. Prove that corresponding projections

parallel to each other.
2. How are two intersecting lines shown
in the multiview drawing?
3. How are two non-intersecting lines
shown in the multiview drawing?
4. When is a plane right angle projected
in true size: a) onto one plane of projection,
b) onto two planes of projection?
5. Draw a horizontal to cut the non­
intersecting lines AB and CD and determine
the distance between the intersection points
obtained (Fig. 73).
6. Construct a triangle with sides of dif­
ferent lengths and its base AB\\Ili (Fig. 74).
7. Determine the distance of profile line
AB from the ground line Ox (Fig- 75).
8. Determine the distance between the non-intersecting lines
AB and CD (Fig. 76).
9. Construct a rectangle ABCD the side AB of which is a
frontal line.
 Chapter IV
PLANES

§ 14. Given Planes

1. In the multiview drawing a plane may be given by showing
those geometrical elements by which the position of the plane in
space is completely determined.
These elements are as follows:

x 0

/I,
%
0}
Fig. 77

1. Three points not situated on a straight line (Fig. 77, a).

2. A straight line and a point not contained in the straight line
(Fig. 77, b).
3. Two intersecting lines (Fig. 77, c).
4. Two parallel lines (Fig. 77, d).
5. A triangle or any other plane figure (Fig. 77, e).
It is simple to change from one method of determining a plane
to any other. It is sufficient, for instance, to join three given points
by straight lines (Fig. 77, a) in order to obtain the representation
of the planes of triangles (Fig. 77, e). Then again, for example,
two points (of the three given) can be joined by a straight line and
through the third point a line, parallel to the first, can be drawn.
In this case instead of having a plane determined by three pointK,
56
wo have it determined by two parallel straight lines (Fig. 77, d ) .
Other similar changes may be made.
2. The elements determining a plane (Fig. 77) are sufficient to
allow straight lines and points contained in the plane to be
constructed.

Fig. 78 Fig. 79

For instance, if a plane is given in the multiview drawing by

triangle ABC (Fig. 78), it is possible to construct the projections
of any line, such as KL, lying in the given plane. A straight line
is contained in a plane if two points of the line lie in that plane.
Take two points K and L on the sides AB and BC of the triangle.
In accordance with § 9 each projection of these points on
corresponding projections of the sides AB and BC must lie
on a line perpendicular to the ground line Ox, that is on a vertical
projector. Then through the corresponding projections of points K
and L the lines K\LXand K2L2 are drawn. Line KL then lies in the
plane of triangle ABC.
3. T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of p o i n t s c o n t a i n e d i n a
g i v e n p l a n e may be reduced in general to drawing an
auxiliary line passing through a point and lying in a plane. For
instance, if a plane is determined by the parallel lines AB and CD
(Fig. 79), in order to construct a point K lying in the given plane
and 12 mm from plane 77i, first, at a distance of 12 mm from the
ground line Ox, the frontal projection E2F2of an auxiliary horizontal
EF is drawn. Next, with the help of projecting lines passing through
points E2 and F2, the points £1 and F\ are found, as shown by
arrows. Thus the projection E\Fi is also found. Then on the projec­
tions E\FX and E2F2 of line EF, the projections K\ and K2 of point
K are marked, taking into account that line K1K2 must be perpen­
dicular to the ground line Ox.
57
 4. T r a c e s of p l a n e s . When solving problems of descriptive
geometry it is often convenient to determine a plane in the multiview
drawing by giving its traces.
The trace of a plane is the s t r a i g h t l i n e of i n t e r s e c ­
t i o n of t h a t p l a n e w i t h t h e p l a n e of p r o j e c t i o n .
ti

«) b)
Fig. 80

The traces of planes coincide with the corresponding projections

of those traces, i. e., trace k — k\ which is its projection on /7i, trace
/ = / 2 which is its projection on /72, and trace m ^ m 3 which is its
projection on /73.
The other two projections of each trace coincide with the
corresponding ground lines and, as a rule, they are not shown in
the multiview drawing of a plane.
If a plane is inclined to all three planes of projection (/71( /72,
n 3), as illustrated in Fig. 80, a, then each pair of its traces intersect
in a point. These are called the points of convergence of the traces.
The points of convergence Xa, Y a, Za of the traces are contained
in the corresponding ground lines. This can be demonstrated as
follows: trace k, being the line of intersection of planes a and n u is
common to both of those planes. The trace I, being the line of
intersection of planes a and >I72, is common to planes a and fl2.
The point of intersection Xa of traces k and I of plane a, in
other words, the point of convergence of the traces, must
therefore belong to the three planes Tl\, Fl2 and a. Moreover it
follows that this point must lie on the ground line Ox common to
planes /71 and 772. Similarly it can be proved that the points of
convergence Ya and Za of the traces lie on the ground lines Oy and
Oz, respectively.
58
 § 15. Oblique Planes
1. An oblique plane is i n c l i n e d t o a l l t h r e e p l a n e s of
p r o j e c t i o n 77], 'IJ2 and /73, such as plane a, shown in Fig. 80.
Both in space and in the multiview drawing all the three traces

k, I and m of plane a are inclined to ground lines Ox, Oy and Oz

(Fig. 80, a, b). It should be noted that the angles formed by the
traces of plane a with the ground lines are not the same as the
angles of inclination of plane a itself to the planes of projection
(see § 17).
It should also be noted that the
traces of oblique planes contain
the projections of only those of its
points which actually lie on the
traces, such as the point A which
lies on the frontal trace I of plane a
in Fig. 81. No other points belong­
ing to oblique planes can have
their projections lying on any of the
traces of the given planes. Projec­
tions of such points in oblique
planes can be found by means of
auxiliary lines contained in the
planes, as shown in Fig. 79.
2. The upper part of the oblique
plane a, depicted in Fig. 81, a,
slopes away from the reader. Each
59
of the three plane angles formed by the intersection of the traces of
this plane in the first octant, is an acute angle. Even so, on the
multiview drawing the angles between the traces are not necessarily
acute angles. In Fig. 81, b, for example, the angle a formed by the
traces I and k of plane a is actually an obtuse angle.

3. The oblique plane in Fig. 82 is determined by the triangle

ABC. The top part of this plane also slopes away from the reader.
So, when the two projections on planes tl\ and TI2 are constructed
the observer will see one and the same side of the plane. The
projections of this side of the plane are indicated by dots in Fig. 82.
4. The top of plane p shown in Fig. 83, a slopes toward the
observer. The angle between its horizontal and frontal traces,
within the limits of the first octant, is an obtuse angle. The traces
k and m of plane p, within the limits of the first octant, also form
an obtuse angle.
The construction in the multiview drawing (Fig. 83, b) of profile
trace m of this plane, when the horizontal k and frontal I traces
are given, consists, as before, in finding the points of convergence
Zp and Fp and drawing a straight line m3 through them.
5. The top of the oblique plane, determined by the triangle ABC
in Fig. 84, is also inclined toward the observer. Therefore the side,
seen when projecting the plane onto /72 — the frontal projection
of this side is indicated by hatching — is not seen when projecting
the plane onto n x. The horizontal projection of the latter is
indicated by dots.
60
 6. iW oblique plane y, shown in Fig. 85, a, is characterized by
the fact that in the multiview drawing (Fig. 85, b) its traces ki and
l2 merge as one straight line. In space these traces cannot constitute
one straight line since they lie in different planes, >/7i and 772, and
neither of them coincides with the groun4 line Ox.
The fact that in the multiview
drawing (Fig. 85, b) the angles
formed by the traces k and I with the
ground line Ox are the same is
because these angles are also equal
in space.
7. T h e construction of
t r a c e s of p l a n e s . In Fig. 86
the line AB shown is contained in
plane a and pierces the planes of
projection 77i and FI2 in points M and
N which are its traces. These traces
lie on the corresponding traces k and
I of plane a. Indeed, if it be assumed Fig. 84
that the traces of the given line AB
do not lie on the corresponding traces of plane a, then two points,
M and N, of straight line AB, which does lie in plane a, do not lie
in the plane; this is obviously impossible.
Therefore the t r a c e s of s t r a i g h t l i n e s c o n t a i n e d
i n a p l a n e l i e on t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t r a c e s of t h a t
plane.
It follows that the construction of the traces of oblique planes,
determined by a combination of points and lines not situated in
the planes of projection, consists in the construction of the traces
of two lines contained in the given plane, and then drawing through
these points the corresponding traces of the planes.

0) b)
Fig. 85

61
62
 In Fig. 87 the plane a is given by two intersecting lines AB
;ind CD. To construct its traces k and I on the multiview drawing
(Fig. 87, b) the horizontal traces Af and M' of the given lines are
found (§ 11). Next, through Af and AT a line k x is passed. Then the
frontal traces N and N' of the given lines*are found, and the line /2
is drawn through them. The straight lines k\ and l2 are the
horizontal and Jrontal traces of plane a.
When the point Xa of convergence of the traces of a plane is
situated within the limits of the drawing, as in Fig. 88, to construct
1lie traces of the plane given by intersecting lines, such as AB and
CD, it is sufficient to find two traces of one line and -only one
trace of the other line. For instance, it is enough to find the traces
M and N of the line AB and frontal trace Nf of the line CD. The
horizontal trace k x of plane a will pass through trace M and the
point of convergence of the traces Xa .
E x a m p l e . To construct traces of the plane given by triangle
ABC (Fig. 89).
In this particular case only one side of the triangle, namely BC,
has traces within the limits of the drawing, whereas the sides AB
and AC pierce the planes of projection /7i and /72 outside the
drawing.
To solve the problem in the plane of triangle ABC an auxiliary
line KL parallel to BC is drawn through any point K on the side
AC. Once the traces Af and N of line BC and traces Af' and N' of
line KL have been found, a horizontal trace k x is drawn through
points M and Af7. Through points N and N' a frontal trace /2 is
drawn. These are traces of plane a given by the triangle ABC.

§ 16. Projecting Planes

1. A horizontal-projecting plane is a p l a n e (a), p e r p e n ­
d i c u l a r t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e of p r o j e c t i o n 77i
(Fig. 90).
Since the plane a is perpendicular to 771, the projector AA\Jl T1\,
drawn through point A of plane a, also lies in plane a. This
projector will pierce plane Llx in point A\ on the line of intersection
of planes a and 77^ i. e., on the horizontal trace (kx) of plane a.
This trace coincides with line a x in which plane a projects on n x
(& i~ a i).
All the projectors drawn perpendicular to plane n x through any
points of plane a pierce plane 771 on that same trace k x= a\.
T h e r e f o r e t h e h o r i z o n t a l p r o j e c t i o n s of a l l
p o i n t s c o n t a i n e d in t h ^ h o r i z o n t a l - p r o j e c t i n g
p l a n e (a) l i e on t h e h o r i z o n t a l t r a c e (kx) of t h a t
p l a n e . This property of the horizontal trace of plane a will be
called the collecting property, and traces possessing this property
will be called the trace-projections of planes.
63
 Since planes a and 772 are perpendicular to one and the same
plane 77i, the line of their intersection (trace /) is perpendicular to
77i. This means that the trace I is also perpendicular to every other
line on 77,i which passes through it, including the ground line Ox.
It follows that the f r o n t a l t r a c e of t h e h o r i z o n t a l -
p r o j e c t i n g p l a n e is p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e g r o u n d
l i n e Ox.

In the same way the p r o f i l e t r a c e m3 of t h i s p l a n e

b ot h in s p a c e and in t he m u l t i v i e w d r a w i n g
(Fig. 90, b) is p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e g r o u n d l i n e Oy3.
Since the plane of projection 771 is perpendicular to the frontal
trace 7, i. e., to the edge of the dihedral between planes a and 772,
the angle p formed by the horizontal trace-projection k x s a] and
the ground line Ox, is the true angle of inclination of plane a to
the frontal plane of projection 772 (Fig. 90, b ) .
Since plane 77, is also perpendicular to trace m, the angle y
between the trace-projection & i^ a i and ground line Oy{ gives the
true angle of inclination of plane a to the profile plane of projec­
tion IJ3 (Fig. 90, b ) .
E x a m p l e . It is required to pass a horizontal-projecting plane
through line AB (Fig. 91).
Since the horizontal trace-projection ai of this plane possesses
collecting properties, it should be drawn as a continuation of
projection A\B\. The frontal trace I is perpen­
dicular to ground line Ox.
2. The frontal-projecting plane is a p l a n e
p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the f r o n t a l p l a n e
of p r o j e c t i o n . In Fig. 92, a the frontal-
projecting plane p is shown.
Its frontal trace-projection ( l ^ p2) possesses
collecting properties, i. e., the frontal projection
64
of any point of the^lane lies on this trace-projection. An example
of this is the frontal projection A2 of point A.
The other two traces, k\ and ra3, of the frontal-projecting plane
are respectively perpendicular to ground lines Ox and Oz (Fig.
92 a, b).
Angles a and y are the true angles of inclinations of plane
P to planes of projection fl\ and /73 respectively.

E x a m p l e . In Fig. 93 the frontal projection A2B2C2 of triangle

ABC coincides with the frontal trace-projection P2 of plane p. This
shows that triangle ABC is contained in plane P-L/72.
3. The profile-projecting plane is a p l a n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r
t o t h e p r o f i l e p l a n e of p r o j e c t i o n . In Fig. 94 the
profile-projecting plane y is shown.
Its profile trace-projection y3 possesses collecting properties,
i. e., the profile projection of any point belonging to plane y lies
on this trace-projection as does, for instance, the profile projection
A3 of point A.
The remaining two traces, ki and I2, of the profile-projecting
plane are respectively perpendicular to ground lines Oy 1 and Oz
(Fig. 94, b ).
The angles a and p give the true values,
of the angles of inclination of the profile-project­
ing plane to the planes of projection 771 and /72,
respectively.
4. The horizontal plane a (Fig. 95) is a special
type of projecting plane. Since this plane, being
parallel to plane f7u is at the same time perpen­
dicular to the planes of projection 772 and 773,
its traces on 772 and /73 are perpendicular to
ground line Oz and possess collecting properties.
5 1444 65
So, on the trace-projections a2 and 03 the corresponding projec­
tions A2 and A 3 of point A contained in the plane a are to be
found. Any plane figure contained in the horizontal plane is
projected onto the plane of projection 771 in its true size. For
example, the regular pentagon ABODE (Fig. 96), which lies in
the horizontal plane, is projected onto plane 771 without distortion.
The frontal projection of this pentagon coincides with the trace-
projection a 2 of plane a.

Fig. 94

5. The frontal plane p||772 (Fig. 97) and the profile plane y||/73
(Fig. 98) are also special cases of projecting planes. The trace-
projections Pi and p3 of the frontal plane p are parallel to the
respective ground lines Ox and Oz, and the trace-projections yi and
y2 of the profile plane y on the multiview drawing merge into one

Fig. 95
66
line, which is perpendicular to the ground line Ox. Each of the
traces indicated possesses collecting properties.
6. Let us consider one of the possible profile-projecting planes,
namely plane a passing through the ground line Ox (Fig. 99).
This plane is called an axial plane. It intersects planes 77i and 77*
along the ground line Ox, therefore the traces k and I of plane a
coincide with this ground line. The profile
trace-projection as passes through point O.
The angles a and p give the true inclina­
tion of the axial plane to planes 771 (a°)
and 77* (p°).
In the special case when the axial plane
a is represented in a system consisting of
only two planes of projection 77i and
772 (Fig- 100), in order to determine the
position of the plane in space some point, 7
such as A contained in the plane, is given. Fig. 96
The ground line Ox and point A make
it possible to establish the position of
the axial plane in space and to construct in it points, lines and
figures.
E x a m p l e . The plane a is given by its ground line Ox and
point A (Fig. 101). Construct the horizontal projection K\ of point
K contained in this plane, the frontal projection Ks of point K being
unknown.
Draw a line through points A 2 and K2. Find the point (ZJi = fl2)
of intersection of this line with the ground line Ox. Join this point
with point A\. The line AB is then contained in the given plane a
and passes through point K. It follows that the horizontal projection
T^i of this point must be contained in A\B^ and, at the same time,
it must lie on the vertical line K2K\ which joins the projections.

Fig. 97
5* 67
 a)

Fig. 99

Fig. 100

68
 If an axial plane has the same angle of inclination to two planes
of projection, it is called a bisecting plane. In Fig. 102 a bisecting
plane is depicted. It belongs to the first and third quadrants formed
by the planes of projection /72 and 77i. This bisecting plane is the
geometrical locus of points equidistant ffom the planes of projection
t l i and 772. The coordinates y and z of any point A assumed in this

plane are equal. Since the coordinates y and e are equal when the
plane bisects the second and fourth space quadrants, it follows
that points belonging to the bisecting plane, when projected onto
the planes 771 and /72, merge in the multiview drawing as a single
point.

§ 17. Level Lines and Lines

of Maximum Inclination in a Plane
1. T h e h o r i z o n t a l of a p l a n e . A s t r a i g h t l i n e h
c o n t a i n e d in a g i v e n p l a n e a nd p a r a l l e l to t he
h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e of p r o j e c t i o n n x is c a l l e d a
horizontal of that plane.
For instance, a horizontal cornice may serve as an example of
the horizontal of the sloping plane of the roof.
A horizontal of a plane, as any horizontal in space, is projected
onto the frontal plane of projection /72 as a line parallel to the
ground line Ox. Every point of a horizontal lies at the same altitude,
for this reason they are also known as level lines.
In Fig. 103 two projections of triangle ABC are given. To
construct the projections of a horizontal contained in the plane of
this triangle, through the frontal projection of vertex C pass a fron­
tal projection C2D2 of the horizontal. This line is parallel to ground
line Ox. Point Dx is found by passing a projector through point D2
as shown by an arrow. Then through, Ci and D\ draw the horizontal
69
projection C\D] of the horizontal h contained in the plane
triangle ABC.
If the plane is given by its traces (Fig. 104), the construction
of a horizontal lying in it may also be begun by drawing the
horizontal projection of the horizontal s i n c e t h e h o r i z o n t a l
p r o j e c t i o n of t h e h o r i z o n t a l of a p l a n e is p a r a l l e l
t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l t r a c e of t h a t
p l a n e . Two straight lines, trace k and
horizontal h, may be considered as the
intersection of plane a by two horizontal
planes, IJi and the plane at the level of
the projecting horizontal itself.
When constructing the horizontal h in
the multiview drawing (Fig. 104, b) it
should be remembered that the traces
of lines, lying in the plane, lie on the
similar traces of the plane. Therefore first
mark the projections (Mi and N2= N)
of the frontal trace of the horizontal h.
Then through point N\ draw the horizon­
tal projection h\ of the horizontal. This
line is parallel to the horizontal trace of
Fig. 103 plane a. Next, through point N ^ N of
the frontal projection, draw projection
A2 of the horizontal parallel to ground line Ox.
2. T h e f r o n t a l of a p l a n e . A s t r a i g h t l i n e f
c o n t a i n e d in a g i ve n p l a n e and p a r a l l e l to t h e
f r o n t a l p l a n e of p r o j e c t i o n i s c a l l e d t h e frontal
of the plane.

Fig. 104
70
 From the drawing in Fig. 105 it may be seen that the horizontal
projection fi of the frontal is parallel to the ground line Ox. The
frontal projection f2 of the frontal of the plane is parallel to the
frontal trace l2 of plane a, and the horizontal trace, point M, of the
frontal of the plane lies on the horizontal trace of plane a.
The construction of the projections of the frontal f in the plane

given by the triangle ABC, is shown in Fig. 106. The construction

is begun by drawing the horizontal projection / 1 of the frontal
through point B\. This line is parallel to ground line Ox. The
intersection of fi with the extended projection A\C\ of side AC of
the triangle determines point D\. Since point D\ has been found,
the point D2 on the extension of projection A2C2 can be determined.
Join points B2 and D2. The straight lines f i and f2 thus obtained are
the projections of frontal f of the plane
of triangle ABC.
The projections of the frontals of
the plane of triangle ABC, passing
respectively through the vertex A
and the vertex C, can likewise be
constructed.
3. A profile line of a plane is a
line c o n t a i n e d in a g i v e n
plane and p a r a l l e l to the
p l a n e of p r o j e c t i o n IJ3.
In the multiview drawing of a
plane, which is given by its traces, the
construction of the projections of a
profile line in the plane is best begun
71
I>v drawing ils profile projection. This line is parallel to the
profile trace of the plane. When a plane is given, say, by
two parallel lines (Fig. 107), the construction should be begun
by drawing the frontal projection of the profile line parallel to
z ground line Oz, or by drawing its
horizontal projection parallel to
ground line Oy\.
Not e . By analogy with the
horizontals of a plane, the frontal
and profile lines are also referred
to as level lines.
4. In F
projections of horizon­
t a l s and f r o n t a I s contained in
projecting planes are given. These
are: the horizontal A B lying in a
horizontal-projecting plane, the
frontal CD in a horizontal-project­
Fig. 107 ing plane, the horizontal KL in a
frontal-projecting plane, and the
frontal EF lying in a frontal-projecting plane.
E x a m p l e 1. Construct the horizontal projection of line A B ,
contained in plane a and given by the frontal projection A2B2
(Fig. 112).
Through points A 2 and B 2 we draw the frontal projections, A 2 N 2
and B2N2, of the auxiliary horizontals of plane a. Using points JV'2
and N'2, determine the position on the ground line Ox of points N\
and N{ and through them, parallel to the trace k\, draw the horizontal
projections A XN 1 and B \ N f t of the auxiliary horizontals. By drawing
projectors through points A 2 and B 2 points A i and B x are found.
They lie at the intersections of the projectors with the horizontal
projections of the corresponding auxiliary horizontals. The straight
line i4]Bi drawn through points A { and B\ is then the horizontal
projection of line AB.
E x a m p l e 2. Construct a plane a passing through point A
and the point of convergence of traces Xa (Fig. 113).
An infinite number of planes may be rfirawn through the given,
two points. The construction of one of those planes is as follows:

Draw a horizontal through point A. Having found the trace AT

of this horizontal through point N2— N and Xa draw the frontal
trace l2. Draw the horizontal trace ki of the required plane a.
through the point Xa parallel to A\N\.
E x a m p l e 3. Construct the traces k \ and h of plane a which
is given by parallel lines AB and CD (Fig. 114).
First in the given plane draw the horizontal BD and frontal BC.
Find trace N of the horizontal BD. Through point N2, parallel to the
projection of the frontal B2C2, draw the frontal trace l2 of plane a
2

Fig. 114
and extend it to intersect the ground line Ox in point X Then,
through point Xa parallel to B XDX draw the horizontal trace k\ of
the plane.
E x a m p l e 4. Construct the profile trace m3 of plane a which
is given by traces k x and l2, the point of convergence Za of traces
being located beyond the limits of the drawing (Fig. 115).
Draw any horizontal in the plane a and find its profile trace L.
The point of convergence is carried over to ground line Oy3 as
point Join up the points L3= L and This line m3 is the
profile trace of plane a.
5. Li n e s of m a x i m u m i n ­
c l i n a t i o n of a p l a n e . A line
of maximum inclination of a plane i s
a line c o n t a i n e d in t he
given plane and per pendi cu­
lar to its trace.

Fig. 117

Hi n t . The seam of metal sheet roofing perpendicular to the

cornice may serve to illustrate what is meant by a line of maximum
inclination of a plane.
In a given plane different lines of maximum inclination may
be found, i. e., a) relative to the horizontal plane of projection 771,
b) relative to the frontal plane of projection FJ2, and c) relative to
the profile plane of projection n 3.
In Fig. 116 the plane a is shown together with the line of
maximum inclination MN of the plane relative to the plane 771. The
construction of the line MN A. k is begun by drawing the horizontal
projection M xN \L k x (see § 13). The frontal projection M2N2 is
drawn through points M2 and N2, which are determined by points
Mi and N x. Point M2, being the frontal projection of point M
contained in the horizontal trace k\, is located on the ground
line Ox. The frontal projection N2 of point N lies at the point of
intersection of trace l2 and the vertical projector drawn through
point N x.
74
 The line of maximum inclination or slope of plane a to plane
771, being perpendicular to the horizontal trace of plane a, is also
obviously perpendicular to any horizontal in the plane a. Therefore
the line of maximum inclination of plane a, when the plane is
given by triangle ABC (Fig. 117), is constructed with the help of
an auxiliary horizontal drawn through the vertex C of the triangle.
The horizontal projection B\D\ of the line of maximum inclination
is then passed through B\ perpendicular to the horizontal projection
C\E\ of the horizontal CE. The frontal projection is drawn through
point B2 and point D% the latter being determined by a vertical
projector passing through D\.
The line of maximum in­
clination MN of plane a
relative to the frontal plane
of projection IJ2 is shown in
Fig. 118. The frontal projec­
tion M2N2 of this line MN is
perpendicular to the trace l2.*

*l h

Fig. 118 Fig. 119

The points M\ and N\ are constructed with the help of points M2

and N2, as these are the projections of points lying on the traces
k\ (point M) and l2 (point N). M xNi is the horizontal projection of
the line of maximum inclination of plane a to plane Fl2.
Line KL of maximum inclination of plane y relative to plane
n 3 (Fig. 119) is constructed in a similar manner. The profile
projection KzEz will be perpendicular to the profile projection E3F3
of the profile line EF. Then, by using points Kz and L3, points K2
and L2, /Ci and L\ are found. Through them draw the frontal projec­
tion KzL2 and the horizontal projection K\Li of the line of maximum
inclination of plane y to plane n 3.
6. With the assistance of lines of maximum inclination the
angles of inclination of a given plane to the planes of projection
may be determined.
These angles are given by the angles formed by the correspond­
ing lines of maximum inclination to planes of projection I7U n 2 and
75
//;i. The true value of these angles may be determined by the right
triangle method (see § 8).
For example, determine the true magnitude of the angle of
inclination of plane a to the frontal plane of projection 772
(Fig. 120).
In the plane a construct a line MN perpendicular to the frontal
trace I. This will be the line of maximum inclination of plane a to
Nt / '

Fig. 120 Fig. 121

plane /72. The frontal projection M2N2 of this line is drawn

perpendicular to trace l2. Once the frontal projection is found, the
horizontal projection M \Ni is easily determined. It should be borne
in mind that point N lies on the frontal trace and M on the horizontal
trace. The projection M\ of the latter therefore lies on k\.
The angle of inclination of line MNJlo plane n 2 is determined
by constructing the right triangle M2N2M. One side of this triangle
is the projection M2N2. The second side is equal to the difference
between the distances of points M and N from plane FI2, i. e., to the
value of y for point The angle p between the hypotenuse N2M
of the resulting right triangle and projection M2N2 is the angle of
inclination of the line MN to plane n2. At the same time is the
true inclination of plane a to that same plane fl2.
7. By means of lines of maximum inclination a plane may be
constructed so that it forms a given angle to the plane of projec­
tion.
The method of constructing a plane passing through a point
A and inclined at 48° to the plane 171 (Fig. 121) is given below.
First the line MN, passing through point A and making an angle
of 48° to plane /7j, should be constructed. In order to do this draw
line MiN\ at any angle to the ground line Ox, This line will serve
as the side of the right triangle. Lay off from this side two angles —
an angle of 48° from point M\ and an angle of 90° from point N\.
76
A distance equal to the length of the side NiN is then laid off from
point N i on the perpendicular above ground line Ox. The point N2
thus found is connected to point M2 which is obtained by drawing
through point Afi a perpendicular to ground line Ox to their
intersection.
The lines M xNi and M2N2 are the projections on Tlx and 772 of
line MN drawn through point A at an angle of 48° to plane /7i.
Next, through this line MN a plane a should be drawn so that
MN serves as its line of maximum inclination relative to 77j. In
order to do this draw the trace ki at an angle 90° to the projection
M{N\ and the trace l2 passing through the point X a of convergence
of the traces and point N2.

Problems and Exercises

1. How may a plane be determined?

2. What is a trace of a plane?
3. What is meant by the term an “oblique plane”?
4. What is meant by the term a “projecting plane”?

5. Describe the positions of the traces of a plane lying parallel

to the ground line Ox.
6. When do the traces of planes on the multiview drawing
merge into one line cutting through ground line 0*?
7. How are the traces of a plane constructed when it is given by
two intersecting lines?
8. How is a point lying in an oblique plane constructed?
9. How can it be checked whether a point is contained in a
plane?
10. What is meant by a “horizontal of a plane”?
11. How is a plane constructed to pass through a given point?
12. What is meant by a “line of maximum inclination of a
plane”?
77
 J3. Mow is the angle of inclination of a plane to the horizontal
plane of projection determined?
14. Is the point K contained in the plane of the triangle ABC
(Fig. 122)?
Hi n t . Through projections A\ and K\ draw the projection of an
auxiliary straight line contained in the plane of the triangle ABC.

Fig. 124 Fig. 125 Fig. 126

When the frontal projection of this line is found, it may be seen

that the line constructed in the plane ABC does not pass through
point K in space.
15. Construct the traces of a plane given by two parallel lines
(Fig. 123).
Hi n t . It is convenient to draw a horizontal and a frontal in
the given plane and find the trace of one of them. This is of course
not the only method. Any line lying in the given plane may be used,
including lines a and b, but the method recommended is the most
simple.
16. Through a given point A draw a plane a, the traces of which
merge into one straight line.
17. Through line AB draw an oblique plane and a horizontal-
projecting plane (Fig. 124).
18. Construct the traces of the plane given by the intersecting
lines AB and CD (Fig. 125). (See exercise 15.)
19. Construct the projection of triangle ABC contained in the
given plane (Fig. 126). Use lines of altitude.
20. Plane a is given by point A and a frontal trace. Construct
the horizontal trace of the plane (Fig. 127).
Hi n t . Through point A in the given plane draw a horizontal.

Fig. 127 Fig. 128

78
Remember that the traces of lines lie on the corresponding traces
of its planes.
21. Determine the angles of inclination of the plane of triangle
ABC to the planes of projection 772 and i/73 (Fig. 117).
H i n t. To solve the problem it is.neces«ary to draw in the plane
of triangle ABC the frontal and profile lines and, perpendicular to
them, lines of maximum inclination of plane ABC relative to the
planes of projection 772 and 773 (see text pertaining to Fig. 117).
22. Determine the angles of inclination of plane a to planes
of projection 77i and 773 (Fig. 128) .
23. A plane a passing through ground line Ox and through
a point A is given, as is the frontal projection B2C2 of line BC
contained in this plane. Construct the horizontal projection B\C\
without using the profile plane of projection 773.
Hi n t . To solve this problem it is necessary to draw an
auxiliary line intersecting BC through point A of plane a.
 Chapter V
LINES AND PLANES

§ 18. Straight Lines Parallel to Planes.

Parallel Planes
1. In elementary geometry it is demonstrated that a s t r a i g h t
l i n e is p a r a l l e l t o a g i v e n p l a n e if t h e l i n e is
parallel to at least one line contained in the plane, or if it lies in a
plane parallel to the given plane.

Fig. 129 Fig. 130

The corresponding projections of two parallel lines are also

parallel. It follows that the line AB in Fig. 129 is parallel to the
plane a, since the projections A\B\ and A 2B2 of this line are parallel
to the corresponding projections M\N\ and M2N2 of line MN
contained in plane.
The line CD, shown in Fig. 130, is not parallel to plane pbecause
it is not possible to draw in the given plane p a line parallel to the
given line CD. This can be demonstrated as follows: parallel to
projections C2D2 draw the projection M2N2 of line MN contained in
plane p and construct the projection M\N\ from projection M2N2. It
is seen that M\Ni is not parallel to the projection C\D\. This means
that line CD is not parallel to the plane p.
80
 2. If it is required to draw through point K (Fig. 131) a straight
line AB parallel to the plane of triangle CDE, first in the plane
of the triangle draw an auxiliary line EF. Then through point K
draw a line AB parallel to EF, i. e., so that AiBi||£iFi and A 2B2\\E2F2.
The constructed line AB is parallel to the plane of the triangle
CDE. Another solution would be to draw through point K a line

8,
Fig. 131 Fig. 132

parallel to one of the sides of the triangle. In this case it is not

necessary to construct an auxiliary line in the plane of the triangle.
The construction of horizontal and frontal lines parallel to a
given plane, when it is defined by its traces, is also carried out
directly, without using auxiliary lines, since the lines required will
be parallel to the respective traces. The construction of the horizontal
AB parallel to the horizontal trace k and frontal CD parallel to
the frontal trace I of plane a is shown in Fig. 132. Lines AB and
CD are parallel to a.
3. The construction of a plane parallel to a given line is carried
out with the help of an auxiliary line. A plane passing through an
auxiliary line drawn parallel to the given line will be parallel to
the latter.
In order to construct a plane a parallel to the given line AB
and passing through point C (Fig. 133) draw a straight line CD
of any suitable length parallel to AB and join the points C and D
with any point E. The plane defined by triangle CDE is one of the
possible planes parallel to line AB passing through point C.
To construct the traces of a plane which is parallel to a given
line AB and passes through a given point K (Fig. 134), through
point K draw an auxiliary line KL parallel to AB. Then construct
the traces M and N of the line KL. Through these traces and
6 — 1444 81
a point taken at random on the ground line Ox, which is assumed
as Xa, the point of convergence of the traces, draw the traces k\ and
/2 of the required plane a, which is one of the planes satisfying the
given conditions. If the traces of the plane were to be drawn
through points M and N parallel to ground line Ox, then the plane
constructed would be parallel to line KL and to ground line Ox.

4. The lines of intersection of two mutually parallel planes with

any third plane are parallel lines (Fig. 135, where AB^CD).
Since the traces of planes are straight lines along which the given
planes intersect the planes of projection 7l\, IJ2 and /73,
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t r a c e s of p a r a l l e l p l a n e s a r e
p a r a l l e l t o e a c h o t h e r (Fig. 136, where k\\\k\ and /2||/£).
When the traces of two planes are not given, these planes are
recognized as parallel, if two intersecting lines contained in
the first plane are respectively parallel to two intersecting lines
contained in the second plane. Horizontal and frontal lines may
serve as the two intersecting lines in each of the planes. The two
planes given by triangles ABC and DEF (Fig. 137) are parallel to
each other since the corresponding projections of their horizontals
 CM and DK and of the frontals AN and EL are parallel (CM\iD\K\
and A2N2WE2L2) .
5. Even if two planes a r e p a r a l l e l t o g r o u n d l i n e Oj c
and their horizontal and frontal traces are parallel to that ground
line, it may well happen that such planes are not parallel to each
other. To determine whether such planes are really parallel it is
necessary to construct their
profile traces or to check
whether the ratios of the
distances of corresponding
traces from the ground line
Ox are equal.
The planes a and p, shown
in Fig. 138, are not parallel to
each other, although their
corresponding traces in J7i
and 772 are parallel (Ai ligand
fell fa)-As can be seen the profile
traces <13 and p3 intersect.
The planes-a and p, shown
in Fig. 139, are parallel to
each other, since the Fig. 137
corresponding pairs of traces
on the planes of projection IJU Tl2 and 773 are parallel. Due to this
the ratios mentioned above are equal, e. g., m : n = q : s.
6. The method of d r a w i n g a p l a n e p a r a l l e l t o a
g i v e n p l a n e is based on the fact that the plane to be construct-

Fig. 138
6* 83
ed should contain two intersecting lines respectively parallel to
two intersecting lines contained in the given plane.
Let plane a be given by a triangle ABC. It is required to draw
a plane p parallel to plane a and passing through point K
(Fig. 140). The construction of the required plane may be carried
out with the help of two intersecting lines parallel to two
2

corresponding lines contained in the plane of triangle ABC. Two

sides of the triangle may serve as such lines. Draw through point K
line a\\AC and line 6||£C. The plane p, passing through intersecting
lines a and b, will be the required plane.
When plane a is given by its
traces k\ and l2 and it is required
to draw through point A plane p
parallel to plane a the construc­
tion is carried out as follows
(Fig. 141):
1. Through point A draw a
horizontal line AN parallel to
plane a (i4]AM|fci and A2N2\\Ox).
2. Find the frontal trace N of
this line.
3. Through point N2= N
draw the trace n2 parallel to l2.
4. Through point Zg draw the
trace mi parallel to trace k\. The
plane p is then parallel to the
given plane a.
Fig. 140 Instead of using a line
84
parallel to the plane of projection when solving this problem
(Fig. 141) it would, of course, also be possible to use oblique lines.
7. A p l a n e p a r a l l e l t o a g i v e n p l a n e c a n b e
m a d e t o p a s s t h r o u g h a g i v e n ‘ l i n e only if the given

to plane a (Fig. 142). Construct the traces Af and N of line a and

through them draw the corresponding traces m.\ and n2 of plane ft
parallel to the traces k\ and I2 respectively. The plane p constructed
in this way is the required plane.

Problems and Exercises

1. How is it possible to determine whether a given line and
plane are parallel?
2. How may a plane be drawn parallel to a given plane?
3. How may a plane be drawn parallel to a given line?
4. Is the line a parallel to plane a (Fig. 143)?
5. Through point A draw a line parallel to the horizontal-
projecting plane (Fig. 144).
6. Through point A draw a plane parallel to plane a which is
parallel to the ground line Ox (Fig. 145).
Hi n t . First, in the given plane draw an auxiliary straight line
passing through two points taken on the traces k and I. Then,
having drawn through point A a second line, parallel to the
auxiliary line, find the traces of this second line through which the
traces of the required plane will pass (see Fig. 142 and text).
85
 7. Construct the horizontal projection of triangle ABC the plane
of which is parallel to the horizontal-projecting plane a (Fig. 146).
8. Through point D draw a plane a parallel to the plane given
by the intersecting lines AB and BC (Fig. 147). The plane should
be represented as a triangle.
9. Construct the traces of three mutually parallel planes a, p,

----- 12

------------ 0
6A, 17, ---------~Ki
Fig. 143 Fig. 144 Fig. 145

and y passing respectively through the given points A, B and C

(Fig. 148).
Hi n t . Three mutually parallel horizontal lines, drawn through
points A, B and C and their traces, should be used.
10. Through a given point A draw a plane parallel to a plane
passing through ground line Ox and a point B. (See exercise 6).
I

< iC2
>

*1 I
t

>
*c,
<

1~

Fig. 148

§ 19. The Intersection of Planes

1. The intersection of two planes is a straight line defined by
two points which are common to both planes. So the construction
of the projections of the line of intersection of two planes, as a rule,
can be reduced to the determination of the projections of two points,
lying in both intersecting planes.
The method of determining points which lie on the line of
intersection is called the method of auxiliary sections. It is widely
used in all courses of descriptive geometry.
The application of the method of auxiliary sections is illustrated
in Fig. 149, which shows the plane a, given by the parallel lines
86
AB and CD and the plane p, given by the triangle EFM. Points K
and L, common to both planes a and p, are determined by using
two auxiliary planes, y and <p. The plane y intersects planes a and
P in lines 1-2 and 3-4, respectively, and plane <p in lines 5-6 and
7-8. The lines 1-2 and 3-4 intersect in poipt K common to planes a,
p and y. Therefore point K lies on the line of intersection of planes
a and p. Point L is common to planes
a, p and y and lies on the line of inter­
section of planes a and p which is
found by connecting up points K
and L.
This method of auxiliary sections
is used for solving problems in the
multiview drawing. It is required to
find the line of intersection of two
planes, a and p, given by the pairs of
parallel lines AB and CD and EF and
MN, respectively (Fig. 150).
Begin the construction by drawing
an auxiliary horizontal plane y to F ig . 149
intersect both planes.
The plane y intersects plane a in the horizontal 1-2, the frontal
projection l 2-22 of which coincides with trace y2- The horizontal
projection l x-2\ is easily found with the help of projectors 12-1\ and
22-2x. The projections of the horizontal 3-4, along which the plane p
is intersected by plane y, are found in a similar manner. Point K\
lies at the intersection of the horizontal projections 1\2Xand 3X4\ of
the horizontals. Point K\ is the horizontal projection of point K
which belongs to the line of intersection of the given planes a and
p. The frontal projection K2 of point K is obtained by drawing
through Ki a projector to
intersect the trace y2- This
trace possesses collecting
properties.
To construct the second
point on the line of inter­
section of planes a and p a
second auxiliary plane <pis
drawn. Its intersections
with the given planes a
and p are also horizontals.
Since all the horizontals of
one plane are parallel to
each other, in order to
construct the horizontals
in which plane <p inter­
sects planes a and p it is
87
sufficient to find one point of each of these two horizontals.
Having constructed points 5\ and 6\ in ri\ draw through them the
horizontal projections of the horizontals. They are respectively
parallel to the projections 1\2\ and<?i4i of the horizontals previously
constructed. Point L\ lies at the intersection of the lines drawn
through 5\ and 6\. This is the horizontal projection of point L
through which the line of intersection of
planes a and p passes. The frontal projec­
tion L2 of point L is found with the help
of a projector drawn through point L\ to
the trace q>2 of the second auxiliary
plane. By joining up the corresponding
projections of points K and L two projec­
tions of KL, the line of intersection
of the given planes a and p, are
found.
It should be noted that, instead of
auxiliary horizontal planes, any two
projecting planes could be used without
changing the sequence of the construction.
2. When the p o s i t i o
t h e p o i n t s c o n t a i n e d in t he
l i n e of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t w o
p l a n e s is k n o w n the construction is simplified.
In Fig. 151 planes a and p are given. Their horizontal traces k\
and mi intersect within the limits of the drawing. The point Af,
common to the planes a and p, is one of the points belonging to
the line of intersection of these planes. The horizontal projection
of this point coincides with the point itself (A fi^A f). The frontal
projection Af2 lies on ground line Ox.
To find the second point, common to both planes a and p, draw
an auxiliary horizontal plane y the intersection of which with each
of the given planes will be a horizontal. The frontal projection of
these horizontals will coincide with the frontal trace y2 of plane y,
while the horizontal projections will be parallel to the horizontal
traces k\ and m\ of planes a and p, respectively, and pass through
the horizontal projections Ni and N\ of their frontal traces N
and N'.
The horizontal projection K\ of point K contained in the line
of intersection of planes a and p lies at the intersection of
horizontal projections N\Ki and N'Ki of the horizontals constructed.
The frontal projection K2 of point K is found on y2 by drawing a
projector through K\. The projections of the line of intersection MK
of the planes a and p are found by joining the projections of point
Af with the corresponding projections of point li­
lt should be noted that the use of an auxiliary horizontal plane
88
Y is convenient because the construction of the horizontals in planes
a and p requires only one piercing point to be determined for each
of those lines, since the horizontal projection of the horizontal of
a plane is parallel to the horizontal trace of that plane — see § 17
and Fig. 104. •

3. The construction of the line of intersection of two planes is

further simplified if at least one of the planes is a projecting plane.
Such a case is shown in Fig. 152, where an oblique plane given
by triangle ABC intersects the horizontal-projecting plane a. Since
the horizontal trace of the horizontal-projecting plane possesses
collecting properties, the horizontal projection K\L\ of the inter­
section line KL for the given planes coincides with trace ai of
plane a. Mark on this trace-projection the points K\ and L\ in which
the horizontal projections A\B\ and A\C\ of the sides of the triangle
intersect with a\. Draw through these points projectors to intersect
the frontal projections A2B2 and A 2C2 of the sides of the triangle in
points K.2 and L2. The straight line joining these points is the
frontal projection K2L2 of the line of intersection of the two given
planes.
4. The intersection of planes a and p, given by their traces is
shown in Fig. 153. The corresponding traces of these planes
intersect within the limits of the drawing. The construction of the
line of intersection MN consists merely in determining the second
projections of points M and N in which the similar traces of the
89
planes intersect. The frontal projection M2 of point M and the
horizontal projection N\ of point N both lie on the ground line Ox,
as they are projections of points situated in the planes of projec­
tions. The projections of the line MN, i. e., the line of intersection
of planes a and p, are obtained by joining up the corresponding
projections of points M and N.

5. The construction of the line of intersection of the frontal

plane with the oblique plane a (Fig. 154) consists in determining
the frontal line common to both given planes. The point M where
the horizontal traces k\ and Pi intersect is the horizontal trace of
this frontal. Projection Mi coincides with the point itself, whereas
the frontal projection M2 of point M lies on the ground line Ox. The
line M2L2 parallel to trace l2 of plane a is the frontal projection
of line ML of intersection of planes a and p. The horizontal

F ig . 154

90
projection Mi L\ of the line of intersection of these planes coincides
with trace Pi.
6. The cases of intersection of two planes considered above may
be divided into two groups. •
The first group consists of pairs of planes, the construction of
the line of intersection of which requires
the construction of two points contained
in that line (Figs. 150, 152). The second
group consists of pairs of planes whose
lines of intersection are determined
by one point and a known direction
(Fig. 154).
It should be noted that when
determining the direction of the lines of
intersection of two planes an auxiliary
plane parallel to one of those planes
may be used.
For example, it is required to
construct the line of intersection of two
oblique planes a and p which are given
by their traces. The horizontal traces k\
and trii of these planes intersect within
the limits of the drawing (Fig. 155).
Draw an auxiliary plane y parallel to plane p so that its traces
Pi and s2, which will be parallel to traces mi and n2, respectively,
intersect the corresponding traces of plane a. Having obtained
points M and N, where the traces of planes a and y intersect,
construct the projections M 1N 1 and M2N2 of the line of intersec­
tion MN of these planes. Since the intersection lines of two parallel
planes with a third plane are themselves two parallel lines, the
line MN determines the direction to which the line of intersection
of the given planes a and p will be parallel. Having found point
K, common to both of these planes, i. e., the point in which their
horizontal traces intersect, through it draw line KL\\MN. This line
KL is the required line of intersection of planes a and p.

7. While working on problems of graphical construction the

drawing should be kept as free as possible from auxiliary lines. The
following example shows how to achieve this.
Plane a is given by its traces ki and l2 and plane p by the
triangle ABC. It is required to construct the projections of the line
of intersection of these planes (Fig. 156).
Two auxiliary frontal planes y and q> will be used. Each of
these auxiliary planes intersects the given planes a and p in
frontals. The point of their intersection will lie on line of intersec­
tion of planes a and p.
91
 Let the first auxiliary plane y pass through the vertex C of the
triangle. This plane will cut plane a along the frontal MS and the
plane of triangle ABC along the frontal CD. The intersection of
the frontals MS and CD will determine the position of the first
point K through which the
required line of intersection of
the given planes will pass.
The second auxiliary plane cp
is drawn through point fi parallel
to the frontal plane of projec­
tion n2. The frontal projection,
which is the line of intersection
of planes q> and a, will pass
through point M'2and be parallel
to trace l2 of plane a. The frontal
projection of the frontal, which
is the line of intersection of the
plane (p and the triangle ABC,
will pass through point B2 and
be parallel to the projections
C2D2 of the frontal CD previously
constructed. The intersection of
the frontals in which the plane qp
intersects the planes a and p
will define point L, lying on the line of intersection of planes a
and p. The line KL is the required line of intersection of the two
given planes.
It should be noted that, in order to simplify the construction in
the drawing, plane y was passed through one of the vertices of
triangle ABC. So when constructing the frontal projection C2D2
of the frontal CD only one point D2 has to be found. The second
auxiliary plane (p is passed through the vertex B of triangle ABC,

92
again simplifying the construction, since the frontal projection of
the second frontal of the plane of the triangle was then drawn
through point B2 parallel to line C2D2.
8. Finally attention should be paid# to a particular case of
intersection of two oblique planes when two of the corresponding
traces of the planes are parallel.
In Fig. 157 the line of intersection NK of planes a and p is
parallel to the horizontal traces of the given planes since these
traces are parallel. In other words, the line of intersection is the
horizontal common to both planes. Similarly, if the frontal traces
of two intersecting planes are parallel, the line of intersection is
the frontal common to both of the planes and, if the profile traces
of the planes are parallel, the line of intersection is the profile line
common to the planes.

Problems and Exercises

1. Why are auxiliary planes used when constructing the line
of intersection of two planes?
2. Which planes are most frequently used as auxiliary planes?
3. Give an example of the use of an oblique plane as an
auxiliary plane.
4. Where do the traces of a line lie when two planes intersect
on that line?
5. Construct the line of intersection of two planes, one of
which is given by the triangle ABC and the second by two parallel
lines a and b (Fig. 158).
Hi n t . Use two auxiliary horizontal or frontal section planes.
It is not advisable to use one horizontal plane and one frontal
plane, since the solution of the problem would require an
unnecessary number of construction lines which would overload
the drawing.
6. Construct the lines of intersection of the frontal-projecting
plane a with the oblique plane p (Fig. 159).
 7. Construct the line of intersection of two oblique planes
(Fig. 160).
Hi n t . Use an auxiliary frontal section plane.
8. Find the horizontal traces of planes a and p whose line of
intersection passes through point M (Fig. 161).
Hi n t . The line of intersection of planes, when their two corre­
sponding traces are parallel to each other, is also parallel to the
traces. In this case the line of intersection is the frontal passing
through point A parallel to traces I and n. The required horizontal
traces of the planes a and p will pass through the trace of the
given frontal.

Fig. 161 Fig. 162 Fig. 163

9. Construct the line of intersection of planes a and p. The plane

a is given by the horizontal trace k\ and point A. Plane p is given
by the frontal trace «2 and point B (Fig. 162).
Hi n t . First find the traces of the given planes. The trace of
plane a is found with the help of the horizontal of the plane pass­
ing through point A. The trace of plane p is found with the help of
the frontal passing through point B.
10. Find the point common to three planes, one of which is given
by triangle CDE, the second, by parallel lines a and b, and the
third by traces k\ and I2 (Fig. 163).
Hi n t . This problem can be reduced to the construction of two
lines of intersection of two pairs of planes. For example, the line of
intersection of plane CDE and the plane given by traces k and /
can be found. Then the line of intersection of the plane given by
the traces k and I and the plane given by two parallel lines can be
determined. The construction should be worked out with the help of
two auxiliary horizontal planes, the first of which should pass
through point E and the second, through point C.
11. Construct the line of intersection of two oblique planes the
points of convergence of the frontal and horizontal traces of which
converge in one point.
94
 Hi n t . One point belonging to the line of intersection of the
planes is the point of convergence of the four traces. Another point
is found with the help of horizontal and frontal auxiliary sections.

§ 20. The Intersection of Lines and Planes

1. Plane a and a line AB intersecting it are shown in Fig. 164.
If a plane p is drawn through line AB and the line MN is the line
of intersection of planes a and p, then the point K at the intersection
of lines AB and MN will be the point in which line AB pierces
plane a. This is so because line MN is the locus of points common to
both planes a and p, and point
K, at the intersection of lines
AB and MN which lie in these
planes, is a point common to
line AB and plane a.

The construction of the piercing point of a line in a plane

generally consists of three operations:
1. The construction of an auxiliary plane through the line.
2. The determination of the line of intersection of the given
plane with the auxiliary plane.
3. Finally, the determination of the point of intersection of the
given line with the constructed line of intersection of the two
planes.
Projecting planes are generally used as auxiliary planes because
of the simplicity with which these planes, passing through straight
lines, may be shown on the drawing, due to the collecting properties
of the traces of such planes.
A line AB and a plane a, given by parallel lines CD and EFt
are shown in Fig. 165. It is required to find the meeting point of line
AB with plane a. The following operations are necessary:
1. Draw an auxiliary frontal-projecting plane p through line
AB. Its frontal trace-projection merges with the frontal projection
95
A 2B2 of line AB. Its horizontal trace is perpendicular to the ground
line Ox.
2. Construct the line MN of intersection of planes a and 0. To
do this find points M and N in which lines CD and EF pierce the
auxiliary plane.
3. The intersection of lines AB and MN gives the required
piercing point K of line AB in plane a. The horizontal projection
Ki of this point lies at the inter-

Fig. 166 Fig. 167

«, given by traces k\ and l2, is shown in Fig. 166. The auxiliary plane
P passed through line AB is perpendicular to the plane of projection
77,. Trace Pi coincides with projection AiB\. The line MN is the line
of intersection of planes a and p. The intersection of projections
A 2B2 and M2N2 determines the frontal projection Kz of point K,
which is the piercing point of line AB in plane' a. The horizontal
projection Ki of point K is found by drawing through K2 a projector
to intersect line A\BX.
2. When determining the piercing of a line with a plane,
the traces of which are given, it may happen that one pair of
corresponding traces of the given and the auxiliary plane do not
intersect within the limits of the drawing. In that case it is
necessary to introduce a second auxiliary cutting plane (see
Fig. 151). Such a case is considered in Fig. 167.
When an auxiliary frontal-projecting plane p is drawn through
line AB and the frontal trace N of the line of intersection of planes
96
rx and p has been determined, it may be seen that the horizontal
trace m of plane p does not intersect the horizontal trace k x of
plane a within the limits of the drawing. So in order to find the
second point M contained in the line MN of intersection of planes
a and p, draw an auxiliary plane y parallef to /72. The intersections
of plane y with a and p will be frontals. The projection on plane
fl2 of the frontal of plane a will pass through point L2 and lie
parallel to trace l2l while the frontal projec­
tion of the frontal plane p will coincide
with trace p2 which possesses collecting
properties. The intersection of the frontal
projections of these frontals gives the
frontal projection Af2 of point M. The
horizontal projection M x of point M will lie
at the intersection of projector M2M X with
trace yi- This trace possesses collecting
properties. The line of intersection of 0
planes a and p passes through points M
and .V. This determines the piercing point
K of the line AB in plane a.
3. When the line piercing a given plane
is perpendicular to the plane of projection
the projection of the point of intersection on
the plane to which the line is perpendicular coincides with the
projection of the point on that same plane. So the problem may
be reduced to finding the second projection of the point of intersec­
tion of the line with a plane by means of one known projection of
the point.
This case is illustrated in Fig. 168, where the line AB is
perpendicular to plane 77j and pierces the plane of triangle CDE.
The horizontal projection K\ of the piercing point K in plane CDE
coincides with point A X= B X which is the projection of line AB
on plane n x.
To construct the frontal projection /C2 of piercing point K
through point K\ draw the auxiliary line C\K\FX and, assuming
it to be the horizontal projection of line CKF contained in the plane
of triangle CDE, by means of projection CXF\ determine the frontal
projection C2F2 of the line. The frontal projection K2 of the piercing
point of line AB in the plane of the triangle CDE lies at the
intersection of lines G2F2 and A2B2.
4. The piercing point of a line with a projecting plane is
determined directly without auxiliary constructions.
For instance, in Fig. 169, a the horizontal projection K\ of the
piercing point K of line AB in the horizontal-projecting plane a,
which is given by the triangle CDE, lies at the intersection of the
7 1444 97
 projection-trace of that plane on Tl\ with the projection of the line
AB on the same plane of projection /7j. The frontal projection K2 of
point K is found by passing a projector through point K\. In
Fig. 169, b the projections K2 and Ki of piercing point K of line
AB in the frontal-projecting plane p are shown.
5. Next let us examine the
constructions required to deter­
mine the piercing point of a
line with a plane by m e a n s
| of t h e m e t h o d of o b l i q u e
projections.
The construction of oblique
projections in the system of
planes of projection /7j and FI2
is similar to the construction of
traces of lines and planes
(§ 11 and 15, 7). The straight
line AB and plane a which is
given by the triangle CDE, are
shown in Fig. 170. It is required
to determine the piercing point
of line AB in plane a.
Project the plane and line in a direction parallel to the
horizontal EF of triangle CDE. The oblique projections of the
vertices of the triangle C, D and E will be found as traces of
horizontals drawn in the plane of the triangle through these
points. The oblique projections C\, D, and Ei (read as “C line
prime,” etc.) lie on ground
line Ox and the projections
C2, D2 and E2 lie on the
frontal trace l2 of plane a.
By drawing horizontal
lines parallel to the horizon­
tal EF through points A
and B and having found the
traces of these lines we
obtain oblique projections
A h A2 and B u B2 of points x.
A and B. The oblique pro­
jection A\B\ of line AB
coincides with ground line
Ox ajid_ its oblique projec­
tion A2B2 will cut the oblique
projection of triangle C^DiE^
i. e., trace l2 in point K2. Fig. 170
98
 The point K2 is the oblique projection on /72 of point K which
is the piercing point of line AB in the plane of triangle CDE. The
oblique projection Ki of this point lies on ground line Ox.
By carrying out the reverse projection, namely by drawing
through points Ki and K2 the projections*of a line parallel to the
horizontal EF, at their intersections with the corresponding projec­
tions of line AB we find the projections K\ and K2 of K, that is the
piercing point of line AB in the plane of triangle CDE.

Problems and Exercises

1. Which planes are generally used as auxiliary planes when
determining the piercing point of a given line in a plane?
2. What constructions are required to determine the piercing
point of a line in a plane?
3. When is the piercing point of a line in a plane determined
directly, without auxiliary constructions? How is this done?
4. How is the piercing point of a line in a plane found by
oblique projection?
5. Find the piercing point of line AB in a plane given by the
intersecting lines CD and DE (Fig. 171).
 6. Find the meeting point of line AB with the oblique plane
a (Fig. 172).
Hi n t . Frontal projecting planes permit the most direct
approach.
7. Find the meeting point of the profile line AB with plane a
which is given by traces k and /, using the method of oblique
projections (Fig. 173). (See Fig. 170 and text.)
8. Draw a line AB parallel to plane a
and cutting the non-intersecting lines CD
and EF (Fig. 174).
Hi n t . First, at any suitable distance,
construct a plane parallel to plane a. Then
determine the piercing points of lines CD
and EF in that plane. The line joining the
piercing points will be the required
line.
9. Draw a line through point K to cut
the non-intersecting lines AB and CD
(Fig. 175).
Hi n t . Join point K with two points
contained in one of the given lines, for
example, with points A and B. Then, find
the piercing point of the second line CD
in the plane of triangle ABK. The
straight line joining point K, the piercing point is the required line.
10. Draw a straight line to intersect lines AB, CD and EF
(Fig. 176).
Hi n t . Through any point on one of the straight lines and two
points of another pass a plane, for example, CDF. Then, find the
piercing point of the third line, AB, with this plane. The line drawn
through point F and this piercing point of intersection is the
required line.

§ 21. Straight Lines Perpendicular to Planes

1. Any line perpendicular to a plane is an intersecting or non­
intersecting perpendicular with respect to any line drawn in the
plane.
A line KL perpendicular to plane a and intersecting it in point
K is shown in Fig. 177. If we draw through this point in plane a
a horizontal AB and a frontal CD, they will form right angles with
KL. Since line AB is parallel to plane IJU the right angle which it
forms with line KLJlcl is projected onto plane fl\ without distor­
tion (§ 13).
For the same reason an angle formed by the frontal CD and
line KL-La is projected onto plane /72 without distortion.
Taking into account the fact that the horizontal projection of
100
the horizontal (marked by the letters h.p.h. in Fig. 177, b) and the
frontal projection of the frontal (f.p.f.) of a plane are parallel to
the corresponding traces of the plane, it follows that in th e
m u l t i v i e w d r a w i n g t h e p r o j e c t i o n s of a l i n e p e r ­
p e n d i c u l a r to a pl ane, ar e p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t r a c e s of t h e p l a n e a n d a l s o t o
c o r r e s p o n d i n g p r o j e c t i o n s of a n y h o r i z o n t a l a n d
f r o n t a l of t h e p l a n e .

•This being so the construction of a perpendicular to the plane a,

given by triangle BCD (Fig. 178) and passing through a point A,
consists of the following: 1) the construction of a horizontal DE
and a frontal BF of the plane, and 2) the drawing of a per­
pendicular from A\ to D\E\ and another from A2 to B2F2, i- e.,
AiKi-LDiEi and A2K2E ^2^2.
2. T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e d i s t a n c e of a p o i n t
f r o m a p l a n e . The problem of determining the distance of a
point from a plane may be subdivided as follows: 1) the construc­
tion of a perpendicular to the plane from a given point; 2) the
determination of the piercing point of this perpendicular in the
plane; 3) the determination of the true length of the perpendicular
line the length of which is the distance required.
It is required to determine the distance of point D from the
plane of triangle ABC (Fig. 179).
1. In the plane of triangle ABC draw the horizontal AL and
frontal CF. From point Dx draw a perpendicular to the horizontal
projection A\L\ of the horizontal and from point £>2 draw a
perpendicular to the frontal projection C2F2 of the frontal. Line
DE is then the perpendicular drawn from point D to the plane
ABC.
101
 2. The piercing point of perpendicular DE with plane ABC is
found with the help of a frontal-projecting plane y passed through
DE. The frontal trace Y2 of this plane coincides with the frontal
projection D2E2 of the perpendicular DE. The horizontal trace mi
is perpendicular to ground line Ox. Find the line MN of intersection
of planes ABC and y. The intersection of lines DE and MN gives

point K where the perpendicular DE pierces the plane ABC. The

length of line DK, whose projections DiKi and D2K2 have been
found, is the distance from point D to plane ABC.
3. The true length of this line DK is fo'und by the right triangle
method. Having obtained the difference h of the distances of points
D and /(from plane Elu construct the right triangle D{K\D, one side
of which is the horizontal projection D\K\ of line DK. A second side
is equal in length to h. The hypotenuse K\D gives the true value of
the required distance from point D to the plane of triangle ABC.
3. If the plane is one of the projecting planes, as in Fig. 180,
where the plane a is a frontal-projecting plane, the determination
of the distance of the plane from the given point A is considerably
simplified. This is so because the frontal projection K2 of the pierc­
ing point K of the perpendicular drawn from point A to plane a
lies on the trace l2, while the perpendicular AK is parallel to plane
n 2 and so is projected onto fl2 in its true length.
4. In o r d e r t o p a s s a p l a n e h o r i z o n t a l t o l i n e
BC t h r o u g h a p o i n t A, a horizontal or frontal at right angles
to the given line is constructed (Fig. 181). By drawing through
point A the horizontal AN, whose horizontal projection A\Ni is
102
perpendicular to B\C\ and, having found trace N of this horizontal,
draw through point N2^ N the trace l2± B 2C2. Through the point
of convergence of the traces draw the trace &1-L.B1C1. The plane a
so constructed is the required plane, since it passes through point
A and is perpendicular to line BC, moreover its traces k x and l2 are
perpendicular to the corresponding projections of the given line.
5. The problem of d e t e r m i n ­
i n g t h e d i s t a n c e of a p o i n t
f r o m a l i n e may be solved with
the help of a plane passed through
the point perpendicular to the line.
The solution of this problem is as
follows (Fig. 182):

1. Construct the plane aJL/4B with the help of the horizontal

MN drawn through point L perpendicularly to AB (see Fig. 181).
2. Find the meeting point K of line AB with plane a using plane
P-L/7! passed through AB.
3. Join up points K and L. The perpendicular KL located in the
plane a l . A B enables the distance of point L from line AB to be
determined.
4. The true length KL^ of line KL is found by constructing the
right-angle triangle K\LiK.

§ 22. Perpendicular Planes

1. Two planes are mutually perpendicular if in each plane
a line may be drawn perpendicular to the other.
It follows from this that, in order to p a s s a p l a n e
p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e t r i a n g l e ABC t h r o u g h s o m e
p o i n t M (Fig. 183), the first step is to construct a line MN
perpendicular to the given plane. To do so the horizontal AL and
103
the frontal CF are drawn. The horizontal projection M XN X of the
perpendicular passing through M will be perpendicular to the
horizontal projection A XL Xof the horizontal AL. The frontal projec­
tion M2N2 of the perpendicular will, in turn, be perpendicular to
the frontal projections C2F2 of the frontal CF. A plane passing
through line MN will be perpendicular to the plane of triangle ABC.

Fig. 183

An infinite number of planes perpendicular to plane ABC could

be drawn through line MN. The plane determined by triangle MNK
in Fig. 183 is one of them.
In Fig. 184 the plane of triangle ABC is perpendicular to plane
a given by traces k x and I2, since the side AC of this triangle is
perpendicular to plane a (AxCxL k x and A2C2-L/2).

2. The problem whether tw o g i v e n

planes are p e r p e n d i c u l a r to
e a c h o t h e r is solved by drawing
through a point taken in one of these planes
a line perpendicular to the other plane. If
that perpendicular is contained in the first
plane, then the planes are perpendicular to
each other.
The planes a and p, depicted in Fig. 185.
are not perpendicular, since the perpen­
dicular AB drawn to plane p from a point
A, taken on trace I2 of plane a, does not lie
in plane a. This may be proved by draw­
ing an auxiliary line in plane a. Such
a line is the. frontal BN in Fig. 185.
104
It is clear that frontal BN does not intersect the perpendicular AB
and is not parallel to it.
3. P l a n e s a and p whose c o r r e s p o n d i n g t r aces
a r e p e r p e n d i c u l a r , i. e., fci-Lm* and /2-L/12, a r e n o t
p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o e a c h o t h e r . This is so because a

perpendicular AB drawn to plane p from point A, taken in plane

a, is not contained in plane a, since its projections are parallel to
the corresponding traces of this plane {A\Bx\\ki and A2B2WI2) ■
4. Attention should be paid to the fact that the mutually per­
pendicular disposition of corresponding traces of two oblique lines,
such as those in Fig. 186, is a sign that such planes do not intersect
at right angles.
If a t l e a s t o n e of t w o i n t e r s e c t i n g p l a n e s is a
p r o j e c t i n g p l a n e a n d if t h e a n g l e f o r m e d by t h e
t r a c e - p r o j e c t i o n of t h e p r o j e c t i n g p l a n e a n d t h e
s i m i l a r t r a c e of t h e o t h e r p l a n e is a r i g h t a n g l e ,
t hen the p l a n e s are m u t u a l l y p e r p e n d i c u l a r .
Such a case is shown in Fig. 187. The oblique plane is perpen­
dicular to the horizontal-projecting plane p since the horizontal
trace k\ of plane a is perpendicular to plane p. This is so because
/ji-LPi and the frontal trace ti\ is perpendicular to the ground line
Ox with which the frontal projection of trace k (&2= Ox) coincides.
If one of two mutually perpendicular planes is a profile plane
and the other is parallel to ground line Ox or passes through it,
then the corresponding traces of such planes in the /7r /72 system
of planes of projection are mutually perpendicular.
It should be noted that the line of intersection MN of the
mutually perpendicular planes a and p (Fig. 187) is perpendicular
to trace k\, since Therefore MN is at the same time the
line of maximum inclination of plane a to the horizontal plane of
projections lli. It follows that the line of maximum inclination of
105
a given plane may be constructed by intersecting it by a project­
ing plane perpendicular to the trace of the given plane (for
comparison see § 17).

Problems and Exercises

1. What are the positions in the multiview drawing of the

projections of a line which is perpendicular to a plane given by
its traces?
2. How is the true distance to be found of a point from a) a
horizontal-projecting plane, b) an oblique plane?
3. How are the frontal traces of two
mutually perpendicular planes seen in the
multiview drawing if one of them is an
oblique plane and the other is a frontal-
projecting plane?
4. Are oblique lines perpendicular to each
other if their corresponding traces in /7j
and 772 are mutually perpendicular?
5. What planes should be made to inter­
sect a plane in order to obtain in it a line of
maximum inclination a) to plane /7j, b) to
plane /72, and c) to plane /73?
6. Find the distance of point D from the plane of triangle ABC
(Fig. 184).
7. Find the distance of point K contained in ground line Ox from
plane a (Fig. 184).
8. Determine whether the planes given by triangles ABC and
DEF are perpendicular (Fig. 197).
Hi n t . From any point taken in one of the planes drop a
perpendicular to the other plane and check whether the
perpendicular belongs to the first plane (see Fig. 185 and text).
9. Through a point C taken on line AB draw a line CL
perpendicular to AB to intersect line DE.
Hi n t . With the help of l e v e l l i n e s perpendicular to AB
pass through point C a plane perpendicular to AB. Find the point
of intersection L of line DE with the plane drawn and join points
C and L.
10. Construct a rectangle ABCD by means of two projections of
its side AB and the horizontal projection of side BC.
Hi n t . With the help of level lines perpendicular to AB draw
an auxiliary plane perpendicular to AB and passing through point
B. The vertex Ci will lie in this plane. Having found projection C\
find projection C2 and join up points C2 and B2.
The projections of the other two sides of the rectangle are
parallel and equal to the corresponding projections of its sides AB
and BC.
106
 11. In plane a construct a parallelogram ABCD given its
diagonal AC and its vertex B (Fig. 188).
12. By means of the frontal projection C2D2 construct the
horizontal projection C\D\ of a line CD which is to be perpendicular
to a given line AB. .
Hi n t . Draw a plane perpendicular to line AB and in it
construct an auxiliary line parallel to line CD. The required projec­
tion C\D\ will be parallel to the horizontal projection of this
auxiliary line.
13. Through the piercing point of line AB in an oblique plane a
draw a line perpendicular to AB lying in the plane.
14. Construct a plane p, parallel to a given plane a and situated
20 mm from it.

§ 23. The Determination of Visibility

of Geometrical Elements in Multiview Drawings
1. In order that a drawing may be as clear as possible the visible
contours of the object represented are usually shown by continuous
lines and hidden lines, by broken lines. Sometimes invisible parts
are not shown at all.
The methods of determining the visibility of elements in the
multiview drawing are given below.
Of two given points lying on a line perpendicular to a given
plane of projection, the point nearer to the eye of the observer will
be the visible point. It is assumed that the observer is standing in
the first octant looking along the line perpendicular to the plane
of projection to which the two points belong.
It follows that, of tw o p o i n t s l y i n g o n a l i n e
p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o a p l a n e of p r o j e c t i o n , t h e o n e
f a r t h e r a w a y f r o m t h e p l a n e is t h e v i s i b l e p o i n t .
The points A and B (Fig. 189, a) are situated on the same
projector perpendicular to plane 772. Point A being farther away
from plane Fl2 covers point B. So, when projected onto /72, point A
is visible and point B is hidden. When projected onto plane Tl\ both
points A and B are visible because they lie on different lines
perpendicular to plane Tl\.
In the multiview drawing (Fig. 189, b) the frontal projections
of points A and B coincide, A 2= (B2), since these points in space
lie on the same frontal projector. The horizontal projection A\ of
point A lies farther away from ground line Ox than the horizontal
projection B\ of point B, so it follows that point A is farther away
from plane IJ2 and, being projected on this plane /72, covers point B.
Points C and D (Fig. 189, a) lie on the same line perpendicular
to plane /7i, point C being higher than point D, that is to say,
farther away from plane /7j, so point C, when projected onto plane
/71, will be visible and point D will be hidden.
107
 In the multiview drawing, Fig. 189, b, the horizontal projections
of points C and D coincide, C\ = (D\). The frontal projection C2
of point C is farther from ground line Ox than the frontal projection
D2 of point D, so point C is farther from plane /7i and, being
projected onto that plane, will hide point D.

Fig. 189 Fig. 190

2. V i s i b i l i t y of p o i n t s on n o n - i n t e r s e c t i n g
lines.
Two skew lines AB and CD are shown in Fig. 190. Point E ,
contained in line A B , and point F, contained in line CD, are situated
on the same line perpendicular to plane n x. The horizontal projec­
tions of points E and F merge as one point, where the horizontal
projections of the given lines AB and CD cross. Point E is farther
from plane n x than point F, and so, when projected on plane n u
will be visible.
Point L, contained in line AB , and point /(, contained in line CD,
are situated on one perpendicular to plane /72. The frontal projec­
tions of points L and K merge into the point, where the frontal
projections of the given lines AB and CD cross.
Point L lies farther away from plane /72 than point K and, when
projected onto plane /72, will be visible.
3. Next let us consider the v i s i b i l i t y of t h e p a r t s of
t h e p r o j e c t i o n s of a l i n e MN i n t e r s e c t i n g an
o p a q u e t r i a n g u l a r p l a t e ABC (Fig. 191).
By passing through MN an auxiliary frontal-projecting plane,
point K, where line MN pierces triangular plate ABC, is found. This
point K is the boundary of visibility of the parts of line MN. Let us
determine the visibility of separate parts of line MN when it is
projected onto plane U2. Take a point E on the side AB of the
triangle and a point F on the line MN, so that points E and F
108
project onto plane 772 as one point E2= F2. The horizontal projec­
tion E i of point E lies farther away from ground line Ox than the
horizontal projection Fi of point F. In other words, the value of y
for point E is greater than that of y for point F. Therefore point E,
when it is projected onto plane /72, hides point 7\.
The part FK. of line MN when pro­

plate ABC, whereas part KN remains visible since it lies in front

of the plate.
The visibility of parts of line MN, when projected onto plane 771(
may be determined by comparing the values of z for points R and
S. The horizontal projections of these points merge into one point
and are located at the intersection of lines MiNi and B\C\.
Since the distance z of point R, which belongs to side BC of the
triangle, is greater than that of point 5 which belongs to line MN,
the part KS of line MN lies below the triangular plate ABC and so,
when projected onto plane l l u is invisible. The part SN of line MN
when projected on plane 77i is visible since it is not covered by
the plate ABC.
4. Now let us find the line of intersection of the opaque
triangular plates ABC and DEF. The visible part of triangle ABC
will be shown by dots and that of triangle DEF by hatching
(Fig. 192).
To construct the line of intersection KL of these triangles find
the piercing point K of side ED with triangle ABC. This is done
with the help of the frontal-projecting plane a and point L in which
side FD pierces triangle ABC. This construction is not shown in
Fig. 192. Next join points K and L.
109
 The visibility of the separate parts of the triangles ABC and
DEF when projected onto /7i and Y72 may be established by
determining the visible parts of the sides ED and FD, as was done
with line MN in Fig. 191. The visible parts of triangles ABC and
DEF are shown by dots and hatching respectively. The parts of
the sides of the triangle that are hidden are not shown. The space
drawing of the intersection of the
triangles ABC and DEF and the pro­
jections of these triangles on planes
771 and /72 are shown in Fig. 192,6.
5. Let us construct the line of
intersection of triangle ABC with
parallelogram EFNMy both of which
are assumed to be opaque plates
(Fig. 193).
In order to determine the line of
intersection KL of the given figures,
first find point K in which the side
EM of the parallelogram pierces the
plane of the triangle, and point L,
where side BC of the triangle pierces
the plane of the parallelogram. Points
K and L are then joined up.
The visibility of the various parts,
when projected onto plane 772, is
determined with the help of points 5
and P taken on side EF of the parallelogram and on the side BC of
the triangle, respectively. By comparing the values of y for points
5 and P it can be seen that point P is situated farther away from
plane /72 than point S. It follows that part BL of side BC of the
triangle will be visible when projected onto plane 772. Beyond the
boundary of visibility, point L, the side BC is covered by the
parallelogram and again becomes visible in the vicinity of the vertex
C since this part is not hidden by the plane of the parallelogram.
The visibility of the various parts, when projected onto plane 77},
is established by comparing the values of z for points 2 and 5 taken
on sides AC and EM of the given figures. The value of z for point
2 is smaller than that of point 5. It follows that point 5, together
with the corresponding part of side EM of the parallelogram up to
point K, when projected onto plane FJ{l is visible. Beyond point K
the side EM passes under the triangle ABC and again becomes
visible when it emerges from the plane of triangle ABC.

110
 Problems and Exercises
1. If two points are situated on one perpendicular to a plane of
projections, how is their visibility determined?
2. When will a line which lies behind an opaque plate and is
projected onto plane 77,, be visible if it is.projected onto plane 772?

3. On the two non-intersecting lines a and b find the points,

which are not visible when projected a) onto 771( b) onto 772, c) onto
773 (Fig. 194).
4. Determine the visible and hidden parts of line AB when it
pierces the plane of parallelogram CDEF (Fig. 195).

5. Construct the line of intersection of plane a, given by traces

k\ and I2, with the triangle ABC. Show its visible part by hatching
(Fig. 196).
6. Construct the line of intersection of triangles ABC and DEF,
showing visible parts of the triangle ABC by hatching and those
of the triangle DEF by dots (Fig. 197).
Ill
 C h a p t e r VI
THE TRANSFORMATION OF PROJECTIONS

If straight lines or plane figures are parallel or perpendicular

to the planes of projection, then distances, angles and the relative
positions of individual geometrical elements in space, as seen in
the multiview drawings, may be measured without any additional
construction. That is to say true views are obtained. For example,
the true distance of a point from a line is given by the projection
on the horizontal plane /7i if the given line is perpendicular to that
plane. Any figure lying in a horizontal plane will also be projected
onto plane 771 in its true size.
The determination of the true dimensions of oblique lines and
planes requires special constructions transforming the projections
into others enabling the true views to be determined directly.
Any course of descriptive geometry must outline various meth­
ods of transforming projections. These are the substitution of one
or more planes of projection by others, the method of rotating the
planes of projection and the method of coincidence.

§ 24. Substituting Planes of Projection

1. A point A is given relative to the pair of planes of projection
77i-/72 (Fig. 198, a). Instead of the frontal plane //2 an additional
plane of projection 774, perpendicular to plane 77j, may be introduced.
In the case of such a substitution the profile plane of projection
in the principal system of projection planes /7p772-/73 continues
to be referred to as i/73. The planes 77{ and /74 constitute a new pair
of mutually perpendicular planes of projection and the line s \4 will
be the new ground line.
L e t us c o n s t r u c t t h e o r t h o g r a p h i c p r o j e c t i o n s
of p o i n t A in t h e n e w s y s t e m of p l a n e s of p r o j e c t i o n
IIi-Il 4 . The horizontal projection A\ of point A in the new system
77r /74 will still be the horizontal projection of point A since plane
IJ\ remains unchanged. To obtain the projection A 4 of point A on
plane I74 draw a perpendicular to that plane from point A together
with the rectangle AA\A\4A4, of which one side is the line AA\ and
112
another the perpendicular A\Au drawn from point A\ to ground
line 514.
Since A 4A 14 and A A X are the opposite sides of rectangle
A A 1A 14A4, they are equal. But A A i = A 2A l2, so A 4A\4= A 2A X2. In
other words, the d i s t a n c e of t h e . n e w p r o j e c t i o n A 4
f r o m t h e n e w g r o u n d l i n e 514 i s e q u a l t o t h e

d i s t a n c e of t h e o r i g i n a l p r o j e c t i o n A2 f r o m
g r o u n d l i n e Ox.
In order to pass from the three-dimensional representation to
the multiview drawing plane /74 is rotated about ground line Si4
to coincide with plane n x. Projection A 4 of point A will then lie on
the same perpendicular to the ground line .Sj4 as point A\.
Planes 771 and TI4 may be brought into coincidence by rotating
n A in either direction. However, the direction of rotation should be
such that the projections A\ and A 4 of point A lie on opposite sides
of ground line Si4.
The construction of projection A 4 of point A in the multiview
drawing (Fig. 198, b) is carried out in the following order: 1) draw
ground line s X4 of the new system of planes of projection 77i-/74;
2) from point A\ draw a perpendicular to the line $i4; 3) on this
perpendicular from the line $i4 lay off distance A 4A 14 equal to the
length of line A2A X2. The point A 4 obtained in this way is the ortho­
graphic projection of point A on plane II4.
2. The construction of the multiview drawing of point B
(Fig. 199, a), when the horizontal plane of projection 77i is changed
for the new plane /74, also perpendicular to plane 772, is carried out
in the same sequence. First, the ground line s24 of the /72-/74
system of planes of projection is drawn. Then, from point B2 a
8 — 1444 112
perpendicular is drawn to line $24- Finally, on this perpendicular
the distance BiB2i = B {B {2 is laid off from line s24. In this case the
distance of projection B4 of point B from the new ground line $24
is the same as the distance of the original projection B\ from the
ground line Ox.
The construction of point B4 when substituting the plane of
projections /71 by /74 is also shown in Fig. 199, b where plane /74,

which is also perpendicular to plane 772, is rotated about line S24

together with projection fi4 until it coincides with plane IJ2.
3. The projection of a line, when one of the planes of projection
is changed, is received by projecting two of its points onto the new
plane of projection and joining up their projections.
Given the projections of a line AB, see Fig. 200, the sequence
in which its new projection on a plane /74, perpendicular to the
horizontal plane of projection /7j and parallel to AB, may be found,
is as follows. Since plane 774 has substituted plane /72, the distances
of points Ai and B4 from line sj4 are respectively equal to the
distances of points A2 and B2 from ground line Ox.
The new projection y44B4 of line AB is a true length of the line,
so the length of v44B4 is its real length. It should be recalled that
since the plane /74 is parallel to AB the ground line s H is drawn
parallel to the horizontal projection A\B\ of segment AB.
Line AB, as seen in Fig. 201, is projected onto the new plane
774, drawn parallel to AB itself and perpendicular to plane /72. The
distances from points A 4 and B4 to line S24 are respectively equal
to the distances from points A\ and B\ to line Ox. The new
projection A 4B4 gives the true dimension of line AB since this line
is parallel to /74.
114
 The angles a and p, shown in Figs. 200 and 201, are the true
angles of inclination of line AB to the planes of projection /7i
(angle a) and fJ2 (angle P).
Hi n t . It should be noted that the angle of inclination a of the
given line to the horizontal plane of projection 771 is given by the
angle between the new axis of projection sm, or of any line parallel
to it, and the true length of the line in the system /7r /74 which
includes the horizontal projection of line A*
A\B\.
The true angle of inclination p of the
given line to frontal plane of projection /72
is seen in the new system 77r /74 which
includes the original frontal projection of
the line.
Finally, it should be Understood that
when determining the true angle of
inclination y of the given line to the profile
plane of projection, it is necessary to
construct a new system of planes of pro­
jection which must include the profile
plane of projection 773.
4. It must be remembered that, Fi 2Q0
although the new planes of projection tg'
parallel to line AB in the transformations
analyzed above (see Figs. 200 and 201) may lie a t a n y
d i s t a n c e from AB, the ground line of the new system of planes
of projection must necessarily in all cases be parallel to that
projection of the line which remains unchanged. In that case the
new projection will give the true length of the line.
In Fig. 202, when determining the true length of AB by the

A2
A*

Fig. 202
115
method of planes of projection, in order to keep the drawing as
small as possible, the ground line s {4 of the 771-/74 system of
planes of projection is drawn through the projection A\BX. The size
of the drawing may also be limited by laying off from line s {4
not the real values of zA and z B for points A and B y but these
dimensions less some value. In the case in point zB is the value
subtracted, and for point B we receive zB—zB= 0.

Fig. 203 Fig. 204

In this case point B4 coincides with point B\ and projection

A 4B4 will be the hypotenuse of the right triangle A\A4B4l one side
of which is the horizontal projection A\B\ of the given line and the
second side is the difference between distances at which its limit­
ing points A and B are situated from plane IIU in which the side
A\Bi of the triangle lies. Thus the right triangle method is actually
the conversion of the multiview drawing by the method of changing
planes of projection.
5. Wh e n c o n s t r u c t i n g a n e w p r o j e c t i o n of a l i n e
s i t u a t e d in d i f f e r e n t q u a d r a n t s t h e p o s i t i v e
c o o r d i n a t e s of p o i n t s s h o u l d be l a i d of f on o n e
s i d e of t h e n e w g r o u n d l i n e a n d t h e n e g a t i v e
c o o r d i n a t e s on t h e o t h e r .
A line AB which contains point B in the fourth quadrant is given
in the drawing (Fig. 203). When constructing a new projection of
this line in the Yl\-Tl4 system of planes, since plane FJ4 is per­
pendicular to plane n u the negative value of z B for point B is laid
off upwards from the ground line s i4, whereas the positive
coordinate zA of point A is laid off downwards from it.
The projection A 4B4 gives the true value of the line A B , since
line S14 is drawn parallel to the unchanged projection A\ BU so
plane U4 is also located in space parallel to line AB.
116
 6. T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of a n o b l i q u e p l a n e a
i n t o a p r o j e c t i n g p l a n e by the method of substituting a
plane of projection is shown in Fig. 204.
The ground line s !4 of the new system of planes of projection
/7r /74 is drawn perpendicular to trace k\ pf plane a (see § 16). The
point of intersection of trace k\ with line s J4 is a new point of
convergence of traces Sa of plane a.
In order to find the trace-projection a4,
which possesses collecting properties
since the planes a and /74 are mutually
perpendicular, on trace l2 any convenient
point K is taken and projected onto plane
nA.Then points Sa and Kaare joined by
a straight line. The lines k\ and a4 are
traces of plane a in the system of planes
of projection /7r /74.
If the oblique plane a were given not
by traces, but by some other means, for
example, by a triangle, then its
transformation into a projecting plane
could be carried out with the help of
horizontals or frontals of plane a. The
ground line of the new system of planes of projection in this case
is drawn perpendicular either to the horizontal projection of the
horizontal or to the frontal projection of the frontal.

7. T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of a n o b l i q u e p l a n e i n t o
a p r o j e c t i n g p l a n e s i m p l i f i e s t h e s o l u t i o n of
m a n y p r o b l e m s . Some examples are given below.
E x a m p l e 1. It is required to determine the distance between
the parallel planes a and p (Fig. 205).
Let us introduce a new plane of projection /74 perpendicular to
planes 77u a and p. The ground line su of the /7r /74 system in the
multiview drawing should be perpendicular to the traces k\ and m\.
Having constructed the trace a4 of plane a with the help of point A,
draw the trace p4 parallel to it. The distance between the trace
projections a4 and p4 is the true distance / between the planes
a and p.
E x a m p l e 2. It is required to determine the distance of point
F from the plane of a triangle ABC (Fig. 206).
Let us transform the oblique plane given by triangle ABC into
a projecting plane by the method of substituting a plane of projec­
tion (Fig. 206. a). In order to do this in plane ABC construct
the horizontal CD and draw the new plane of projection ^ p e r p e n ­
dicular to it. The ground line S\A will be perpendicular to the
projection C\DX of the horizontal CD. Having constructed the
117
projections A 4, B4 and C4 of the vertices of the triangle, we see that
these points lie on straight line A4B4C4, which is the trace-projection
of the plane of triangle ABC on /74, i. e., the trace of a plane which
has collecting properties.
Having found the projection F4 of point F on the plane 774, from
it draw a perpendicular to the trace-projection A 4B4C4 of plane

Fig. 206

ABC to obtain point K4 (Fig. 206, b). The length of F4K4 is the
true distance of point F from plane ABC.
When determining the projection of line FK on plane n x and
[J2 it should be remembered that its horizontal projection FXK\
must be parallel to ground line s X4 since line FK is parallel to plane
n4. In other words, F\K\ must be perpendicular to projection CXDX
of. the horizontal of the plane of triangle ABC, since FK is
perpendicular to plane ABC (see § 21).
The frontal projection /C2 of point K is found on the perpen­
dicular projector drawn from K\. Point K2 lies from Ox at a distance
equal to the distance of point K4 from line s X4.
When a plane is not given by a triangle but by its traces, the
procedure remains unchanged. The ground line of the new system of
planes of projection is drawn at right
angles to one of the traces of the plane.
8. The transformation of an oblique
plane, which in the new system of planes
n r n 4 continues to be an oblique plane,
is seen in Fig. 207. The ground line
514 of the new system is inclined to trace
k x. The point of convergence of the traces
of plane a in the system of planes /7r /74
is point Sa. This is the point of intersec-
tion of the horizontal trace k x with the ground line S14. To find the
second point through which trace C14of plane a will pass, in the plane
a draw a convenient horizontal h. Construct its projection h4 on
plane /74 (N\N[ —N\Ni). This gives trace N ’4 of this horizontal in
plane Il4. The trace of plane a in plane. /74 is the straight line
joining points Sa and N'r

Fig. 208

9. The transformation of projections by substituting two or more

planes of projection requires constructions similar to those used
when substituting one plane of projection.
The substitution of the principal planes of projection /7j and /72
by the additional planes /74 and TIz is shown in Fig. 208. The plane
/74 is perpendicular to plane IJU whereas plane /75 is perpendicular
to TJ4. For the first transformation plane /72 is substituted by plane
Yl4. Thus a new projection A 4 of the point A is obtained. The
distance of projection A 4 from ground line S14 is equal to the
distance of the substituted projection A2 from ground line Ox, i. e.,
equal to the value z for point A. In the second conversion plane U x
is substituted by plane /75. In plane /75 we obtain the second new
projection A 5 of point A. The distance of projection A$ from the
ground line S45 of the second system of planes of projection /74-/75
is equal to the distance y' of the substituted horizontal projection
A x from the ground line S14 of the /7i-/74 system of planes of
projection.
The multiview drawing is then constructed as follows. Draw
line S14 of the first new system of planes of projection /7i-/74. Then,
having drawn a perpendicular from A\ to this line, lay off on it
from line Su the value z for point A. Point A 4 is then the projection
of point A on plane l l 4. After that draw line S45 of the second new
system of planes of projection /74-/75 and, on the perpendicular
drawn from A 4 to line S45, lay off from this new ground line distance
119
y' t so finding point A5. The points A 4 and As are the new projections
of point A on planes f l 4 and /75.
It should be noted that, when the second substitution of a plane
of projection was carried out, the dimension y', i. e., the distance
of projection As to line s45 was taken as equal to the distance
from projection A\ to line su of the intermediate system of planes
of projection 77]-/74. The distance y'
is not equal to the distance of projec­
tion A\ from line Ox of the principal
system of planes of projection 77r /72.
The distance y* in plane /75 is the
length of the fourth line of the four
lines situated between the ground
lines and projections As, A4 and A\.
These lines are the projections of
four projecting lines in the main and
new systems of planes of projection.
When constructing other projec­
tion systems by the method of substi­
tuting planes of projection, each new
projection of a point will occupy
the fourth place, counting from the
projection being substituted. For
example, in Fig. 218 point D4 which substitutes the horizontal
projection Dx in the system /72-774, D4 lies at the end of the fourth
line, counting 1) from point D\ to ground line Ox, 2) from
this line to point D2, 3) from point D2 to axis s24, and finally 4) from
axis s24 to point D4.

10. An oblique line AB is given in the system of the principal

planes of projection /7r /72 (Fig. 209). It is required to find a new
system of planes of projection in which the given line is projected
as a point.
A line is projected as a point when it is perpendicular to the
plane of projection. Therefore the new plane of projection must be
perpendicular to the given line AB. It is not possible in one
operation to choose a plane of projection at the same time
perpendicular both to line AB and to one of the original planes of
projection, since AB is an oblique line. An intermediate plane of
projection parallel to AB has to be introduced as the first step.
The line AB is then projected onto this plane.
The second plane of projection to be introduced must be
perpendicular to both line AB and the intermediate plane of
projection.
In Fig. 209 the intermediate plane of projection /74 is perpen­
dicular to plane /72 and parallel to line AB. The line AB is
projected onto 774 in its true length, i. e., the length of projection
120
AaBa= AB. The second plane of projection /75 introduced is per­
pendicular to AB and to plane /74. So, on the drawing the ground
line S45 is perpendicular to projection A 4B4. By extending line
A4B4 to cut line s45 and laying off from line s45 a distance equal to
the distance at which both points A \ and B\ lie from the intermediate
ground line Si4, we obtain a point ;45= B* which is the projection
of line AB on plane /75.
This construction is
widely used in transform­
ing projections by the
method of substituting
planes of projection..
11. Examples of the con­
structions used in descrip­
tive geometry for determin­
ing true dimensions by
substituting planes of pro­
jection are given below.
E x a m p l e 1. Find the
true size of triangle ABC
(Fig; 210). First project
triangle ABC onto plane
II4 perpendicular to plane
77, and to the plane of the
triangle. To do this in the plane of triangle>4BCdraw the horizontal
KC. The ground line s 14 of the intermediate system of planes of
projection must be taken as perpendicular to the projection K\C\ of
the horizontal. The triangle will be projected onto plane /74 as line
A4C4B4.
Let us now introduce the second new plane of projection /75
parallel to the plane of triangle ABC and perpendicular to plane
TI4. Line s45 must be drawn parallel to the projection A 4C4B4. Hav­
ing measured the distances at which the horizontal projections A\,
B 1 and C\ of the vertices of the triangle lie from line si4> lay off
these distances on the extensions of the perpendiculars to ground
line s45 drawn respectively through points i44, S 4 and C4. Having
found points As, B5 and C5 join them by straight lines. The triangle
A5B5C5 constructed is identical with the original triangle ABC. In
other words, a true view is obtained.
E x a m p l e 2. Find the shortest distance between the non-
intersecting lines AB and CD (Fig. 211.).
Here a double substitution of planes of projection is used. The
first new plane /74 is drawn parallel to one of the lines, say, to AB.
Then the line AB is projected onto this plane in its true length
(AaB4= AB). When line CD is projected onto plane 774 its length is
121
distorted, since in the 77r 774 system of planes of projection it
remains an oblique line.
The projections A 4, B4, C4 and D4 of points A, B, C and D on
plane 774 are obtained by taking the values of z for these points
from the principal system of planes of projection /7i-/72.
The second new plane of projection 77s is drawn perpendicular
to plane n 4 and to line AB. Then AB will be projected onto plane

775 as a point y45= B5, and the projection of line CD onto plane
/75 will be line C5D5.
The projection on plane 77$ of the perpendicular to the lines AB
and CD, by which the shortest distance between these lines is
determined, will give its true length, since this line is parallel to
the plane 775 and line AB is perpendicular to 775. It follows that the
right angle between this perpendicular and line when projecting
CD onto plane 774 will also be seen as a right angle (see § 13).
Therefore having drawn from point A $ ^ B5 a perpendicular to
C 5 D 5 we find the segment K 5 L 5 , giving the shortest distance
between lines AB and C D . To determine the projection of line KL
in the system of the 77r 772 planes of projection first find point L4.
Then find point L\, and finally point L2 by means of the respective
projectors. The point K4 will be found if a perpendicular is drawn
from L4 to A 4B4. The right angle between K4L4 and A 4B4 will not be
distorted when projecting onto 774 since line AB is parallel to 774.
122
The projections K\ and K2 of point K are also found with the help
of projectors.
E x a m p l e 3. It is required to determine the true value of the
angle formed between the planes of the triangles KMN and LMN
(Fig. 212).
The true size of the dihedral angle is giv'en by the angle formed
by the straight line traces of the planes in a plane perpendicular
to the edge or line of intersection of these
given planes or by the orthographic projec­
tion of the dihedral angle onto a plane
perpendicular to their line of intersection
(Fig. 213).
In the case, shown in Fig. 212, the line
MN of intersection of the given planes is an
oblique line. So it is necessary to transform
the projection of the angle so that the line fig. 213
of intersection is perpendicular to the new
plane of projection.
First, project the triangles onto plane /74 which is perpendicular
to plane tl2 and parallel to the line of intersection MN. The ground
line s24 is drawn parallel to the projection M2N2 of the line of
intersection which remains unchanged. To obtain the projection of
the triangles KMN and LMN on plane /74 from points M2, N2, K2
and L2 draw perpendiculars to line S24. On the extension of these
perpendiculars lay off from S24 the values of y for points M, N, K
and L. These distances are the distances of the projections of M u
N lt K\ and L\ from ground line Ox. The line of intersection MN of
the given planes then projects onto 774 in its true value (M4iV4=
= MN).
Next, the new plane of projection IJ5, perpendicular to plane /74
and to MN, is introduced. The ground line s45 of the system of
planes, of projection /74-/7s is drawn perpendicular to projection
M4yV4. The edge MN is projected onto plane n$ as a point M5^ N s .
When constructing projections Ks and L5 of points K and L it is
borne in mind that the distances of points M5, N5, K5 and L5 from
line s45 are equal to the distances of points M2, N2, K2 and L2 from
ground line s24, respectively. Points K5 and L5 are joined to point
M $ ^ N 5. The plane angle /(5M5L5 will be the true dihedral angle
formed by the given planes KMN and LMN.
When planes forming a dihedral are given by their traces the
procedure for substituting projections in order to obtain the plane
dihedral angle remains the same.
E x a m p l e 4. It is required to determine the angle between
line AB and plane a given by the triangle CDE (Fig. 214).
If the line and plane were situated relative to the principal
planes of projection /71 and Ll2 in such a way that the line was
parallel to Fl2 and the plane parallel to n lt then the angle y
123
between them would be projected without distortion onto one of the
principal planes of projection, in the ca^e shown in Fig. 215,
onto n 2.
In the example shown in Fig. 214, the line AB and the given
plane are both oblique. The drawing must be transformed so that,
in the new system of planes of projection, the line is parallel to one

plane of projection and the plane is parallel to the other plane of

projection of the new system.
The first new plane /74 is drawn perpendicular to both plane 771
and plane a. The triangle CDE will then be projected onto plane
/74 as line C4D4£ 4, and the line AB as line ,44B4.
The second new plane of projection,/75, should be perpendicular
to /74 and parallel to plane a. Then the plane of triangle CDE will
be projected onto /75 as a true value (CsD5E5= CDE) , and the line
AB as AsB5.
Finally, the third new plane /76 is drawn perpendicular to plane
IJ5 and parallel to line AB. The projection of line AB on plane /76
will be a true value {A^B&= A B ) . The projection of triangle CDE
124
will be line C6E6D6 parallel to the ground line s56 of the /75-/76
system of planes of projection.
As a result of three successive substitutions of planes of projec­
tion, i. e., n 2 by /74, 771 by 775, /74 by IJ6 we obtain the /75-/76 system
in which the projections of the line and plane are those shown in
Fig. 215. The angle y contained between lines A6B6 and C6E6D6 is
the true size of the angle formed by
line AB and the plane of triangle CDE
(Fig. 214).
E x a m p 1e 5. It is required to
construct the projection of a sphere the
surface of which must contain points
A , B, D, F, not situated in one plane
(Fig. 216).
It can be seen that the given points
A, B, D}F in reality are not contained in
one plane. The auxiliary line DK, drawn
so that its frontal projection D2K<i passes
through projection F2 of point F in space.
However, this line does not pass through
point F, since F\ does not lie on D\K\.
It follows that point F is not contained
in the plane of triangle ABD.
The centre of the sphere passing
through the four given points A, B, D
and F may be found as follows (Fig. 217):
1) construct in plane ABD a circle with its centre in point M, pass­
ing through points A, B and D\ 2) in plane ABF construct a circle
with its centre in point N, passing through point A, B and F;
3) through points M and N draw lines respectively perpendicular
to planes ABD and ABF. The intersection of these perpendiculars
will determine the centre C of the sphere and the distance from
point C to any of the given points A, B, D, F will be the radius of
the sphere.

Fig. 215 Fig. 217

125
 Let us now construct the multiview drawing (Fig. 218). First,
the Fl\-Fl2 system of planes of projection is substituted by the
772-,/74 system in which the new plane of projection 774 is parallel
to the line AB in which the planes ABD and ABF intersect, i. e.,
parallel to the edge of the dihedral angle. The ground line s24 is
therefore drawn parallel to the projection A 2B2 of this edge. The

Fig. 218

projection of AB on plane /74 is a true value ( A i B ^ A B ) . Having

found D4 and F4 we next find the projection of the dihedral planes
on /74.
Further, we project the planes forming the angle onto plane
/75 in the /74-/75 system. The plane IJ5 is drawn perpendicular to
A B , i. e., the ground line s45 is perpendicular to A4B4. The edge AB
is projected onto plane /75 as point A $ ^ B S. The projection of
triangle A B D is line A 5 D 5 , and that of triangle A B F line A5F5.
Angle D5A5F5 gives the true dihedral angle of planes ABD and
ABF. .
The other two new planes of projection, /76 and T77, are to be
perpendicular to plane /75. They are also to be parallel to the planes
of triangles ABD and ABF, respectively. So ground line S56 is drawn
126
 parallel to A5D5 and ground line $57 parallel to A5F5. The triangle
ABD is projected onto plane /76 in true size (A6B6D6= ABD) , and
triangle ABD is also projected onto plane IJ7 in its true size
(A7B7F7= A B F ).
Next, determine the centres Me and N7*of the circles passing,
respectively, through the vertices of the two triangles in these
projections. To do this draw perpendi­
culars to the midpoints of the sides £5
of the triangles. These circles so
constructed are the projections of
sections of the required sphere when
it is cut by the planes of triangles
ABD and ABF.
The projection C5 of the centre C
of the sphere on plane /75 is found
by drawing a perpendicular to ground
line s56 through point M6 and a
perpendicular to ground line $57
through point N7 to meet in C5.
By means of reverse projections
find C4, C2 and Cx which are the
projections of point C on planes /74,
n 2 and 77i. Point C4 lies at a distance
from line $45 equal to the distance of
projection M6 from line $56, which is
the same as the distance of N7 from
$5 7 . It should be recalled that points M6 and N7 coincide with
projections C6 and C7 of centre C.
Having.found the principal projections Cx and C2 of the centre
of the sphere join them by a straight line with the corresponding
projections on FIX and /72 of any of the four given points, for
example, with point B, and, by constructing a right triangle
B xCxB Xl determine Jthe true length CB, which is equal to the radius
r of the sphere (CXB X= CB) .
With a radius r describe circles from points Cx and C2. These are
the horizontal and frontal projections of the sphere, the surface of
which passes through the given points A, B, D and F.
E x a m p l e 6. In Fig. 219 the transformation of the principal
projections of a detail is carried out by successively substituting
the planes of projection /72 and n x by new planes, i. e., by /74
perpendicular to n x, and /75 perpendicular to /74. With the help of
this construction the transition from an orthographic multiview
drawing to the axonometric representation of the detail and its
cut-out on plane /75 is achieved.

127
 Problems and Exercises

1. Does a change in the distance of a new plane of projection

from the projected object have any bearing on the final projection?
2. How should a new plane of projection be placed so that an
oblique line is projected onto it in its true length?
3. In what position must a triangle be situated if its true size
can be determined by substituting only one plane of projection?
4. What transformations must be carried out in order to project
an oblique line onto a new plane of projection as a point?
5. How must a new plane of projection be placed in order that
a plane figure is projected onto it as a straight line?
6. When can the true value of a dihedral angle be determined
without distortion by substituting only one of the planes of projec­
tion?
7. When can the shortest distance between two non-intersecting
lines be determined by introducing only one new plane of projec­
tion?
8. Determine the true length of an oblique line AB and its
angles of inclination to planes Tl\ and /72 (Fig. 220).
9. Draw a perpendicular from a point 0 to the plane of triangle
ABC (Fig. 221).
10. Determine the distance between the parallel planes a and
P (Fig. 222).
11. Determine the distance from point E to the plan’e given by
parallel lines AB and CD (Fig. 223).
12. Determine the true dimension of the quadrangle ABCD
(Fig. 224).
' 13. Determine angles a and p formed by plane a with planes
of projection 77) and /72 (Fig. 222).
Hi n t . Angle a may be found in the system n ^ r iiA i the new
ground line Su is drawn perpendicular to the traces k\ and m.\.
Angle p is found in the 772-/75 system with ground line s24 perpen­
dicular to traces /2 and n2.
14. From point K draw a perpendicular to the line of inter­
section of the plane of triangle ABC with plane a given by traces
k and / (Fig. 225).
15. Determine the angle formed by the plane of triangle ABC
with the plane a (Fig. 225).
16. Draw a plane at the same distance from both the non­
intersecting lines AB and CD (Fig. 226).
Hi n t . The construction is carried out as follows. Through point
B draw a line parallel to CD. Then draw a level line in the plane
of parallelism obtained. This level line enables us to find the new
system of planes of projection in which the projection of the plane
of parallelism is a straight line. The required plane will be
constructed in this same system of planes of projection.
128
 A/f f? 9S2
C29
X 0

A6
Fig. 231

9 1444 129
 17. Determine the angle between line AB and plane a given
by the traces k and I (Fig. 227).
Hi n t . This problem may be solved as in example 4, § 24,
(see Fig. 214).
18. Determine the distance between parallel lines AB and CD
(Fig. 228).
Hi n t . Both line segments should first be projected onto a new
plane in their true length. Then, by drawing a
second supplementary plane perpendicular to
the lines received, project them as points. The
distance between these points is the required
distance.
19. Construct a bisecting plane between
planes a and p (Fig. 229).
Hi n t . This problem can be solved by
changing two planes of projection (see
Fig. 212 and related text). First, the line o.f
intersection of the given planes should be
determined.
20. Construct new projections of the three-
dimensional detail (Fig. 230) on planes
774-L/72 and /75± 774.
21. Four points not lying in one plane are
shown in Fig. 231. Construct a cone with one
of the points as the vertex. The other three points should lie on the
lateral surface of the cone.
22. Given a pyramid SABCD (Fig. 232). Determine: a) the
angle between the base ABCD and face SAB, b) the altitude of the
pyramid, c) the shortest distance between edges AD and CB.
23. Draw a circle through the vertices of any triangle ABC, the
plane of which is oblique.
24. On ground line Ox find a point equidistant from traces M
and N of a given line AB. (See Figs. 209, 211 and 212 and related
text.)

§ 25. Method of Revolution

In accordance with this method the principal system of planes
of projection /7i-/72 remains unchanged while the lines and plane
figures to be projected are rotated about corresponding axes to posi­
tions in which their projections in the multiview drawings become
the true views of the lines, figures, etc.
The axes of revolution are straight lines perpendicular to a plane
of projection, parallel to it, or contained in a plane of projection.
Oblique lines are generally not used as axes of rotation since
they complicate the construction.
If it becomes necessary in the process of construction to revolve
130
any geometrical element about an oblique axis, the axis is first
brought to some suitable position, after which the necessary
rotation is carried out.

§ 26. Revolution about Axes Perpendicular

to Planes of Projection
1. Let there be given point A and the axis of revolution i per­
pendicular to the horizontal plane, of projection n { (Fig. 233, a).
When rotated about axis i point A will describe a circle in a plane

perpendicular to axis t. The radius of this circle is equal to the

distance of point A from axis i. The centre of the circle of revolution
is therefore contained in the axis of rotation i. The points A, A are
the various positions of point A on the circumference as it is rotated.
Since the plane of the circle of revolution of point A is parallel
to plane IJU the circle projects on this plane without distortion,
but on plane IJ2 it will project as a line, the length of which is
equal to the diameter of the circle. Moreover, 1;his line is parallel
to ground line Ox.
In the multiview drawing (Fig. 233, b) the following elements
are given: projections i\ and i2 of the axis of revolution i, the
projection of the circle of revolution of point A and projections C\
and C2 of centre C of this circle. The projection C\ coincides with
point i'i which is the horizontal projection of the axis of revolution i.
If point A revolving about axis i has been moved into position A, its
horizontal projection occupies the position A\ on the horizontal
projection of the circle of rotation. Its frontal projection is /42onthe
frontal projection of the circle. The points A x and A2 lie on the
same perpendicular to the ground line Ox.
When the axis of revolution i is perpendicular to the frontal
plane of projection IJ2 (Fig. 234), the circle of revolution of point
9* 131
A is contained in a frontal plane parallel to 772 and so is projected
onto plane 77^ as a circle and as a line parallel to ground line Ox
onto plane 77j.
It follows that a c i r c l e of r e v o l u t i o n of a p o i n t is
p r o j e c t e d w i t h o u t - d i s t o r t i o n o n t o t h a t p l a n e of
p r o j e c t i o n t o w h i c h t h e a x i s of r e v o l u t i o n is p e r ­
p e n d i c u l a r . Oo t h e o t h e r p r i n c i p a l p l a n e of p r o ­
j e c t i o n t h e c i r c l e is p r o ­
j e c t e d as a l i ne p a r a l l e l
t o t h e g r o u n d l i n e Ox.

2. Let us consider some examples.

E x a m p l e 1. Revolve point A about the axis i perpendicular to
plane 772 until it coincides with plane 77j (Fig. 235).
The circle of revolution of the point in this case is contained in
the frontal plane, therefore it will be projected onto 772 without
distortion and onto 77i as'a line parallel to ground line Ox.
Join projection i2 of the axis of revolution /, with which the
frontal projection of the centre of the circle of revolution coincides,
with point A2, and with point i2 as the centre describe a circle
having its radius rA=A2i2. This circle cuts ground line Ox in points
A2 and A2.
These _points_are the frontal projections of the two possible
positions A and A of p_oint A when it coincides with plane Ylx. The
horizontal projections A\ and A\ o[ points A and A are obtained_by
drawing projectors from i42 and A2 to intersection with line A\A\,
which is the projection of the circle of revolution on plane and
parallel to ground line Ox.
E x a m p l e 2. By rotation about the axis i perpendicular to
plane 17u make point A coincide with plane a (Fig. 236).
Through point A pass the horizontal plane (5 in which point A
moves when revolved about axis i. Plane p will cut the given plane
a along the horizontal NK.
Point A will coincide with plane a when the arc of the circle,
132
 which this point describes, cuts the horizontal NK. So, to obtain
the horizontal projection A\ of point A_in its position A in plane a
*it is necessary to describe an arc A\A\ from the centre i\ with a
radius rA to cut the horizontal projection N\Ki of the horizontal NK.
The frontal projection A2 of the new position of point A in plane
a is at the intersection of the projector passing through A\ with the
frontal projection N2K<i of the horizontal NK. This problem, like
the previous one, has two solutions.

Fig. 236 Fig. 237

3. T h e r e v o l u t i o n of a s t r a i g h t l i n e a b o u t a n
a x i s i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e l i n e is reduced to the revolution of
one of its points, because a point of intersection of the line with
the axis of revolution remains stationary and, together with the
point, which is moved, will determine the new position of the line.
In the drawing (Fig. 237) an oblique line AB is revolved about
the axis i passing through point A perpendicular to plane n x until
it becomes parallel to the plane of projection /72. Then the projec­
tion A2B2 on FJ2 gives the true length of the line AB.
Point A remains stationary. Its horizontal projection A\ coin­
cides with the horizontal projection of line i (i4i = /i). The projec­
tion A \B X is equal in length to the radius of revolution of point B.
If line AB is to be parallel to plane 772, its horizontal projection
A \B Xmust be rotated until it is parallel to^ ground line Ox. This is
done by moving point B x through arc B\B\ to a new position.Bj.
The frontal projection B2 moves along line B2B2 paraHel to ground
line Ox. Having drawn a projector through B\ point B2 is found at
the intersection of the projector and line B2B2. Point B2 is the
frontal projection of point B in its new position B. By joining the
133
points A2 and B2 we obtain the frontal projection A2B2 of the given
line after rotation about axis i. The length of A2B2 is the true length
of AB.
4. If the axis of revolution does not intersect a given straight
line two points of the line are rotated through the same angle
and in the same direction.

Let line AB be rotated about axis i through an angle a in a

counter-clockwise direction (Fig. 238). H avingjnoved point A\
through the arc A\Ai with radius A\i\ to point A\, and point B\
through the arc B\Bi with radius Bii'i to point B x, both moving
through_one and the same angle a, we find the horizontal projec­
tion AyB\ of _line AB after moving through angle a. The frontal
projection A2B2 is obtained by passing projectors through points
A\ and B\. These projectors intersect with the lines drawn through
points A 2 and B2 parallel to ground line Ox.
In this construction the triangles AiB^i and A\B\i\ are identical,
since two of their sides and the angle between them remain
unchanged. _ _ '
That is to say, A\ii=A\i\, B\ii = B\i\, <$.A\i\B\ = <$.Aii\Bi, since
each of these angles equals 360°—(a°+_jO.
Since these triangles A\B\i± and A\B\i\ are equal, their third
sides are equal, i. e., A\Bi=A\B\.
It follows that the p r o j e c t i o n of a n y l i n e o r f i g u r e on
t h e p l a n e , t o w h i c h t h e a x i s of r o t a t i o n is p e r p e n ­
dicular, after rotation r emains unchanged.
This deduction simplifies the construction of projections of given
lines revolved about an axis perpendicular to the plane of projec­
tion and not intersecting the given line.
134
 Such a simplified construction is shown in Fig. 239. The line
CD, when revolved counter-clockwise through an angle a about
axis i which is perpendicular to plane 772, takes the new position of
the line CD. From point 12 a perpendicular to the projection C2D2 is
drawn. The base K2 of this perpendicular is moved through an angle
a to point K2. Point K2 is joined to point t’2 by a straight line. Then
through point K2 a line at _an angle 90° to
12K2 is drawn. From point K2 on either side
distances K2C2 and K2D2 are laid off re­
spectively equal to the lengths K2C2 and K2D2.
The line C2D2 then is the projection of CD on
plane 772 in its new position CD._ _
The horizontal projections C\ and D( of
points C and D are found with the help of
projectors drawn through, points C2 and D2
to intersect lines _drawn parallel to ground
line Ox_through C1 and D\. By joining up
points Ci and D\ the horizontal projection of
CD in its new position CD is obtained.
5. R e v o l u t i o n a b o u t t w o a x e s . Fig. 240 illustrates the
method of bringing an oblique line AB into a position, perpendicular
to plane 772, by succesive revolutions of this segment about two
axes respectively perpendicular to the planes of projection 771
and 772.
First, we revolve line AB about axis i perpendicular to plane 77^
it also passes through point A. Line AB is brought into position AB
parallel to plane 77i. The frontal projection A2B2 will be parallel to
ground line Ox and the horizontal projection A\B\ gives the true
length of AB.
The second axis of rotation i' is drawn through point A perpen­
dicular to plane Il\. The line is rotated about this axis until it
becomes perpendicular to plane 772. The horizontal projection A\B\
will then be perpendicular to ground line Ox and the frontal projec­
tion A2B2 becomes a point.
6. Let us consider some examples.
E x a m p l e 1. It is required to construct a straight line AB
inclined at angles a and p to planes 771 and 772.
If line KL, making an angle a with plane 77j (Fig. 241), revolves
about an axis i, perpendicular to plane 77! and passing through
point K, point L will move along a circlejying in plane 77( and the
line KL in each new position (KL\ KL\ KL\ KL and so on) will form
135
one and the same angle a with plane /7X. The surface formed by
rotation of the line is a conical surface.
If point K remains stationary and line KL is made to form an
angle p with plane fJ2, after which it is revolved about the axis
passing through point K and perpendicular to plane 772, then point
L will describe another circle, this time in the frontal plane, and
the movement of line KL will describe a new conical surface.

All points of each of the two circles are at one and the same
distance KL from point K. Therefore both circles will lie on the
surface of a sphere, the centre of which coincides with point K and
the radius of which is equal to the length of line KL.
Let the circles intersect in some point Ln (Fig. 242). Then line
KLn will be common to both the first and second cones and so form
angle a with plane Llx and angle p with plane n 2.
These considerations enable the following construction to be
carried out in the multiview drawing (Fig. 243).
Draw the projections A \B Xand A2B2 of the frontal line AB at an
angle a to plane Llx. Through point A pass the axis i perpendicular
to plane IJX. Revolve the line AB about this axis. Point B will
describe a circle with radius A\BX, since when rotated about axis
i line AB forms a conical surface with its vertex at point A. _
Further, leaving point A stationary, draw the horizontal AB
equal in length to AB and making an angle p with plane /72. The
horizontal projection A XB of line AB is equal in length to AB and
makes an angle p with ground line Ox.
Through point A draw the second axis of revolution perpen­
dicular to plane Hq. Revolve line AB about this axis. The point B
in the frontal plane, parallel to 77^ will describe a circle with
radius A2B2. The movement of line AB generates the second conical
surface with its vertex at the same point A. _
_ The circles of radii A XB Xand A2B2 will intersect in points B and
B. Joining up these points with point A by lines AB and AB we
obtain the two positions of line AB forming angles a and p with
planes U\ and /72 as was required.
136
 The lines, symmetrical to the lines constructed, AB and AB, with
respect to the frontal plane passing through point A, will also form
angles a and P with planes 771 and /72. These lines may be obtained
if both nappes of one of the cones are constructed.
It follows that, as a rule, this problem has four solutions. If
the circles do not intersect but touch, the problem has only one
solution. The required line will then be a profile line. In general the

problem may be solved only in the case when the sum of the angles
a and p is less than 90°, which corresponds to the possible
positions of a line in space in relation to planes /7i and /72.
E x a m p l e 2. It is required to draw through point A a line
in plane a at an angle a to plane /72 (Fig. 244).
The problem is solved by constructing a conical surface with
its vertex in point A and the generatrix AB in its first position
parallel to plane 77x and forming an angle a with plane 772, point
B being contained in plane /72.
Through point A draw the axis of revolution i perpendicular to
plane /72. Then revolve line AB about this axis. The point B will-
describe a circle in plane /72 and the line AB will generate a conical
surface. The circle with a radius /l2fi2 intersects the frontal trace /2
of plane a in points B and B. Joining these points with point A we
find in this case two possible solutions. The lines AB and AB are
situated in plane a and make an angle a with plane '772.
If the circle which has been constructed merely touches trace
/2, the problem has one solution and in that case line AB and plane
a have one and the same angle of inclination a to the plane of
projection 772.
137
 When the circle and the trace k have no common points it
becomes impossible to draw in plane a a line inclined at angle a
to plane 772.
E x a m p l e 3. By rotation about axis i which is perpendicular
to plane hi, make the given line AB coincide with plane a
(Fig. 245).
Having found the piercing point K of line AB with plane a
through it draw the axis t per­
pendicular to plane 77], Rotate
about this axis one of the extreme
points of AB, for example point
A, until it coincides with plane a.
This operation is carried out

c2

Fig. 245 Fig. 246

with the help of the horizontal AN drawn in plane a through point

A (see Fig. 236). _
Having found the position A of point /4,_when it coincides with
plane a, join point K with point A. Line AK is that part of line
AB which has been rotated to coincide with plane a.
The position B of the point B of the line, when it has been made
to coincide with a, may be constructed by extending the projection
A 2K2 beyond point K2 to intersect a line drawn through point B2
parallel to ground line Ox. The point B2 is the frontal projection
of the point B after rotation. Then with thejielp of a projector find
the point Bt on the extension of projection A\K\.
7. T h e r e v o l u t i o n of a p l a n e a b o u t a n a x i s
p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e p l a n e of p r o j e c t i o n is
performed by rotating the points and lines by which the plane is
given through one and the same angle and in the same direction.
138
 It is required to revolve the plane of triangle ABC into a posi­
tion perpendicular to plane of projection U2 (Fig. 246).
All horizontals of a horizontal-projecting plane are projected
onto plane JI2 as points since these lines in space are perpendicular
to plane f l 2 (see Fig. 110). Therefore in the triangle ABC draw any
horizontal, say BK, and revolve it about the axis i perpendicular
to plane TI\ amd passing through point B until it takes up the posi­
tion BK and i£ perpendicular to plane 772, namely BiKi-L Ox, and the
projection B2K2 becomes a point. The horizontal projection of the
triangle, when rotated through the same angle as the projection
BiK\ of the horizontal was moved, will occupy the position A XB XC\.
The triangle A XB\C\ is equal to triangle A\BXC\. _ _
To obtain the frontal projections A 2 and C2 of points A and C
through A2 and C2 draw lines parallel to Ox,_and intersect them by
projectors passing through points A\ and Cx. By joining points
A2, B2 and C2 line A 2B2C2 is obtained. This is the frontal trace-
projection of the given triangle plane when turned until it is
perpendicular to the frontal plane of projection Tl^. _
The angle a formed by the trace-projection A2B2C2 and ground
line Ox determines the true value of inclination of triangle ABC
to the horizontal plane of projection '/7j.

8: When the p l a n e i s g i v e n by t r a c e s it can be rotated

by revolving one of its traces and a point or line belonging to the
plane.
In Fig. 247 the plane a assigned by traces k x and l2 is turned
about axis i perpendicular to plane IJX clockwise through angle p.
The revolution of the horizontal trace into position k x is carried
out with the help of the perpendicular i\Ki drawn from i\ to k x. After
moving point K\ into the p o sitional and joining it up with point
t'i of line i\K\ draw through point K\ the perpendicular k x. This line,
which is the horizontal trace of plane a after rotation, intersects
ground line Ox in point the point of convergence of traces of
plane a in its new position a.
The axis of rotation i, as can be seen from the drawing, is
contained in plane Il2 and intersects trace l2 in point A. This point
A is located on the axis of rotation i and so remains stationary. By
joining the frontal projection A 2 of point A with point X~ we
find the new frontal trace l2 of plane a after it has been revolved
about axis i through angle p.
In Fig. 248 the axis i about which plane a is revolved into the
position a, is perpendicular to plane 771 but not contained in
plane f l 2. The position of the new frontal trace l2 is determined by
139
the point of convergence X~ obtained after turning trace k { through
the given angle and by the new frontal trace N of the auxiliary
horizontal LN, drawn at any suitable altitude in plane a. This
horizontal is revolved into position LN with the help of point L in
the same way_as the'trace k x was turned using point K\. The new
frontal trace l2 does not pass through the point in which the trace
1%intersects projection i2 of the axis of revolution i.

9. The following examples of the transformation of projections

based on the principle of the revolution of planes are given. '
E x a m p l e 1. It is required to determine the inclination of an
oblique plane a to the frontal plane of projection f l 2 (Fig. 249).
Plane a can be converted into a horizontal-projecting plane by
revolving it about axis i perpendicular to plane I72 and contained
in plane /7j. To construct the frontal trace l2 from point i2 draw a
perpendicular i2K2 to l2 and revolve it till it coincides with ground
line Ox. Through point K2= X~ draw the trace l2 perpendicular to
Ox. Through points X~ and A\ draw the horizontal trace k\.
After revolution the plane a
is perpendicular to plane IJu

x.

Fig. 249 Fig. 250

140
 therefore the angle p between trace k\ and ground line Ox is the
required angle of inclination of plane a to 772.
E x a m p l e 2. It is required to determine the distance between
the parallel oblique planes a and p (Fig. 250).
Convert both planes into frontal-projeoting planes by revolving
them about the„axis i which is perpendicular to plane 77, and lying
in plane /7a (see example 1). The planes a and p after the revolution
are perpendicular to plane 772.
The distance h betweeji their
new frontal traces l2 and n2 is the
required distance.
E x a m p l e 3. It is required
to revolve plane a about the axis
i perpendicular to plane 77] so
that it passes through point A
(Fig. 251).
In plane a, at the altitude of
point A, draw the horizontal NL
and revolve it about axis i until
it passes through point A. Point
L, which is the foot of the per­
pendicular drawn from i\ to
N\L\ will describe a circle when
the horizontal is rotated. By drawing a tangent to this circle
through point A t the new position N iLt of the horizontal projection
of the horizontal NL of plane a is found.
Point Ki, which is the foot of the perpendicular drawn from ii
to trace k\ when plane a is revolved, will also describe _a circle.
A tangent drawn to this circle parallel to the projection N\L\ of the
horizontal NL gives the horizontal trace k\ of plane a in its new
position a. _
The frontal trace l2 will pass through X~^t i. e., the_point of
convergence of the traces, and through the frontal trace N2 of the
horizontal NL.
This problem has two solutions, because through point A\ two
tangents to the circle with radius i\L\ can be drawn.
E x a m p l e 4. It is required to find the true size of a triangle
ABC contained in an oblique plane (Fig. 252).
This problem is solved by successive revolutions of triangle ABC
about two axes respectively perpendicular to the planes of projec­
tion 77i and 772.
By means of the first revolution about axis i perpendicular to
plane 772, passing through vertex A, triangle ABC is brought into
a position ABC so that it becomes perpendicular to plane 77! (see
Fig. 246). The projection of axis i is not shown in Fig. 252. The
141
frontal AK is drawn in the plane of the triangle and then rotated
about axis i until it becomes perpendicular to plane 171.
The triangle ABC is brought into position ABC parallel to plane
772 by revolving it about axis i' perpendicular to plane /7j. This axis
passes through point C. The projection_of axis i' is not shown in
the drawing.'The horizontal projection ABi^i is parallel to ground
line Ox, and the frontal projection A2B2C2 is a true view of the
given triangle ABC.

The first revolution about the axis i is sufficient to determine

the angle of inclination p of triangle ABC plane to the frontal
plane of projection 772.

Problems and Exercises

1. In what plane does a point move when it is revolved about

an axis a) perpendicular to plane I7i, b) perpendicular to plane 772?
2. To which plane of projection should the axis of revolution be
perpendicular in order to revolve an oblique line a) into a
horizontal position, b) into a frontal position?
3. What revolutions about axes perpendicular to the planes of
projection are required to bring an oblique line into a vertical
position?
4. How can an oblique plane, given as a triangle, be rotated so
as to be perpendicular a) to plane 771, b) to plane 772?
5. The same as (4) when the plane is given by its traces.
6. Revolve a point A through 60° in a clockwise direction about
an axis i perpendicular to plane 77i (Fig. 253).
7. Make point A coincide with the plane of triangle BCD by
rotating it about an axis i perpendicular to plane 77i (Fig. 254).
142
 '29

flfi i

X-

%
Fi£. 255 F/g. 254 F ig . 255

*2

F ig . 25 6 F ig . 257

F ig . 262

143
 Hi n t . In plane BCD draw an auxiliary horizontal at the
altitude of point A.
8. Bring point B into a position so that it lies at 10 mm from
plane a (Fig. 255) using the method of rotation about an axis i
perpendicular to /72.
Hi n t . First, a plane p should be drawn parallel to plane a at
a distance of 10 mm from it.
9. Determine the angle p formed by line AB and plane 772
(Fig. 256).
10. Rotate line AB until it becomes perpendicular to plane 771
‘(Fig. 257).
Hi n t . First, line AB should be converted into a frontal by
"turning it about an axis perpendicular to plane 771. Then, it should
be revolved about an axis perpendicular to plane 772.
11. Draw a line AB in plane a to form an agle of 45° with II i.
Point A is given (Fig. 258). (See Fig. 244 and text.)
12. By means of rotation determine the distance from point K
to line AB (Fig. 259).
Hi n t . Two successive revolutions of the line and the point
about axes perpendicular to the planes of projection should be
carried out so as to make the line perpendicular to one of the planes
of projection. The line AB will then be projected as a point. The
distance between this point and the new projection of point K will
be the required distance.
13. Revolve line AB until it lies in the plane of triangle CDE
(Fig. 260). (See Fig. 245 and text.)
14. Revolve line AB until it is parallel to the plane of triangle
CDE (Fig. 260).
Hi n t . This problem may be solved in the same way as the
previous one. However, the line AB should be made to coincide
with a plane drawn parallel to the given plane CDE.
15. Revolve the oblique line AB about an axis i perpendicular
to plane 771 so that its projection A \B X becomes parallel to the
projection KtL\ of a line AX contained in plane T1\.
16. Construct a line AB so that the angles it makes with
planes III and 772 are a=45° and p = 30°, respectively. (See
Fig. 243 and text.)
17. Determine the true size of the pentagon ABCDE (Fig. 261).
18. Rotate the plane a so that it becomes a frontal projecting
plane (Fig. 262).
Hi n t . Revolve the plane about an axis perpendicular to 77i
(compare with Fig. 249).
19. Determine the distance between the parallel planes a and
P (Fig. 263).
20. Revolve a triangle ABC which is part of an oblique plane
so that it becomes parallel to plane /72.
144
 § 27. Revolution about Axes Parallel
to Planes of Projection
1. An oblique ljne AB is shown in Fig. 264. Let a line i be drawn
parallel to plane 771 intersecting line AB in point K. Assuming line
i to be the axis of revolution let lineAB be fotated until it becomes
parallel to plane 77j. __
After the line has assumed its new position AB its frontal
projection A 2B2 will merge with the frontal projection i2 of the axis
of revolution i and its horizontal projection AiB\ will give the true
length of AB.
The construction of the horizontal
projection A\B\ after the line has been
turned is carried out as follows. The
points A and B are revolved about
axis i and they move in horizontal-
projecting planes a and p perpendi­
cular to the axis of revolution i. lt_fol-
lows, that the projection A\ and B\ of
the extremes of line AB in its new
position AB will lie on the traces ai
and Pi perpendicular to the projection
A\B\. When line AB is in a horizontal
position the radii of revolution of
points A and B will be projected onto
plane 77! in their true length. The true F ig . 264
length of the radius rA for point A is
found with the help of a right triangle. The radius rA is laid off from
point Ci, which is the horizontal projection of the centre of revolu­
tion C for point A. Point A\ lies on trace oi.
Point A\ is joined by a line with the projection K\ of the
stationary point K in which axis i intersects line AB. In this way
the horizontal projection of line AB_after rotation about axis i is
obtained. The horizontal projection 7?i of point B lies at_the inter­
section of projection A\K\ with trace Pi. The projection A\B\ gives
the true length of line AB.
2. T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e t r u e v i e w of a p l a n e
f i g u r e by r e v o l u t i o n a b o u t a n a x i s p a r a l l e l t o a
p l a n e of p r o j e c t i o n is shown in the multiview drawing
(Fig. 265). By rotation about axis i, which is parallel to plane 771,
the triangle ABC is brought to a position parallel to plane 77lt on
which it is then projected in _its true size (AA\B\Ci = A A B C ).
The frontal projection A2B2C2 of triangle ABC after revolution
merges with the frontal projection of axis i.
10 1444 145
 In order to construct triangle A\B\C\ a perpendicular to the
projection i\ of the axis, of revolution is drawn. Then the true
dimension of radius rB is determined by turning point B. To do
this the right triangle method is employed. The distance rB is
marked off on the perpendicular. Point B i obtained in this way is
the projection of the vertex B of the original triangle when it
becomes parallel to plane 77j.

Point Ci, which is the horizontal projection of vertex C of the

triangle ABC when it isjparallel to plane IJU is found by drawing
a line through points B\ and Ki to intersect the perpendicular
drawn from Ci to i\.
The vertex A of the triangle remains stationary since it is a
point on the_axis o£ revolution. Its projection A\ is joined with
projections B\_an& by straight^lines. This gives the horizontal
projection A \B XC\ of triangle ABC when it is parallel to plane n {.
E x a m p l e . Determine the distance between the parallel lines
AB and CD (Fig. 266).
Draw the horizontal KL of the plane determined by the lines
AB and CD. About this horizontal lines AB and CD should be
rotated so that they become parallel to plane n {.
Projection A\ of point A is found by determining the radius rA.
A straight line is drawn through A\ and K\- This is the horizontal
projection of line AB after rotation. Then, through projection L,\ of
the stationary point L a second line is drawn parallel to line A XK\.
The distance I between these lines gives the true distance at which
AB lies from CD.
146
 § 28. The Method of Coincidence
1. T h e m e t h o d of c o i n c i d e n c e is a p a r t i c u l a r
c a s e of t h e m e t h o d of r e v o l u t i o n . It is used to bring
geometrical elements, points, lines and planes into coincidence
with one of the planes of projection by means of revolution about
an axis contained in that plane of projection.

F i g . 267 F ig . 26 8

In the drawing (Fig. 267) it is seen that point A is brought into

coincidence with the horizontal plane of projection I7i by revolving
it about axis i contained in that plane. Point A is the position of
point A in n { and it lies on a perpendicular drawn from A\ to i\.
Its distance from axis i is equal to the radius of revolution rA of
point A. The radius rA_is obtained by the right-triangle method.
The frontal projection A2 of A after it has been made to coincide
with 77i is located on the ground line Ox.
2. The method of bringing a plane given as the triangle ABC
into coincidence with plane /7i is shown in Fig. 268. The horizontal
trace of this plane serves as the axis of revolution. By rotation
about.the axis k triangle MBM' is made to lie in plane I I When
carrying out this construction only the vertex B has to be brought
into coincidence with /7i, since the vertices M and Mf are them­
selves contained in plane FI\. Having found point B ^join it by
straight lines to M\ and ^ J T h is gives triangle M\B\JA!X which
coincides with ri\. Triangle ABC is part of triangle M xBiM[. To find
this triangle it is sufficient to draw from points A \ and C\ lines A\A\
and C\C\ perpendicular to the projection k\ of the axis of rotation.
These lines intersect the sides AfiBi and M[B\ of triangle M)B\M[
10* 147
which has been brought into coincidence wih 77j; points A t and
Ci obtained are then joined by the straight line A\Ct.
3. The construction required in order to bring planes given by
traces into coincidence with the plane of projection 77i is shown
in Figs. 269 and 270.

In Fig. 269 the plane a is made to coincide with plane I7\ by

revolving it about the horizontal trace k\.
To construct the frontal trace k of plane a, which coincides with
plane 77i, it is sufficient to make one of its points coincide with /7lt
for example point K. The other point through which trace h will
pass is Xa) the point of convergence of the traces k\ and h. The
projection /Ci _will move when the point K is revolved and moves
along line K\K\ perpendicular to the axis of revolution k\.
^The position of point K when made to coincide with plane 77j
is K\. This point lies at a distance from Ci equal to the radius of
revolution rK of point K. The radius itself is found by the right
triangle method.
Point Ki is then joined with point Xa of line k which is the
frontal trace of plane a when it coincides with 77].
In Fig. 270 the point Ki on the frontal trace of plane a after
being brought into coincidence with TIXhas been foumi by another
method. The distances from point X a to points K2 and 7(j are equal,
since they represent true values of one and the same segment.
Therefore from point K\ a perpendicular to the horizontal trace k\
of plane a is drawn. This perpendicular is then cut in point Ki by
an arc of radius r = X aK,2 with point Xt as its centre.
Such a simplified construction is possible only when the traces
of the given planes intersect on the ground line Ox within the
limits of the draw ing,'
 4. In order to bring the frontal trace l2 of plane a which is
parallel to ground line Ox into coincidence with plane IJi
(Fig. 271), a point A is taken on trace l2 and brought into
coincidence with plane Jl\ by the right triangle method. In the
new position o_f the plane trace l2 is parajlel to trace k\ and passes

5. A point contained in a given plane may be brought into

coincidence with a plane of projection with the help of an auxiliary
line drawn in the given plane through the point. A horizontal or
frontal is generally chosen as the auxiliary line.
The construction required to bring point A contained in plane
a into coincidence with plane 77) is shown in Fig. 272.
Through point A in plane a the horizontal AN is drawn. The
frontal trace N = N 2 oi this horizontal is made to coincide with plane
n i. Through point N x and point of convergence of traces X a the
trace l2 of_pJane a, when it coincides with 771, is drawn. The
horizontal is drawn through point jVi parallel to k\ This line
is coincident with 77j. Point Ai lies on this line at its intersection
with the perpendicular drawn from A\ to k\ or, what is the same
thing, to N\A\.
This construction could be carried out by using a frontal lying
in plane a, as shown in Fig. 273.
The same number of graphical operations is required to
determine point A\ by the methods, shown in Figs-. 272 and 273.
Nevertheless when bringing several points into coincidence with
plane 77j it is advisable to use a frontal as the auxiliary line,
because after the first point has been determined in its coincided
position, the rest of the construction requires less graphical work
and is simpler than when a horizontal is used (see Fig. 273).
It also follows that, when bringing a number of points of a
given plane into coincidence with the frontal plane of projection
fl2, it is better to use a horizontal of the plane as the auxiliary.
149
 6. The method of coincidence is very convenient when construct­
ing a figure of given dimensions and form in an oblique plane. The
given plane may be brought into coincidence with one of the planes
of projection /7Xor /72. The required figure is then constructed as
a true view coinciding with the plane of projection. The given plane
with the figure on it is returned to its original position. This gives
the projections of the figure
on 77x and /72. Such an opera­
tion is called the restoration
of points to the plane.
It is required to construct
in plane a a regular hexagon
with'sides equal in length to
line h (Fig. 274).

F ig . 27 3

After making plane a coincide with /72 with the help of point K
taken on trace k\ jon_pl_ane a in its new position construct the
regular hexagon A2B2C2D2E2F2 with its sides equal in length to A.
After this, with the help of horizontals in the coincided plane a
drawn parallel to the horizontal trace ky of the plane and passing
through the vertices of the hexagon we construct the frontal projec­
tion A2B2C2D2E2F2 and the horizontal projection A\BiC\D\EiF\ of
the figure. The construction of the frontal and horizontal projec­
tions of one vertex, say point A, is as fojjows. Through point A2
parallel to trace draw the horizontal A2A2 coincided with /72.
Through N2 draw its frontal projection N2A2 parallel to ground line
Ox. The projection A2 of point A is found by passing a perpendicular
from A2 to trace /2 and extending it to intersect the frontal projec­
tion of the horizontal. Once W2 has been found, the projection A'i
may be determined. Then through N\ the horizontal projection of
the horizontal is drawn and on it, with the help of a projector, the
150
horizontal projection A x of point A is determined. The other five
vertices of the hexagon ABCDEF are found in a similar way.
The horizontal and frontal projections of a hexagon situated in
plane a are found by joining the corresponding points by straight
lines. •
7. Construct in plane a a
circle of a radius r= 17 mm
with its centre at point C
(Fig. 275).
A horizontal CN is drawn
in plane a through point C.
The frontal trace N of this
horizontal is then made to
coincide with plane 77j. After
that through points Aa_and
N2 the frontal trace l2 of
plane a coinciding with 772.
is drawn. Through jV2 parallel
to k\ a horizontal in coinci­
dence with 77i is drawn.
Next, from point C\ a perpen­
dicular is dropped to trace k x
of plane a to intersect this
coincided horizontal in point
Ci. From point Ci as the
centre, a circle of radius r
is described. Two pairs
of mutually__ perpendicular
diajneters^ AiBx± D xEi and
KiLiA-RiFi, are drawn, dia­
meter A\BX being parallel to
trace k x and diameter K\LX
parallel to trace l2.
Since diameter AB of the circle is parallel to plane 771, it will
be projected onto 77i in its true length. Therefore A\Bi (A\B\ =
= ~AxBx) is the major axis of the ellipse which is the projection of
the circle on 77i. The diameter KL parallel to plane 772 determines
the position and length of the major axis of the ellipse which is the
frontal projection of the circle. The minor axes of these ellipses are
perpendicular to the major axes and are determined by the projec­
tions of the diameters DE and RF.
After restoration of points of the circle from the coincided
position to plane a points A\ and B x will lie on the horizontal
projection of the horizontal CN, each at a distance equal to radius
151
r from point C(. Points K2 and L2 will lie on the frontal projection
of the frontal drawn through point C2, also at a distance equal to
radius / from point C2.
Projections A\B\ and K2L2 are equal in length to diameter of
the circle. The projections of the diameters DE and RF on planes
771 and IJ2 will be perpendicular to the corresponding projections
of diameters AB and AX, namely, D X i i / l ^ i and R2F2±K.2L2.
To find the projection D\E\, which is the minor axis of the
ellipse in plane 771, it is sufficient to construct the horizontal
projection of only one extreme point such as D of the diameter DE.
The length of the minor axis of the ellipse in plane fl2 may be
determined by restoring to plane a one of the ends of the diameter
RF, for example point R, from the coincided position. _
Point Dj^may be found with the help of frontal DM, DiM{ being
parallel to 12. Point E x is obtained by marking distance CXD^ on
the minor axis DiE\ but on the opposite side of major axis A\B\.
The point R2 in plane 772 is constructed with the help of the
horizontal RN. Point F2 lies on the opposite side of the major axis
of ellipse K2L2 at the same distance from point C2 as the point R2.
Once the axes have been found the ellipses, which are the
complete horizontal and frontal projections of a circle of radius r
contained in plane a, may be drawn.

§ 29. Revolution with Parallel Transfer

of Projections

Sometimes the views obtained by revolving projections about

axes perpendicular to planes of projection are found to lie one on
top of the other. This can be avoided by applying another
method (see Fig. 276). In this drawing by means of two successive
revolutions about axes respectively perpendicular to planes of
projection 77( and 772, the plane of triangle ABC is made to lie
parallel to the horizontal plane of projection 77],
The triangle is brought into the position ABC perpendicular to
plane 772 by the first revolution. The construction is carried out
with the help of the horizontal CF which is rotated about an axis
perpendicular to plane 77j until it is perpendicular to the frontal
plane of projection /72. _
It is convenient to shift the horizontal projection i4iBiCi to the
right side of the drawing where there is space. This corresponds to
rotating it about an axis perpendicular to the plane of projection
771 and changes neither its form nor size.
The frontal projection A2B2C2 is then obtained in the usual way,
i. e., from points A\, B u Ct projectors are drawn perpendicular to
ground line Ox to intersect the corresponding lines drawn through
152
points A2, B2, C2 parallel to ground line Ox^The points A2, B2 and
C2 are then joined by the straight line ,42.B2C2.
By means of a second revolution about an axis perpendicular
to plane 772 the triangle ABC is brought_to^ the position ABC
parallel to plane IIi. The frontal projectio'n A2B2C2 is then parallel
to ground line Ox.

F ig . 27 6

This projection A2C2B2 is shifted by a parallel transfer to a

convenient position a_t_ the right of the drawing. Projectors are
drawn through points A2, B2 and C2 and through points A u B u C\
lines parallel_to _ground jine Ox are gassed^ Their intersections
give points A x, B\ and Ci. Triangle A\B\C\ is a true view of
triangle ABC.

§ 30. Combined Transformations of Projections

So far we have examined the revolution of vatious geometrical
elements about axes perpendicular or parallel to one of the planes
of projection, the rotation being made about axes either parallel to
plane /7j or plane 772. Moreover, this rotation was carried out not
through any definite angle but only up to the one particular posi­
tion when the figure being drawn becomes parallel to a plane of
projection.
Sometimes it becomes necessary to revolve geometrical elements
through a definite angle about oblique axes or axes parallel to one
of the planes of projections.
In such cases it is common practice to resort to combined
transformations. The axis of revolution in that case is first
positioned perpendicular to one of the planes of projection. If we
153
revolve a geometrical element through a given angle about an axis
in such a position we find the projection of the element in the
system of principal planes of projection IJ1-IJ2.
Let us consider some examples.
E x a m p l e 1. It is required to revolve point A about axis MN
parallel to plane Fl\ through
angle a=90° in a counter-clock­
wise direction (Fig. 277).
First, the plane of projection
n 2 for TI\ is changed so that
the axis of revolution is projected
onto plane IJ4 as a point. To
ensure this plane /74 is drawn
perpendicular to both line MN
and plane 771# This is possible
since MN is parallel to 77j. The
axis MN is projected onto plane
/74 as point M4^ N 4, and point
A as point A 4.
We then revolve point A
through the given angle a in
the system of planes of projec­
Fig. 277 tion n r n 4. The projection A4will
move into position A4 and the
projection A\ into position
Ai. This is indicated by
arrows.
Then we find the pro­
jection A2 by drawing
through A 1 a projector per­
pendicular to ground line
Ox and laying off on it up­
wards from Ox the value
of z for point A.

154
 The constructed projections Ai and A2 are the projections of the
given point A after it has been transferred to the required posi­
tion A.
E x a m p l e 2. Given two oblique lines AB and MN, it is
required to revolve line AB about line MN through an angle a=60°,
clockwise (Fig. 278).
By successive substitution of the planes of projection 771 and 772
by the planes 7714 and 77s we transform the projection of the axis of
revolution MN into a point contained in the system of planes of
projection 774-775. Line AB should also be constructed in this
system of planes of projection.
Having done that we revolve line^ AB about axis MN A. 11$
through the angle a. Lines A5B5 and /I4B4 are projections on _77s
and 774 of line /173_when it js turned into the required position AB.
The projections A\B\ and A\B2 of line 717? in the given system of
planes of projection TZi-772 are found by means of reverse
projections.

§ 31. The Use of Related Conformity

in Transforming Projections
1. It is possible to establish a definite relationship between the
position of a geometrical element when it has been brought into
coincidence with a plane of projection and the projection of that
element on the given plane of projection.
For example, in _Fig. 275 the horizontal projection C1
corresponds to point C1 which coincides with plane 77j. Projec­
tion A\BX corresponds to the coincided diameter >11^ 1. The ellipse
A\B\DiE\ corresponds_to the circle with centre C\. Line D\M\
corresponds to line D\M\ and so on.
This relationship is called related conformity and -is studied in
the course of projective geometry, in which it is proved that between
the geometrical element itself and each of its orthographic projec­
tions and also between the orthographic projections of the element
on planes Il\ and 772, a related conformity may always be
established.
The following invariants exist in related conformity (see
Fig. 275):
1) One and only one point of a plane corresponds to each point
of another plane. For example, only point C\ corresponds to
point Ci.
2) To each line contained in a plane there is only one
corresponding line jn another plane. For example, only line D\M\
corresponds to line D\Mi.
3) Each pair of related lines intersects on a line called the axis
155
of alliance or the axis of conformity. Points contained in this axis
are called duplicate points since they correspond to themselves.
4) The duplicate point of two related lines parallel to the axis
of conformity lies at infinity (for example, A\B\ and A\B{).
5) For a point contained in a line there is one corresponding
point contained in any other related line._For example, point Ci on
line A\B\ corresponds to point C\ on line A\B\.
6) Two parallel lines
in one plane correspond to
two parallel lines in an­
other plane.
7) ff a part of a line
in one plane is divided
into some ratio by a point,
the part of a line related
to it in another plane is
divided in the same ratio
by the point corresponding
to the first point.
2. The use of related
conformity for the trans­
formation of projections
allows a considerable
decrease in the number of
auxiliary lines in the draw­
ing as compared with the
more usual constructions.
For example, it is re­
quired to find the true size
of the pentagon. ABCDE
contained in plane a
(Fig. 279). When constructing this pentagon, after it has been made
to coincide with plane I7U we shall use the properties of related
conformity.
Vertex A of the pentagon is made to coincide with plane by
revolution about trace k\ of plane a. This is done in the usual way,
i. e., with the help of right triangle S i/l^o , the true size of the
radius of revolution rA of point A is determined. This length_is
laid off from point Si on the perpendicular to k\. We then obtain A\,
that is the position of point A when it has been made to coincide
with plane FI\.
Having assumed trace k\ as the axis of conformity o£ tjie_figu£e
A\BxC\DiE\ to be transformed into the related figure A 1B 1C1D1E 1
in coincidence with plane Tl\ and assuming that point V ticorres-
f56
ponds to point A\, the subsequent construction is carried out by
using related conformities.
Extend line A\B\ to intersect the axis of conformity k\ in the
duplicate point M\. Join Afi with point A\ by line A\M\ which is
related to line A\M\. Draw a perpendicular from Bi to k\, i. e., in
the direction of conformity of fiiBi.JThe intersection of this perpen­
dicular with line A\M Xgives point B\ related to point B\.
Point Ei related to point E\ is constructed in a similar manner
with the help of line A\M " and the line A\M'i related to it. Point Ey
is found at the intersection of a perpendicular drawn form E\ to£i
with line A iAfJ'. _ _
By simila_r constructions points Dt and C\ are also found. The
pentagon A\B\C\D\Ei constructed in this way is related to pentagon
A\B\C\D\E\ and is the pentagon ABCDE when it is brought into
coincidence with plane IJ\:

Problems and Exercises

1. In what type of projecting plane does a point move when

it is revolved about a) a horizontal, b) a frontal?
2. Describe the procedure for constructing a multiview drawing
of a point made to coincide with the frontal plane of projection by1
revolving it about a line contained in plane n 2.
3. What line should be taken as the axis to revolve a plane
figure: a) into plane 77i, b) into plane 772?
4. Why is a horizontal of a plane located parallel to the
horizontal trace of plane, and its frontal — parallel to its frontal
trace after the plane has been rotated to lie in a plane of projection?
5. Given the position of a point rotated into a plane of projec­
tion, from an oblique plane, how can the projection of this point
in the given oblique plane be determined?
6. Rotate vertex B of triangle ABC about the frontal AK until
it lies at the same distance from plane 772 at which the frontal lies
(see Fig. 252). (See § 27.)
7. Rotate point A about the line MN located in 772 into the
frontal plane of projection (Fig. 280). (See § 27.)
8. Make the frontal-projecting plane a coincide with plane /72.
.9. Make the plane a given by point A and ground line Ox
coincide with plane n x.
10. In plane a draw a line CD at 20 mm from AB and parallel
to AB which is contained in plane a (Fig. 281).
Hi n t . This problem may be solved by the method of coinci­
dence (see § 28).
11. The trace /2 of plane a is given. The angle between traces
h and k\ in space is 75°. Construct in this plane an isosceles
157
triangle ABC with a base .45 = 40 mm and altitude H = 50 mm
(Fig. 282). (See Fig. 274 and related text.)
12. Construct a regular hexagonal pyramid with its base in
a given plane a. The side of the base of the pyramid is 30 mm, the
altitude — 50 mm. The centre of the base lies at point C (Fig. 283).

F ig . 281

Hi n t . When determining the projection of the vertex of the

pyramid it is necessary to find the true length of any limited part of
the line of altitude of the pyramid.
13. Find the true size of triangle ABC which lies in a plane
parallel to ground line Ox and inclined to planes of projection
171 and 772.
14. On an oblique plane construct a cylinder the diameter of
which is 40 mm and the altitude — 70 mm.
Hi n t . The solution is similar to that given in the hint to
question 12.
 C h a p t e r VII
REPRESENTATIONS OF GEOMETRICAL BODIES
AND THE DEVELOPMENTS OF SURFACES

§ 32. Multiview Drawings of Geometrical Bodies

and Projections of Points and Lines on their Surfaces
I. Three projections of various geometrical bodies are shown
in Fig. 284. These bodies are a tetragonal parallelepiped (Fig. 284, a ) ,
triangular and hexagonal prisms (Fig. 284, b, c), triangular and
tetragonal pyramids (Fig. 284, d, e), the frustum of a tetragonal
pyramid (Fig. 284, f), a cylinder (Fig. 284, g), a cone (Fig. 284, h),
a sphere (Fig. 284, i), and an annular torus or anchor ring
(Fig. 284,/).
All these bodies are depicted in the most convenient position
determining their projections. That is to say, their axes, edges and
faces are projected onto certain of the planes of projection in their
true size and onto others as points and lines. Thus, for instance,
all the vertical edges and the front face of the right parallelepiped
(Fig. 284, a) are projected onto plane 772 in their true size and on
plane IJx as points A x= B ^ B 'U C ^ C ', D ^ D ', while the
face is projected as line A XDX— A', D[.
When working out and reading the multiview drawings of geomet­
rical bodies special attention should be paid to the conformity
of the dimensions repeated in pairs on each of the three
pairs of planes of projection, i. e., on /7Xand /72 (parallel to ground
line Ox), on /72 and /73 (parallel to line Oz) and on n x and /73
(parallel to line Oy). For example, in Fig. 284, c the dimension h,
taken in plane n x parallel to ground line Oyi, is repeated in plane
n 3 as the same dimension h parallel to ground line Oy3. The altitude
of the frontal and profile projections of the bodies, i. e., the dimen­
sions parallel to line Oz in planes /72 and Il3 are the same and so on.
The construction of multiview drawings of prisms, pyramids,
cylinders and cones is usually begun on those planes of projection
onto which their bases project in their true size, that is, as true
view.
It should be taken into account that in a system of three planes
159
160
F ig . 284
of projection /7r /72-/73 a cylinder is projected onto two of those
planes as equal rectangles, and the cone — as isosceles triangles.
The sphere on all three planes is projected as a circle whose
diameter is equal to the diameter of the sphere.
•
2. T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of p r o j e c t i o n s of p o i n t s
c o n t a i n e d in t h e s u r f a c e of a g e o m e t r i c a l body,
as a rule, is carried out with the help of lines drawn through these
points on the surface of the body.
It is possible to choose auxiliary lines in
any direction. However, for simplicity these
lines should be chosen so as to lie parallel
to one of the edges of the given body.
For instance, it is required to construct
at an altitude of 15 mm a point K on the
right-hand front lateral face of the tetra­
gonal regular pyramid frustum (Fig. 285).
This construction is carried out with the
help of horizontal MK drawn on the face
in question. For this purpose at an altitude
of 15 mm from the ground line Ox we
draw the frontal projection M2K2 of the
horizontal, the point M2 being contained
in the frontal projection of the right-hand
lateral edge BF. By drawing a projector
from point M2 to intersect line B\FX we
obtain point M x through which we draw
the projection M XK\ of the horizontal paral­
lel to the projection of edge A XB X, since
A\B\ is the horizontal trace of the plane of the right-hand front face
of the pyramid. By drawing a projector through point K2 to intersect
M\K\ we find the horizontal projection K\ of point K contained
in the surface of a pyramid and lying at a distance of 15 mm from
plane n x. It is evident that any point contained in the horizontal
MK will satisfy the conditions laid down.
3. T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of p o i n t s c o n t a i n e d in t h e
s u r f a c e of a c o n e is carried out with the help of a circle or
the generatrix, or.generating line of the cone. P o in ts on the surface
of the cone, Fig. 286, is constructed with the help of a circle of
radius r (r = 0 2D2= 0 xDx) and the point £, with the help of the
generatrix SC. The sequence of the constructions in Fig. 286 is in­
dicated by arrows. In this case the frontal projections A2 and B2 of
points A and B, contained in the surface of the cone, were given.
Hi n t . The radius of the auxiliary circle, with the help of which
point A 1 is constructed, is not equal in length to line 0 2A2f which
11 1444 161
is frequently and incorrectly assumed by students to be the true
length of the required radius. The radius is equal to the length of
0 2D2. Line 0 2A2 is the frontal projection of the radius of the given
circle, inclined to plane IJ2. It is clear, when its projection Si4,
on plane 77j is drawn, that OA is projected onto plane tl2 as a fore­
shortened line 0 2A2.
4. In Fig. 287 a frontal projection A 2
of point A has been constructed. This point
lies on the surface of a sphere and the hori­

zontal projection A \ of the point is given. An auxiliary circle has been

drawn on the surface of the sphere through point A. This circle
has a radius r which in the projection on ri\ is equal to the distance
between points C\ and A u i. e., this is the true length of the radius.
The frontal projection of the auxiliary circle is parallel to ground
line Ox and passes through point K2 determined after point Ki has
been determined, as shown by an arrow. By drawing a projector
from point A, to intersect the frontal projection of the auxiliary
circle the frontal projection A 2 of point A was found.
5. If a face of a body is perpendicular to the plane of projection,
the construction of points on that face is carried out directly,
without auxiliary lines. For instance, in order to construct the hori­
zontal projection A\ of point A contained in the lateral face of a
right tetragonal prism and given by the frontal projection A2
(Fig. 288), it is sufficient to draw a projector through point A2 to
intersect the projection of the face on n { in point A\.
The horizontal projection of line BC contained in another lateral
162
face of the same prism and its given frontal projection B2C2 are
found in a similar manner.
6. A triangular inclined pyramid frustum standing on plane /7j
is shown in Fig. 289. A part of this pyrajnid is cut out. The projec­
tion of this portion on plane 772 is bounded by the lines l<^2^i and
224262- By using the frontal projection let
us construct the horizontal projection of the
outline of the notch. Having found the
horizontal projection 2\ with the help of
projector 2\22, through point 2\ we draw
lines 2\4\ and 2\6\ respectively parallel to
projections B\DX and B\F\ of the edges of
the base of the pyramid. At the intersection
of linei?!^! with the projection of the lateral
edge C\D\ point 4\ will be obtained. By
drawing a line parallel to the projection
D\F\ of the third edge of the base of the
pyramid through this point 4\, we find the
projection 4\5\ of another line making up
the outline of the notch. We find point -51
on the projection 4\5\ and point 6\ on the
projection 2\6\ at the intersection of these
lines with a projector drawn through point
5 ^ 6 2 . The horizontal projections of the F ig . 289
other vertices of the notch, i. e., points 1\
and 3u contained respectively in the projec­
tions A \B X and C\D\ of the lateral edges, are also found with the
help of projectors, as shown by arrows. Having joined the points
71 and 3i by straight lines and with points 6\ and, 5\, respectively,
we finish the construction of the horizonal projection of the notch
left by the part cut out of the given geometrical body.

§ 33. Development of the Surfaces

of Geometrical Bodies
1. The development of the surface of a body is the figure obtained
when the surface is made to coincide with a plane*.
The development of the surface of a polyhedron consists in de­
termining the true views of each of its faces in succession in the
plane of the drawing. This is done in the same order as the faces
are located in space. When developing oblique prisms and pyramids
it is first necessary to determine the true size of each face with the
help of one of the methods of transforming projections.
* The term “the development of surfaces”, particularly in automobile body
designing offices, is frequently understood to mean the construction of the
drawings of complicated double curve surfaces.
11* 163
 The development of the surface of right prisms, all the angles of
the lateral faces being right angles, is carried out directly without
any transformation of projections.
For example, in order to develop the lateral surface of a
hexagonal right regular prism (Fig. 290) it is sufficient to draw
a line and step off on it six parts AB, BC, . FA, each of which is

Cg B„

equal to the side of the prism’s base and then construct the
rectangle A0A0A0A0. The height A'qA0 °f this rectangle is equal to the
altitude of the prism.
In this developed surface the lateral edges of the prism A'0A0,
B'0B0, ... are situated perpendicular to the sides A0A0 and A0A'0
of the rectangle, since all the angles of each face of the prism are
right angles.
The complete development of the prism will be obtained if,
adjoining the top and bottom sides of one developed face, we draw
the top and bottom surfaces of the prism as projected onto plane Il\
in their true size in the form of regular hexagons.
The point Ko marked on the lateral face AA'B'B can easily be
164
found. On the development of this face point Ko lies at a distance
from the line A qB q equal to the value of z for point K and to the
right of line A'0A0 at a distance A\K\ = /.

2. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a n O b l i q u e t r i a n g u l a r
p r i s m (Fig. 291) becomes complicated because the true distance
between the edges of each lateral
face cannot be read directly from
the. drawing. This distance may
be determined by the transforma­
tion of projections. For example,
by successive revolutions of the
prism about two axes respectively
perpendicular to the planes of

Fig.

projection n { and /72, the prism can be made to lie perpendicular

to plane /7lt Then on plane n x the prism will be projected as a
triangle whose sides are equal in length to the true distances
between the lateral edges.
The first revolution is about the axis perpendicular to /7j and
passing through the vertex A. The axis is no_t shown in the drawing.
This brings the prism into the position ABCDEF. The projection
in this position is drawn by single-dot-and-space lines. The lateral
edges of a prism are now parallel to plane /72 and so are projected
onto it as true lengths.
By second revolution about the axis passing through the same
vertex A but perpmdicular to /72, we bring the prism into the
vertical position ABCDEF. The projection of this position is rep­
resented by double-dot-and-space lines. The lateral edges_of_the
prism_will then be projected onto plane Fl2 as segments A2E2, B2D2
and C2F2 perpendicular to ground line Ox. On plane n { they will,
be projected as points i4i = £i, B\ = DX and C{= F i. Joining the^e
h53
points by straight lines we obtair the triangle which after the
second revolution of the prism is projected onto IJ\. This triangle
is indicated by hatching.
We now have all the dimensions required to develop the surface
of the prism.
Let us draw a horizontal line (Fig. 291, b) and take on it a point
A0 at random. From this point lay off the lengths of the sides of
the hatched triangle in succession. We then obtain points Co, Bo and
Ao through which we erect perpendiculars to the horizontal line.
Then we lay off on these perpendiculars the true lengths of the
lateral edges of the prism, taking jnto account the distance of the
ground line Ox from points B2 and C2.
Points Ao, Co, Bo, A0 and E0, F0, D0, E0 found in this way are
joined by straight lines in the same order as on the prism. The
figure A oCoB qA oE oDoFoEo is then the development of the sides of the
prism. To obtain the complete development it is necessary to adjoin
the bottom and top of the prism to the corresponding edges of one
of the developed faces. The dimensions of the sides of these ends
are taken directly from the drawing of the prism since they lie
parallel to plane 77j and are projected onto it in their true size.
Thus, A A qB oCo= A E oEqDo= A A \B\C\.
3. Another method of developing the lateral surface of the same
triangular prism is shown in Fig. 292. This method is known as the
method of unwrapping. In.this case the surface may be said to be
“unwrapped”. After converting the principal system of planes of
projection /7i-/72 by a new system /71-/74, where plane /74, perpen­
dicular to 77,, is parallel to the lateral edges of the prism, we obtain
the projection of a prism on plane 774 in which these edges are seen
in their true size as lines A4£ 4, B4D4 and C4F4. Then, in succession
we revolve the lateral prism faces about the edges AE, BD and CF
until they are parallel to the plane of the drawing. That gives us the
development of the lateral surfaces of the prism.
The vertices A, B, C, etc., during such rotations in space, will
move in planes perpendicular to the lateral edges of the prism.
In Fig. 292 the movement of points A4, B4 and C4 is shown by straight
lines AiAo, B4B0 and C4C0 drawn perpendicular to the lines A4£ 4,
B4D4 and C4F4. To facilitate the construction on these perpen­
diculars of points Ao, Bo and C0, i. e., the vertices of the lower base
of the prism rotated into the plane of the drawing, from Ao we
describe an arc with radius A0C0=AiCi to intersect line C4C0 in
point Co. From Co we describe an arc with radius CoB0= CiB! to
intersect line B4B0 in point B0. Finally, from point B0 an arc with
radius BoA0=BiAi is drawn to intersect A4A0 in point Ao. Lines
A,B,, B,Ci and CiA, give the true length of the sides of the prism’s
base.
Then, through points Ao, B0 and C0, we draw lines parallel to
166
the projections of the lateral edges of the prisms on plane /74. Next,
we lay off on these lines, from points Ao, Bo and Co, the true lengths
of the edges. Joining up the points Ao, Bo, Co, E q, Dq and Fo in the
corresponding order we obtain the development of the lateral sur­
faces of the prism. #
4. The development of the lateral surface of a pyramid can
be reduced to the construction of a series of triangles by finding

B,

F ig . 2 9 2

their three sides. Each of these triangles will be a true view of the
corresponding face of the pyramid.
The development of the surface of the oblique tetragonal pyramid
SABCD (Fig. 293) is begun by determining the true lengths of
the lateral edges. These edges are rotated about an axis passed
through the vertex 5 of the pyramid and perpendicular to plane
/7i, to a position parallel to plane FI<l. All the lateral edges then
are projected as true lengths. In Fig. 293 the construction is shown
for the edge SA. Any convenient point is marked on the drawing.
The triangle 5 0A0B0 is constructed by marking off distances equal
to the true length of the sides of face SAB. Then the triangles
167
S oB qCq and so on are built up. After this we add to the development
the sides of the base of the pyramid ABCD. These are taken from
plane Ylx on which the base is projected as a true view. The con­
struction of this base in the development is carried out with the
help of two triangles, ABC and ADC, into which the base is first
divided.

F ig . 293

5. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e l a t e r a l s u r f a c e of a
r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r is a rectangle the base of which
is equal to the circumference 2jir and the height of which is equal
to the altitude of the cylinder.
The development of a cylindrical elbow pipe is shown in Fig. 294.
The length of the development is equal to the length of the circum­
ference of a normal cross-section, since the diameter of all portions
of the pipe is the same. In order to determine the top and bottom
outlines of the development the circumference of the upper portion
is divided into 12 equal parts and through each dividing point we
draw a generatrix on the cylindrical surface of the pipe. With the
help of this on the surface of that part of the elbow to be developed,
we draw the same number of generatrices. Then the central line
of the development is also divided into 12 equal parts and through
the points of division we draw perpendiculars on which we lay off
upwards and downwards from the line distances equal to one half
of the length of the corresponding generatrix of the pipe section.
The curved outlines of the development or pattern are drawn
through the points obtained.
168
 6. The development of the lateral surface of an elliptical cylinder
(Fig. 295) is carried out by “unwrapping” the surface.
First, the cylinder was projected onto plane /74 which is per­
pendicular to plane U x and parallel to a generatrix. In this case
all the generatrices of the cylinder will be projected onto plane
/74 in their true length. Then through tfte projections / 4, 24= 84,
54~ 74>^4= 54 and 54ofthe
eight points which divide
the circumference into
equal parts, perpendiculars
are drawn to the projec­
tions of the generatrices on
plane /74. It should be
noted that the circumfer­
ence is the projection of
the lower end of the
cylinder on plane Tlx.
The projections of the
eight selected points, when
the surface of the cylinder
is being unwrapped, move
onto the perpendiculars.
The arcs are struck off
successively on these per­
pendiculars beginningfrom
point 74. The arcs are
equal in length to one
division of the projection
of the base on f l x and
determine the position of
eight points on the develop­
ment of the lower line of cylinder. Having drawn a continuous
curve through these points and having constructed a second
curve symmetrical to the first at a distance equal to the length of
the generatrix of the cylinder, the development of the lateral surface
of the given cylinder is completed.
7. The development of the surface of a right circular cone is
a circular sector, the radius of which is equal to the length of the
generatrix of the cone, and the central angle of which is determined
by the formula:
o r •360°

° —
where r is the radius of the cone’s base and / — the length of the
generatrix.
A right circular cone truncated by the frontal-projecting plane
169
a and the development of its surface is shown in Fig. 296. After
construction of sector SoOol2o whose arc is equal to the length of
the circumference of the circular base of the cone and whose radius
is equal to the length of the generatrix of the cone, the curve
A qB oCoDoEoFoK oL oM oN qR oVoA o, which is the development of the
elliptical section is plotted on the developed surface.

The circle of the base of the cone is divided into 12 equal parts.
Through these divisions we draw the 12 generatrices of the cone.
The points A and K are contained in the limiting generatrices, or
elements, of the cone. Both these elements are projected onto plane
772 in their true length, so we shall find these points on the
developed surface if we lay off from point So, on straight lines SoOo
and Sq12o, a distance equal to S2A2 and on line So^o a distance
170
equal to S2K2. To determine the distances of the other points
of the line of the ellipse to the vertex S, through their frontal
projections we draw straight lines parallel to ground line Ox
until they intersect one of the limiting generatrices of the cone,
which corresponds to revolving them tQ a position parallel to
plane IJ2. In Fig. 296 this is shown for point C2 only. Laying off

F ig . 2 9 6

8. When the generatrices of a frustum of a cone make angles

close to 90° with its base and the apex lies beyond the limits of the
drawing, an approximation of the development of the cone may be
obtained, as shown in Fig. 297.
We construct an equilateral trapezoid KLMN whose sides KN
and LM are equal to /, the length of the generatrix of the truncated
cone. The top and bottom are respectively equal to the length of the
circumferences of its base 2n-R and its top 2nr (r is the radius of
the top, R — the radius of the base). Divide sides KL and NM into
8 equal parts. Join the points obtained by straight lines 1-2, 3-4, etc.
Taking the sides KN and LM of the trapezoid as parts of the
radius of a sector of a circle on the development, draw the arc of
this sector passing through points M and N. The position of point
A on the extension of line 7-8 is determined as follows: 1) from
point 8 draw a perpendicular 8B to side KN of the trapezoid;
2) construct the bisector 8D of angle N8B\ 3) a distance equal to
ND is laid off on line 7-8 downwards from point 8. The point A
171
thus obtained is one of the points of the lower arc of the development
of the cone.
The construction of any other point of this arc, for example,
point D, lying on straight line 5-6, is carried out in the following
sequence: 1) draw a perpendicular NR to line 5-6 from point N;
2) from point R we draw a perpendicular RE to the side /GV;

F ig . 297

3) draw the bisector RF of angle NRE. We find point D by stepping

off a distance equal to NF on line 5-6 downwards from point R.
The points such as C, contained in arc KL, which is the
development of the upper line of the cone, are found by laying off
on the lines 7-8, 5-6, etc. from the points of the lower arc distances
equal to the length / of the generatrix.
The figure KNDAMLCK constructed in this way is somewhat
bigger than the true development. In order to obtain a more exact
development, the divisions of the length of the circumference of
the base and top of the cone should be laid off not on the chords
but on the arcs KL and NM, each corresponding pair of points
found should be joined by a straight line. In the drawing points A
and T are shown. The figure KNDATSCK will then be a more
exact development of the cone.
9. T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a n
o b l i q u e c o n e is similar to that of an oblique pyramid. A cone
is shown in Fig. 298, a , and in Fig. 298, b , the development of its
surface. This development is begun by dividing the base of the
cone into any suitable number of parts, sufficiently small in length
to ensure accuracy of the construction. Through the points chosen
draw the generatrices S A , SB, SC, etc. The rest of the construction
is that of the pyramid, shown in Fig. 293. Through the points
172
obtained a continuous curve F0EoD0CoBoA0N0M0L0KqF0 is drawn.
This is the development of base line of the oblique cone.
So as to plot a point on this approximate development, say,
point R lying on the surface of the cone, through point R draw a
generatrix, then find this generatrix on the development and on it,
from point 5 0 lay off the true distance from point R to the vertex S

of the cone. In Fig. 298 this distance is determined by the method

of revolution.
10. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a s p h e r e c a n o n l y be
a p p r o x i m a t e . Such a development is made by using either
meridians or lines of latitude. Sometimes it is advantageous to
develop one part of the sphere using the meridians and the other
part by using lines of latitude.
If the sphere is divided up by meridians into a number of sec­
tions, or gores, then each section of the surface is “peeled” off the
sphere as it were (Fig. 299, a). When the sphere is divided by lines
of latitude parallel lines are drawn to divide the surface into a
series of belts, or zones (Fig. 299, b) . The middle equatorial belt is
assumed to be a cylinder. The top and bottom belts are assumed
to be cones and the medium belts, as frustums of cones. The
development of the belts is then carried out according to the rules
for developing a cylinder, a cone and frustums of cones.
The development of the sphere, shown in Fig. 300, is carried out
173
with the use of meridians. The horizontal projection of the sphere
is divided into 12 equal parts. This gives the horizontal projections
of the 12 portions (“gores”) cut by meridional planes. To develop
the first gore we draw a horizontal line, and from point A0 lay off
on it AqB0 equal to the chord of arc i4iBi. Then through the middle
A0B0 we draw a perpendicular to it and step off on it points
0O, h , 20, 30, 40 and 50. The distance between these points is equal

respectively to the lengths of chords 02/ 2, h 2 2, 2232, 3242 and 4252,

into which a quarter of the circumference of the sphere was divided.
These divisions are to be seen on the projection of the sphere
surface on plane /72. Through points /o, 2o, <?o and 4o we draw
straight lines perpendicular to axis 0o5o and lay off on them to
either side of the axis, at equal distances from it, points Ko and Lo,
M0 and N0, Eo and Fq, So and T0. KqLq i's equal to the chord of the
arc K\L\ drawn in plane /7j through point l\ belonging to the first
gore. M0No is equal to the chord of the arc M\Ni. E0F0 is equal to
the chord E\F\ and, finally, S 0T0 is equal to the chord of arc S iTl.

F ig . 3 0 0

174
 The points A o , K o , M o , E o , S o and 5 o obtained in this way, and
also points B 0 , L 0, N o , F 0, T 0 and 50 are then joined by curves. The
figure received is then an approximate development of the top half
of the first gore.
The bottom half is symmetrical to the top half with respect to
line A 0B 0. The remaining eleven parts of the sphere surface
development are identical with the first gore.

F ig . 301

If it is required to find the position of the development of the

sphere of point C situated in the top part of the fifth gore, it is first
necessary to find the altitude of this point C in relation to the
horizontal axis of development. For this purpose through point C
a parallel is drawn on the surface of the sphere. Then, having
measured the length of the chord of arc 6272 we lay off this distance
from line A 0Bo on the axis of development of the fifth gore. Then we
draw a line parallel to the horizontal axis of development through
point 60 and lay off on it, to the left of the vertical axis of the fifth
gore, the distance from point Ci to the nearest boundary line of the
fifth gore in the horizontal projection. The point Co is then the
required point.
The development of the sphere with the use of latitudes is shown
in Fig. 301. The sphere is divided by a series of parallel planes into
seven belts, or zones, and two spherical segments (5 and 9 ) . The
middle zone (1) is developed as a right circular cylinder. The
development of zones 2, 3, 4 , 6 , 7 and 8 is carried out according to
the method for developing right circular frustums of cones. The
development of segments 5 and 9 is carried out in conformity with
method of developing cones.
175
 F ig. 303 F ig . 304

F ig . 307

F ig . 3 0 8 F ig . 309 F ig . 310

176
 Problems and Exercises
1. What is a development of the surface of a body?
2. What form is assumed by the development of the lateral
surface a) of a right prism, b) of a right circular cylinder, c) of a
right circular cone? •
3. Construct the missing projections of the cut-outs and through
holes of the bodies, depicted in Figs. 302-308. The construction
should be carried out in three projections and on an augmented
scale.
Hi n t . The procedure for constructing individual points is
given in § 32.
4. Develop the surface of the pipe elbow (Fig. 309).
5. Develop the surface of the transition piece, shown
in Fig. 310.
Hi n t . To carry out the development of the middle section, this
surface should be divided into parts of triangular form.

12 1444
 C h a p t e r VIII
INTERSECTION OF PLANES AND SURFACES

§ 34. Plane Sections of Polyhedrons

1. The construction of plane sections of polyhedrons may be
divided into two groups. The first group covers those cases when
the edges of the polyhedron and the cutting or section planes are
oblique. The second includes cases when the edges of the polyhedron
or the section plane itself, or both, are perpendicular to planes of
projection.
In any case, as the result of the intersection of the edges of the
polyhedron by the cutting plane, a plane polygon is formed and the
number of its vertices is equal to the number of the edges of the
polyhedron.
When determining plane sections of the first group, the vertices
of the polygonal section are found by using auxiliary planes, as was
done when determinating piercing points of a line in a plane and
when finding the line of intersection of two planes.
The vertices of the polygons, received when solving problems
of the second group, are constructed with the help of auxiliary
lines drawn on the edges of the solids or simply by means of
projectors.

2. T h e p r o c e d u r e f o r i n t e r s e c t i n g a t r i a n g u l a r
o b l i q u e p y r a m i d b y a n o b l i q u e p l a n e a. This case
belongs to the first group. The vertices of the triangle KLM which
represents a section figure have been found as meeting points /(,
L and M of the edges SA, SB and SC with plane a. For this
purpose through each edge an auxiliary frontal-projecting plane
is drawn. The line of intersection of each of these planes with the
given plane a is constructed. The intersection of each edge with
the corresponding line gives the points in which the edges pierce,
as is shown in Fig. 311.
For example, point K is found at the intersection of edge SA
with- line 1-2, in which plane a intersects the auxiliary frontal-
178
projecting plane |3 passing through edge SA. The construction of
point K is shown in Fig. 311,6.
The projection of the part SKLM of the pyramid which is cut
away is shown by dashes and dots. The projections of triangle
KLM of the section are shown by dots. •

3. The construction of plane figures, or sections, received when

cutting polyhedra, in cases falling within the second group, is
shown in Figs. 312 and 313.
In the first case (Fig. 312) the construction of the section
KLMN of the right tetragonal prism by an oblique plane a is
reduced to the construction of the frontal projection K2L2M2N2 of
this figure using its horizontal projection K\L\MiN\, which coincides
with the horizontal projection of the prism itself. This construction
is done with the help of frontals of plane a drawn through points
K, L, M, ,N. At the intersection of the frontal projections of the
frontals with the frontal projections of the respective edges of the
prism points K2, L2, M2 and N2 are found. These points are then
joined by straight lines. The tetragon K2L2M2N2 is the frontal
12' 179
180
F ig . 3 1 2 Q) F ig . 3 1 3
projection of the section of the prism by plane a. The portion of
the prism which has been cut off is shown by dashes and dots and
the projections of the tetragon section is shaded in by dots.
If the section plane is a projecting plane, then one projection
of the section of the polyhedron coincides Vith the trace-projection
of this plane which possesses collecting properties. The second
projection is constructed with the help of the first using projectors.
A right regular hexagonal pyramid cut by a horizontal-projecting
plane a is shown in Fig. 313, a. The points of intersection of the
trace-projection ai of this plane with the projections of the lateral
edges S\B] and SiC\ and the edges of the base A \B X and C\DX
determine the horizontal projections of the four vertices Ku Lu Afi
and Ni of the section. By drawing projectors through these points
to the corresponding projections S 2B2, S2C2, A2B2 and C2D2j points
L2, M2, K2 and N2 are found. These are the frontal projections of
the vertices of the section KLMN.
The way the pyramid is intersected by plane a is illustrated by
the axonometric representation, Fig. 313, ft, in which the tetragon
of the section is indicated by dots.

§ 35. Plane Sections of Curved Surfaces

1. The construction of plane sections of curved surfaces is
similar to that of plane sections of polyhedra. In some cases the
points contained in the intersection of a curved surface by a plane
are constructed by drawing auxiliary lines, in others by using
auxiliary planes.
Nevertheless, there are differences between the construction of
plane sections of curved surfaces and the constructions of plane
sections of polyhedra.
The difference is that the construction of points in a plane
section of a curved surface is usually begun by finding on the
figure so called basic or special points whose specific characteristics
differ from those of other points. Special points include the highest
and lowest points of a figure, points where the limiting elements are
tangential to the curve of the section, the extreme points of the
section, i. e., those nearest to and those farthest away from the
observer, and certain other points.
2. Let us consider the i n t e r s e c t i 0 n of a r i g h t c i r c u l a r
c y l i n d e r by a n o b l i q u e p l a n e a (Fig. 314, a).
Since plane a is neither parallel to the axis of the cylinder nor
perpendicular to it, the section will be an ellipse.
Let us pass a frontal plane p through the axis of the cylinder.
This plane will cut the surface of the cylinder along its limiting
generatrices or elements, and the plane a along a frontal. The inter:
section of the frontal with the limiting elements will determine
181
two special points A and B contained in the ellipse of intersection.
Other special points are C, the point nearest to the observer,
and D, the point farthest away. They are found with the help of
the two frontal planes, y and 6, passing respectively through the
front and rear generatrices of the cylinder. These planes also inter­
sect plane a in frontals. The intersection of the frontal projections
of these frontals with the frontal projection of the axis of the

cylinder determines the frontal projections C2 and D2 of these,

special points. The axis of the cylinder coincides with the projec­
tion on plane /72 of the front and rear generatrices.
The highest point E and the lowest point F of the ellipse given
by the intersection are found with the help of the horizontal-project­
ing plane X passed through the axis of the cylinder perpendicular
to trace k\. The planes X and a intersect in line 1-2. This is a line
of maximum inclination of plane a with respect to plane TI\. Plane
X will intersect the cylinder along the generatrices 3-4 and 5-6. The
intersection of line 1-2 with lines 3-4 and 5-6 gives the special
points E and F, respectively.
Besides the special points A, B, C, D, E and F, the intermediate
points K and L are also found. These points $re constructed with
the help of the horizontal plane q>. The section of this plane with
the cylinder is a circle and it intersects plane a in the horizontal
182
7-8. Points Ki and L\ lie at the intersection of the horizontal projec­
tion of the horizontal 7\-8\, and the circle which coincides with the
projection of the cylinder on IIi. Having determined points K\ and
L], with the help of projectors, we find points /C2 and L2 on the
trace <p2 of plane <p. *
An axonometric representation of the cylinder cut by plane a is
shown in Fig. 314, b .

3, The intersection of
a plane with a straight
circular cone may give
the following lines:
1) Two s t r a i g h t
g e n e r a t r i c e s , when
the cutting plane passes
through the vertex of
the cone.
2) A c i r c l e , when
the . cutting plane is x-
perpendicular to the
axis of cone.
3) An e 11 i p s e,
when the plane inter­
sects all the generatrices
of the cone and yet is
not perpendicular to the
axis of the cone
(Fig. 315).
4) A p a r a b o l a , F ig . 3 1 5
when the cutting plane
is parallel to one of the
generatrices (Fig. 316). In this case the angle a between the
cutting plane and the axis of the cone is the same as the angle
P between the generatrix and the axis of the cone.
5) A h y p e r b o l a , when the cutting plane is parallel to any
two generatrices of the cone or, as a special case, when this plane
is parallel to the axis of the cone (Fig. 317). In the first case the
angle a is smaller than angle p. In the second, the angle a is
zero.

4. T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e s e c t i o n of a c o n e
g i v e n by a n o b l i q u e p l a n e a (Fig. 315). We begin by
determining special points. The special points K and L are found
with the help of the frontal plane p passed through the axis of the
cone. This plane cuts the cone along the limiting elements SA and
SB, and the plane a in one of its frontals. At the intersection of
183
the frontal with the limiting elements points K and L, in which
the ellipse touches these elements, are found.
We then pass a plane y perpendicular to the cutting plane a
through the axis of the cone. The trace yi is perpendicular to k\.
The plane y intersects the cone along the generatrices SC and SD.
It intersects plane a along the line 2-3, which is a line of maximum

F ig . 31 6 F ig . 31 7

inclination of plane a to plane FI\. This line contains points M and

N in which the generatrices SC and SD of the cone will respectively
intersect plane a. In this case point M is the highest point and N
the lowest point, a point of the ellipse given by the intersection of
the cone by plane a.
A series of other points of the ellipse may be constructed either
with the help of the horizontal-projecting planes passed through
the vertex S, or by means of horizontal planes. The points E and
F of the ellipse are obtained by drawing the auxiliary horizontal
plane <p. Plane <p intersects plane a in a horizontal. The correspond­
ing section of the cone is a circle, the diameter of which is equal to
the length of the part of trace q?2 contained between the frontal
projections S2A2 and S 2B2 of the limiting elements of the cone. By
describing this circle, with Si as the centre, we obtain points E\ and
F1 at its intersection with the horizontal projection of the horizontal
of plane a. Points E2 and F2 on trace <P2 of plane <p are determined
with the help of projectors.
184
 Joining points Ki, M u Fu Lu N u E\ and Ki by a curve we obtain
the ellipse which is the horizontal projection of the intersection of
the cone by plane a. The frontal projection of this intersection is
also an ellipse, passing through points K2, M2, F2, L2, N2, E2 and K2.
•
5. A cone intersected by a frontal-projecting plane a, parallel to
the limiting element SA of the cone, is shown in Fig. 316. In this
case the plane section of the cone is a parabola. The frontal projec­
tion of the parabola coincides with trace-projection 02 of the
cutting plane.
To construct the horizontal projection of the parabola we draw
a series of auxiliary horizontal planes (p, p', p"), each of which
intersects the cone in a circle and the plane a in a horizontal
perpendicular to plane Tl2. At the intersection of the horizontal
projections of the horizontals with the horizontal projections of the
respective circles, we obtain the points 2U 2[, 3U3'U 4U 4\. Points 5[
and 5i are the horizontal projections of points 5 and 5' of the
parabola and are contained in the circle of the base of the cone. The
horizontal projection 1\ of the highest point of the parabola, as well
as points 5[ and 5U are obtained by drawing projectors from points
12 and 52.
By drawing a curve through points 5\, 41, 3\, 2\, l u 2^,3\, and
5[ we obtain the horizontal projection of the parabola. The line
5]5j, shown by dashes, is the horizontal projection of the line along
which plane a cuts the plane of the cone’s base.

6. The intersection of a cone by a frontal plane a which does

not pass through the cone vertex 5 is shown in Fig. 317. In this
case the section of the cone will be a hyperbola which is projected
onto plane 77! as a straight line coinciding with the trace ai and
onto plane 772 in its true size.
The points K and L of the hyperbola, in which it intersects plane
77], are determined by intersection of the base circle with trace ai
of the cutting plane a. The frontal projections K2 and L2 of these
points are contained in ground line Ox.
To construct the frontal projection R2 of the special point R,
the vertex of the hyperbola, with point S as the centre, we draw
a circle whose radius is equal to the distance from point Si to trace
ai. This circle is the horizontal projection of the section of the cone
given by a horizontal plane passing through point R. To find the
frontal projection of this circle through point D1 we draw a
projector to intersect the frontal projection of the right-hand cone
generatrix in point D2. A line is then drawn through point D2
parallel to ground line Ox and that part of it, which lies between
the frontal projections of the limiting elements, is the projection
on plane Fl2 of the auxiliary circle of radius Point R2 is the
midpoint of this line.
185
 The projections of the other points, M, N and Q, on plane P 2
may be found by drawing a series of generatrices of the cone, or
horizontal auxiliary planes. In Fig. 317 points M, N and Q con­
tained in the hyperbola have been found by drawing the
generatrices SA, SB and SC.
7. The construction of the horizontal projection of a sphere cut
by a horizontal-projecting plane a (Fig. 318) is begun by finding
the axis of the ellipse, which is the
circle of the section projected onto
plane Pi. The minor axis A\B\ of the
ellipse coincides with the horizontal
projection of the major meridian
of the sphere, the extremes A x and
B\ of this axis being determined by
points A2 and B2 in which the
frontal trace a2 of the cutting plane
intersects the frontal projection of
the major meridian of the sphere.
The projection E2D2 of the major
axis of the ellipse of the section on
plane P 2 is the midpoint of line
A2B2. Let us draw the auxiliary
horizontal plane p so that its
frontal trace p2 passes through
point E2= D2. Having determined
radius r of the circle given by the
intersection of plane p and the
sphere, with point Ci as the centre
we describe a circle with this
radius to' intersect the projector
drawn through point E2= D2 in
points Ei and D\. Line E\D\
is the major axis of the ellipse.
Let us draw a projector through point M2^ N 2, i. e., through
the intersection of trace 02 of the cutting plane with the frontal
projection of the equator of the sphere. This line will cut the circle,
which is the horizontal projection of the equator of the sphere, in
points M 1 and N {. It follows that, in points M and N, the circle
given by the intersection of the sphere by plane a touches the
equator.
A series of other points of the section may be constructed with
the help of auxiliary horizontal planes.
8. It should be noted that when constructing projections of
plane sections, also in other cases, as few auxiliary lines as
possible should be used. The drawing is simplified by using as
186
 auxiliary lines any of the projections of the elements which happen
to lie in a convenient position for this purpose.
An example is given in Fig. 319. This is the construction of the
intersection of an elliptic cylinder by an oblique plane a. The draw­
ing in this case is simplified because ^11 the auxiliary frontal-
projecting planes, which are passed through the generatrices of the
cylinder to find the points of their intersection with plane a, are
parallel.
So first the line of
intersection of one
such auxiliary plane,
for example p, with
plane a is found. This
is done by finding
points 1 and 2 of the
intersection of the
corresponding traces
of planes a and p.
The lines of intersec­
tion of other auxilia­
ry frontal-projecting
planes, y, 6 and cp,
with plane a will then
be parallel to line
1-2 and, when con­
structing these lines,
it is necessary to
determine only one of
their points in each
case.
9. In engineering
practice construc­
tions are widely used
in which planes are
made to cut curved
surfaces. For example, in Fig. 320 the drawing of a connecting rod
head is shown, and the way in which the elements of its surface
flare into each other is shown by the lines of intersection of
a complex body of revolution by two frontal planes, a and p.
Let us subdivide the given surface into components of simple
geometrical form, i. e., a sphere, a torus and a cylinder. The
spherical surface of radius r\ is intersected by planes a and p in
arcs of circles projected onto plane n 2 without distortion. These
planes cut the intermediate cylinder along generatrices.
The horizontal trace of the frontal plane a intersects the hor­
izontal projection of the equator of the sphere in point A\. The
187
radius r2 of the section of the spherical surface is determined by
the distance at which point At lies from the horizontal projection
Ci of the axis passing through the centre C of the sphere, perpen­
dicular to plane TI2. In a similar manner the radius r$ of the semi­
circle of intersection of the spherical surface, seen in the frontal
projection as lying on the right, is determined.
The generatrices along
which the cylindrical
surface is intersected by
planes a and p may
easily be constructed.
The projections of these
generatrices on plane
Tib are determined by
points B2 and B'^ 'm which
the semi-circle of radius
r3 intersects the vertical
line dividing the frontal
projections of the sur­
faces of the cylinder it­
self and sphere of
radius r3.
The position of the
intermediate point D2
on the frontal projec­
tion of the torus is determined by drawing an auxiliary profile plane
y. This plane cuts the torus in a circle, of radius K212, which projects
in its true size on plane 773.
By describing an arc of this circle from point C3 (C313= K 212),
we find point D3 in which this circle cuts the trace a3 of the cutting
plane. Through point D3 we draw a horizontal projector to intersect
trace y2 of the auxiliary plane y in point D2. In Fig. 320 these con­
structions are indicated by arrows.

§ 36. The Transformation of Projections

by Oblique Projection and Relative Conformity
When Constructing Plane Sections of Surfaces
1. We shall construct the section of an elliptical cone cut by an
oblique plane a by transformation of its projections (Fig. 321).
First, plane n 2 should be substituted by plane /74 perpendicular
to planes /7x and a. The ground line Si4 of the new system of planes
/7r /74 should be drawn at right angles to trace ki of plane a. In the
system of planes /7i-/74 the plane a becomes a projecting plane,
therefore its trace a4 will then possess collecting properties.
The trace a4 is constructed with the help of point 1, taken on the
frontal trace I of plane a.
188 '
 Having built the projection of the cone on plane /74, we may
find the part M 4 K 4 N 4 of trace a 4. This is the projection of the
required section on plane /74. By drawing a series of generatrices
of the cone we find first the horizontal, and then the frontal
projections of the points of the section, including points M, K and
N in the 771-/72 system of planes of projection. After this, through
the frontal projections of the
points obtained an ellipse is
drawm. This is the projection on
plane I72 of the section of the
cone cut by plane a. Through the
horizontal projections of these
points another ellipse, the pro­
jection of the section on plane
771, is drawn.

2. The multiview drawing

(Fig. 322) shows the construc­
tion of the section of a sphere
given by an oblique plane a. The
method of transformation of pro- £
jections is also used in this case.
We project the sphere and
plane a onto a new plane of pro­
jections n 4 perpendicular both
to plane Ylx and plane a. The
ground line s i4 of the system of
planes of projection 77i-/74 is
drawn perpendicularly to trace .
k 1 of plane a. The sphere is pro­
jected onto plane 774 as a circle with its centre at point C4 which
lies at the same distance from ground line Sj4 as the point C2 from
ground line Ox.
The plane a is projected onto plane I J 4 as the line a4, and the
section of the sphere as the line A 4 B 4 . This line coincides with line
a4, the trace-projection of the plane on plane /74.
Line A 4 B 4 determines the length of the major axes of the ellipses
in which the section of the sphere, a circle, is projected onto planes
771 and 772. The projection of the centre C' of the circle of the
section on plane /74 is point C4, the midpoint of line A 4 B 4 . We
find the projection of this point C’ on planes 774 and U2. The
projection C[ of this point on plane 774 is given by the intersection
of the projector drawn through C4 perpendicular to si4 and the line
passing through point Cj parallel to ground line sj4. The projection
C2 of point C lies on the projector from C[ perpendicular to ground•
• 189
line Ox, at a distance z c. from that axis. This distance z c, js
obtained from the projection on plane II4.
Having found points C{ and C'2 through them we draw lines
respectively parallel to traces k\ and l2 and lay off on them to
either side of points Cj and C2 distances equal to one half of the
length of line i445 4. The lines DiE\ and S 2F2 obtained are the

major axes of the ellipses which are projections of the circular

section on planes /7j and Tl2.
The minor axis A\B\ of the ellipse which is the projection of the
circular section on plane /7j is given by the projection of line AB
on IIu To obtain the minor axis through points i44 and 5 4 draw
projectors perpendicular to ground line Si4 to intersect the line
passing through point C't parallel to ground line «i4.
The length of the minor axis /(2.M2 of the ellipse on plane n 2 is
obtained by a similar transformation of projections, however in
this case, a new plane /75, perpendicular both to plane TI2 and the
cutting plane a, is substituted for plane 771.
190
 Having found the position and length of the axes of the ellipses
which are projections of the circular section of the sphere on planes
/7I and 772, we can proceed to draw in the curves themselves.
3. We shall now examine the method of constructing plane
sections by means of oblique projection. This type of projection has

already been used to determine the piercing point of a line with

a plane (see Fig. 170).
The construction of the section of an oblique triangular prism
given by an oblique plane a is shown in Fig. 323.
The plane a and prism are projected onto plane 772 in a direction
parallel to trace k t. The projection of plane a on plane 772 is then
line l2, i. e., the frontjl_trace of plane a. The prism is projected onto
plane 772 as A2B2C2E2F2D2. In Fig. 323 this projection is shown by
dashes and two dots. The intersection of the oblique projections
of the lateral edges of the prism with the trace /2, points K2, L2 and
M2 determine the vertices of the triangle KLM received when the
plane a intersects the prism. Reverse projection gives the frontal
projections K2, L2 and M2 of the vertices of the intersection triangle
KLM and the horizontal projections Ki, T-i and M\.
4. The construction shown in Fig. 324 is carried out by using
the related conformity properties of triangle KLM in which the
surface of the pyramid SABC is intersected by plane a.
191
 In § 31 it was already noted that there exists a relationship
between the projection of a plane figure and the figure itself. This
is called the related conformity and this conformity exists between
any two projections of the figure.
Therefore, problems which are solved by .conventional methods
of descriptive geometry may also be solved by using the method

of related conformity for any two projections of the projected

objects.
Tackling this problem (Fig. 324), we must establish the related
conformity between the section in plane a and the horizontal
projection of that same section of the pyramid. We begin by deter­
mining the axis and direction of relativity. To determine the direc­
tion of the relativity it is necessary to find one pair of related points.
The first duplicate point through which the axis of relativity
will pass X a, is the point of convergence of traces of the plane. To
determine the second duplicate point we draw in plane a any line
1-2, the projections of which, 1\2\ and I $2, intersect in point M'
which corresponds to itself. After this we pass the axis of relativity
through points Xa and M' . The direction of relativity, in this par­
ticular case of related conformity is perpendicular to ground
line Ox. ^
Point Si, related to point S 2, is now found by joining point S 2 by
a straight line with projection 32 of a point 3 taken at random on
line 1-2. Line S232 is produced to intersect the axis of relativity in
point M". Then by drawing the straight line M"3\, which is related
to line S232, to intersect with the line S 2S\, which runs in the direc­
tion of relativity, we find point S\ corresponding to the related
point S2.
Then we extend the projections S 2A2, S 2B2 and S 2C2 of the
lateral edges of the pyramid to cut the axis of relativity in points
M'", M"" and M'"" By joining_up these points with point Si we
obtain lines S\M " ', S\M"" and which are related to lines
S2A2, S 2B2 and S 2C2.
The intersections of lines S\M'", S\M "" and S\M////f with the
horizontal projections S\A\, S\B\ and SiCi of the lateral edges of
the pyramid give the horizontal projections /Ci, L\ and N\ of the
vertices of triangle KLN which is the figure received when the
pyramid SABC is cut by plane a.
The frontal projection /C2L2N2 of this triangle is constructed in
the usual way with the help of projectors.

Problems and Exercises

1. Which planes are generally used as auxiliary planes when

constructing plane sections?
2. Describe the sequence of the constructions used to find the
section of a polyhedron given by an oblique plane?

Sf
F ig . 3 25 F ig . 326 F ig . 327

13 1444 193
194
 3. Which points are called special points when constructing
a plane section of a curved surface?
4. Construct the section given by an oblique plane when it
cuts a triangular right prism. The traces of the plane make angles
45° and 30° with the ground line Ox. •
5. Construct the intersection of a triangular plate ABC with
a prism. Show the visible parts of the plate by hatching (Fig. 325).
6. Construct the intersection of a triangular plate ABC with
a pyramid (Figs. 326 and 327).
Hi n t . This problem should be solved by two methods, first, by
using an auxiliary plane, and then by substituting planes of projec­
tion (see Fig. 321).
7. Construct the intersection of a given space figure by plane
a (Fig. 328).
8. Construct the intersection of a cylinder by a plane a
(Fig. 329). First, solve the problem in the conventional auxiliary
planes, and then, by using oblique projection.
9. Construct the intersection of a cone by a plane a (Fig. 330).
First, solve the problem conventionally by passing auxiliary planes,
then, employ the method of related conformity.
10. Construct the section of the handrail, shown in Fig. 331,
when it is cut by plane a. Find the true view of the section.
11. Construct the third projection of the cylinders with through
holes, shown in Figs. 332 and 333.
 C h a p t e r IX
INTERSECTION OF LINES AND SURFACES
§ 37. Construction of Points of Intersection
of Lines and Surfaces with the Help of Projecting Planes
1. In general it may be said that the construction of the point
of intersection of a straight line with a surface consists of three
operations, these are as follows: 1) an auxiliary surface is passed
through the line; 2) the section cut by the auxiliary plane is found;
3) the point, or points, of intersection of the given line with the
section which has been constructed is determined. Such points are
the points of intersection of the line with the surface, i. e., the
piercing points. The number of piercing points of a line depends on
the form of the surface. A line generally pierces the surfaces of
simple geometrical bodies, such as prisms, cylinders, sphere, etc.,
in two points, one of which may be called the point of entry, and the
other, the point of exit.
If the surface which the line pierces is perpendicular to one of
the planes of projection, then the piercing points may be determined
very easily. For example, points K and L, in which line DE pierces
the right triangular prism ABC
(Fig. 334), are projected onto plane 771
as points Ki and L\ in which the projec­
tion DiE\ of line DE intersects the
triangular horizontal projection of the
two ends of the prism. Once points Ki
and L\ are known, projectors are used
to find the frontal projections Ki and L2
of points K and L.
The construction of points Af and N,
where another line, line RS, pierces the
surface of the prism, is shown in Fig. 334.
In this case point M lies in the hidden
side of the prism, and point N lies in its
upper face. The sequence of the construc­
tion is indicated by arrows.
196
 The intersection points of a line and a right cylinder, the axis ol
which is perpendicular to plane of projection 77j, may also be found
without auxiliary constructions (Fig. 335).
It should be noted that when surfaces such as right prisms or right
cylinders are intersected by curved lines,*the piercing points are
also found in this way. A space curve CD is shown as intersecting
the surface of a cylinder in Fig.
335. The horizontal projections
K' and L[ of piercing points
K' and L' are the points of

intersection of curve C\D\ with the circle which is the horizontal

projection of the cylinder. The frontal projections K'2 and L2 are
determined by projectors drawn to meet the frontal projection C2D2
of curve CD, as shown.

2. The construction of the points of intersection of line MN and

the triangular pyramid SABC is shown in Fig. 336.
Draw an auxiliary frontal-projecting plane a through line MN.
The section of the pyramid cut by this plane is triangle 1-2-3. First,
points h , 22 and <?2, where trace 02 intersects frontal projections of
the edges S2A2, S2C2 and S2B2, are found. Then, by means of these
points and projectors, points 1\, 21, 3\ are determined. These points
are joined by straight lines to obtain the triangle 1\2\3U which is
the horizontal projection of the section of the pyramid cut by the
auxiliary plane a.
The straight line MN contained in plane a, together with tri­
angle 1-2-3, intersects the sides of this triangle in points K and L
which are the points of intersection of this line with the surface
of the pyramid. Points Ki and L\ are the points of intersections of
197
projection M\N\ of line MN with the lines 1\2\ and 1\3\, and the
latter are projections of the sides of triangle 1\2\3\. By using pro­
jectors we find on M2N2 the frontal projections K2 and L2 of the
points K and L where line MN pierces the surface of pyramid.
When determining the visibility of separate parts of line MN,
assuming this line is being projected onto planes /7j and 772, it is
necessary to take into account the visibility of the faces of the
pyramid on these planes of projection. When projecting onto plane
77, all three lateral faces are visible, so point K, contained in face
SAB, and point L, contained in face SAC, are also visible. Therefore,
the portions M xLi and K1N1 of the horizontal projection of line MN
are drawn as continuous lines, whereas the projection L\K\ of the
part of the line MN within the surface is shown by dashes. When
projecting onto plane 772 the face SAB is visible, but face SAC is not
visible. Therefore the part K2N2 of the frontal projection of line MN
is shown as a continuous line. The portions ^2^-2 and L2K2 are
shown by dashes, since they are the frontal projections of the part
1L, which is hidden by the surface of the pyramid, and of the part
L/C, which is within the surface of the pyramid.
3. The points of intersection of a straight line a with a surface
of revolution are also determined by passing a projecting plane
through line a (Fig. 337).
The line in which the frontal-projecting plane a, passing through
line a, cuts the surface of revolution is a curve. The frontal projec­
tion of this curve coincides with trace a2.
To construct the horizontal projection of the curve of intersec­
tion a series of auxiliary planes are drawn to cut the surface of
revolution and plane a. The sections received will be circles and
horizontals perpendicular to plane 772. Having found the horizontal
projections of these sections we determine points 2\ and 2\, 3\ and
3[, in which horizontal projections of the circles and horizontals
intersect. These points and the projections 7i, 4\ and 4[ are joined
by a curve. The intersection of curve 4\3\2\1\2[ 3't 4[ with projection
a\ of line a gives points K\ and L\. These are the horizontal pro­
jections of the points of intersection of line a with the surface of
revolution. Having obtained points K\ and L\ we find the points K2
and L2 on the frontal projection a2 of line a. Finally, we determine
the visibility of the separate parts of line a.
This solution demands the construction of an auxiliary curve.
Although this involves extra work, it is unavoidable, since special
constructions, not dealt with in this course, would have to be used
to eliminate the construction of the curve.

4. The method of transforming projections to determine the

points of intersection of a line AB and a sphere is shown in Fig. 338.
An auxiliary horizontal-projecting plane a is passed through
198
line AB. The circular section of the sphere cut by this plane, to­
gether with line AB, is projected onto a new plane of projection /74.
This plane 774 is perpendicular to plane /74 and parallel to plane a.
The centre C of the circular section lies at the same altitude as
the centre C of the sphere itself, therefore the projection C'4 of
point C' on plane /74 lies on the projector C\C'4 at a distance from

the ground line «i4 equal to the distance z for point C. A circle
with a radius r, equal to one half of the length of line EiDh is
described with point C4 as its centre. This circle intersects projec­
tion A 4B4 of line AB on plane 774 in points /C4 and L4. These points
are the projections on plane /74 of points K and L in which line
AB pierces the surface of the sphere.
Having obtained points K4 and I 4 we first find the horizontal
projections Ki and L\ and then the frontal projections K2 and L2
of points K and L. Point K is visible when projected onto plane IJ2,
but it is hidden when projected onto plane 77^ Point L is visible
both when projected onto plane 771 and onto plane /72. This is taken
into account when determining the visibility of the separate parts
of the projections of line AB on the multiview drawing. It is quite
evident that the part KL of line AB is hidden both when projected
onto plane /7j and onto plane 772 since it penetrates the sphere.
199
 § 38. The Use of Oblique Planes to Determine Points
of Intersection of Lines and Surfaces
I. In many cases the construction of the points of intersection
of a straight line and a surface is simplified by passing an oblique
plane through the line, instead of a projecting plane.
For example, if a plane perpendicular to one of the planes of
projection were to be used for the construction of the points of inter­

section of line AB with the surface of an elliptical cylinder

(Fig. 339), the section obtained would be an ellipse and one of its
projections would have to be plotted by points. However, bypassing
an oblique plane parallel to the generatrices of the cylinder through
line AB section of the cylinder will be given by two generatrices.
Such a plane may easily be constructed. Let us take any point
C on line AB and through it draw line CM parallel to the genera­
trices of the cylinder. Then the plane determined by the intersecting
lines AB and CM will be parallel to the generatrices of the cylinder.
The horizontal trace M of line CM and the horizontal trace AT
of line AB are then found. The horizontal trace of the auxiliary
plane determined by straight lines AB and CM passes through
points M and M'. This trace k\ intersects the base of the cylinder
contained in plane IJi in points 1 and 2. The horizontal projections
of the generatrices 1-3 and 2-4, along which the auxiliary plane
cuts the lateral surface of the cylinder, are drawn through points
11 and 2i.
The points Ki and L\, where lines 2\4\ and 1\3\ intersect line
A\B{, are the horizontal projections of the required points K and L
where line AB pierces the surface of the cylinder. The frontal
projections K2 and L2 of points K and L are found by drawing
projectors through Ki and L\ to intersect the frontal projection A2B2
of line AB.
200
 Planes, such as those considered, which reduce the construction
lines to a minimum are the most simple oblique auxiliary planes.
2. A simple oblique auxiliary plane is also used in Fig. 340, a
for constructing the points of intersection oj line AB with the face^
of an oblique prism, although in this case it would also have been'
possible to pass a projecting plane through line AB.

As in the preceding construction, a line CM is drawn through

point B on line AB parallel to the lateral edges of the prism. The
plane a, determined by the intersecting lines AB and CM, intersects
the faces of the prism along lines 1-3 and 2-4 parallel to the lateral
edges of the prism. The intersection of these lines with line AB
gives the required points K and L where line AB pierces the prism.
This method of finding the points of intersection of a line and a
pentagular prism can be seen in axonometric projection in
Fig. 340, b.
3. When determining the points of intersection of line AB and
a cone (Fig. 341) the most simple oblique auxiliary plane will pass
through line AB and the vertex S of the cone. Such an auxiliary
plane intersects the lateral surface of the cone along two
generatrices. To construct this plane we take on line AB points
1 and 2 at random and join them by straight lines to the vertex S
of the cone. Having found the horizontal traces M and M' of lines
S I and S2 we pass the horizontal trace k\ of the plane through
them and draw the generatrices SE and SD along which the plane
intersects the surface of the cone. The points K and L in which
generatrices SE and SD cut line AB are the points of intersection
of this line and the cone.
4. When the base of the cone does not lie in the /7) plane of
projection, but in some frontal-projecting plane, as shown in
201
 Fig. 342, the;construction of the points of intersection of line AB
amr the corte remains almost unchanged. By drawing auxiliary
pities S I and S2 through the vertex 5 of the cone and points 1 and
[2/tdken on line AB we find the traces M and AT of these lines and
/

Fig. 341

trace MM' of the auxiliary plane on the plane in which the base
of the cone lies. We obtain the points C and D at the intersection
of trace MM' with the base of the cone. The generatrices SC and
SD, along which the auxiliary
plane intersects the surface
of the cone, pass through
these points. Points K and L,
in which the line AB pierces
the cone, lie at the intersec­
tion of the generatrices SC
and SD with line AB.

5. Auxiliary planes which

cut curved surfaces should be
selected, whenever possible,
so that the sections received
are straight lines or circles
and not curves in general,
since the construction of the
latter overloads the draw­
ing with auxiliary lines and
makes it less precise and
legible.
 Let us construct points K and L where line AB intersects a
frustum of a cone by passing an auxiliary plane to intersect the
cone along its generatrices (Fig. 343). Such a plane must pass
through the vertex S of the cone. The projection of the vertex on
plane FI2 will lie at a point obtained by extending the frontal
projections of the limiting elements to intersect. However, in this
case the frontal projection S2 of the vertex S lies outside the limits
of the drawing.
In order to find the horizontal trace of the auxiliary
plane a passing through line AB and the vertex S of the cone, it is
necessary to obtain the horizontal trace M of line AB and the

horizontal trace of some other line contained in the auxiliary

plane a. For this purpose let us take line SF which passes through
point F of line AB and through the vertex S of the cone. The frontal
projection F2 of point F is taken as the intersection of projection
A2B2 and the frontal projection of the left-hand generatrix. Having
found point F2 we determine point Fi on AiB\. Next the projection
S\Fi of line SF is drawn. The frontal projection of this line coincides
with the frontal projection of the left-hand generatrix of the cone
because both these projections pass through point S 2.
Using projections S 2F2 and SiFi we construct the horizontal
trace M' of line SF. The horizontal trace k\ of the auxiliary plane a
is drawn through points Afj and M\. The horizontal projections
S\11 and 5i2i of the generatrices, along which the auxiliary plane
cuts the surface of the cone, are then constructed. The points of
203
 *2

204
intersection S j/i and Si2i with A \B X determine the horizontal
projections K\ and L\ of the required points K and L in which the
line AB intersects the cone. The frontal projections K2 and L2 of
points K and L are found on A2B2 with the help of projectors.
•
6. The use of an auxiliary conical'surface for determining the
intersection points of a space curve AB with a cone is shown in
Fig. 344. The auxiliary conical surface passed through curve AB
and vertex S of the given cone intersects the latter along its
generatrices.
First the horizontal trace of the auxiliary conical surface should
be found. For this purpose straight lines are drawn through vertex
5 of cone and points 1, 2, 3, 4 of curve AB. Through the traces, or
piercing points M\, M\, M\' and M\" of these lines a smooth curve
is drawn. This curve intersects the circle of the base of the given
cone in points M "" and M""'.
The straight lines S M "" and SM "'", drawn through the points
obtained and the vertex of the cone, are the generatrices along
which the two conical surfaces intersect. The points K and L, in
which curve AB cuts these two generatrices, are the required points
in which curve AB pierces the given cone.

Problems and Exercises

1. What types of auxiliary planes are used for determining the

points of intersection of the surfaces of solid figures by straight
lines?
2. What auxiliary surfaces are used for determining the points
of intersection of surfaces of solid figures by curved lines?
3. What, .in general, is the sequence in which the points of
intersection of straight or curved lines with the surfaces of solid
figures are constructed?
4. Find the points of intersection of lines AB and CD with the
surface of the pyramid, shown in Fig. 345.
5. Find the points of intersection of lines AB and CD with the
surface of the elliptical cone, shown in Fig. 346.
6. Find the points of intersection of line AB with the surface of
the annular torus, shown in Fig. 347.
7. Find the points of intersection of curve AB with the surface
of revolution, shown in Fig. 348.
Hi n t . Use an auxiliary cylindrical surface of intersection
passing through curve AB.
8. Find the points of intersection of line AB with the surface
of revolution, shown in Fig. 349.
 Chapter X
INTERSECTION OF SURFACES
§ 39. Construction of the Intersection
of Surfaces Using Projecting Planes
1. The construction of points contained in lines in which surfaces
intersect each other, also called transition lines, is carried out by
introducing various auxiliary elements such as projecting planes,
oblique planes and spherical surfaces. Transformation of projec­
tions and oblique projection are also used for this purpose. The
choice of the auxiliary method to be employed is determined by the
form and position of the intersecting surfaces.
The surfaces of two geometrical bodies may intersect each other
in one or two closed lines. There is one line of intersection when
the surfaces intersect only partially as if one surface “bites” into
another, as it were.
Two lines of intersection are obtained when the intersection of
the surfaces is complete, in other words, when one surface pierces
right through the other. The construction of the lines of intersection
of the surfaces of two polyhedra consists first in finding the points
of intersection of the edges of one polyhedron with the faces of
the other. Then the points of intersection of the edges of the second
polyhedron with the faces of the first are determined. Finally, the
points found are joined by straight lines, taking into account the
visibility of the separate sides of the polygon in which the
surfaces of the polyhedra intersect. In more complex cases special
procedures facilitate the task of joining up the points contained
in the line of intersection of surfaces of two polyhedra. One such
method is given in § 40.
When determining the visibility of the portions of the lines of
intersection of two surfaces the following rule should be kept in
mind. If two lines are visible when projected onto some plane of
projection, then their point of intersection is also visible when
projected onto that same plane. The point of intersection of two
lines not visible, or of one visible line with a hidden line, is not
visible.
206
 2. We shall now examine the case when a right regular hexagonal
prism / is intersected by a triangular oblique prism II (Fig. 350).
Of the six lateral edges of prism I only edges AB and CD in­
tersect the faces of prism II, since horizontal projections A \B X and
CXDXof those edges lie within the limits of»the horizontal projection
of prism II.

First find the points of intersection of the lateral edges AB and

CD of prism / with the faces of prism II. For this purpose pass an
auxiliary frontal plane a through the given edges. This plane
intersects the face EGST of prism II in line MN and the face
EFRT of the same prism in line KL. Since plane a is parallel to the
lateral edges of the prism II, these auxiliary lines MN and KL must
also be parallel to those lateral edges. The section given when the
surface of prism II is cut by plane a is the quadrilateral KLNM.
The frontal projections M2 and K2 of points M and K are found
207
by means of the horizontal projections M\ and K\. Then, by drawing
lines M2N2 and K2L 2 through M2 and K 2 we find their intersection
with projections A2B2 and C2D2 of edges AB and CD. These points
of intersection are the frontal projections 22, 42, 72 and 92 of the
points in which the edges AB and CD of prism / pierce the faces of
prism II. The horizontal projections 2U 4U 7\ and 91 of these points
coincide with the horizontal projections of edges AB and CD,
respectively.
The other points contained in the lines of intersection of the
prisms, i. e., points 1, 3, 5, 6, 8 and 10, can be obtained directly,
without auxiliary constructions, since they are points in which the
lateral edges ET, FR and GS of prism II intersect the lateral faces
of prism I, which are horizontal-projecting planes. By passing pro­
jectors from the horizontal projections 11, 3\, 5\, 6\, 8\ and 10\ we
construct the frontal projections 12, 32, 52, 62, 82 and I02 of points
1, 3, 5, 6,8 and 10.
Points 12, 22, 32, 42 and 52, and also points 62, 72, 82 and 102, are
joined by straight lines, taking into account their visibility when
projecting onto plane t l 2 the various sides of two pentagons in
space in which prisms / and II intersect. The horizontal projections
of the sides of these pentagons coincide with the horizontal traces
of those lateral faces of prism I to which the sides belong.
The axonometric representation of these two intersecting prisms
is seen in Fig. 350, b.

3. When constructing points of the lines of intersection of two

curved surfaces with the help of projecting planes, both surfaces
are intersected by a series of auxiliary planes. Sections of each
surface given by one and the same plane are constructed. The
intersection of these corresponding sections gives the required
points. For instance, if a sphere and the circular cylinder inter­
secting it are cut by a horizontal plane a (Fig. 351), then the in­
tersection of the two circles obtained, which are sections of the
sphere and the cylinder, gives points A and B contained in the lines
of intersection of these surfaces.
The construction of the intersection of two cylinders by means
of auxiliary frontal surfaces is shown in Fig. 352.
Since these planes are parallel to the axes of the cylinders,
they cut the surfaces of the cylinders along generatrices. The points
I and 2 where the front generatrix of
cylinder II intersects cylinder I, and also
points 3 and 4, where the rear generatrix
pierces cylinder I, are found directly. The
horizontal projections /j, 2\, 3\ and 41 of
these points are contained in the horizon­
tal projection of the lateral surfaces of
cylinder I. The frontal projections 12, 22,
208
S2 and 42 are situated on the frontal projections of the front
and rear generatrices of cylinder II and on the respective
projectors.
Points 11 and 12 and also 9 and 10, in which the top and bottom
generatrices of cylinder II, respectively, intersect with the surface
of cylinder I, are also determined directly. *

In order to find points 5, 6, 7 and 8, belonging to the lines of

intersection of the surfaces of cylinders I and II, an auxiliary
frontal plane a is drawn. The generatrices along which plane a cuts
the surface of the two cylinders are constructed. In order to make
the construction more convenient and exact the circular base of
cylinder II is rotated to lie in plane 77i. Having obtained points
5U 7] and 6j, 81 where trace a\ of plane a intersects the horizontal
projection of the lateral surface of cylinder I, we construct the
frontal projection of the generatrix which contains points 5 and
7 and the generatrix which contains points 6 and 8. Then the points
K\ and L\, where ai intersects the circular base of cylinder II made
to coincide with plane 77j_, are found. Having done this we can
obtain first points K2 and L2, and then points K2 and L2.
Through K2 and L2 the frontal projections of the generatrices
along which plane a cuts the surface of cylinder II are drawn and
14 — 1444 209
extended to intersect the frontal projections of the corresponding
generatrices in which this same plane cuts cylinder /. This gives
us the frontal projections of points 5, 6, 7 and 8 contained in the
line of intersections of the cylinders. A series of auxiliary frontal
planes similar to plane a are drawn. This gives us further points
belonging to the lines of intersection of the cylinders. Continuous
curves are drawn through the points obtained. When drawing these

lines the visibility of the various points projected onto plane /72
should be taken into account.
4. Intersecting cylinders are .shown in Fig. 353, a, b, c. The
cylinders with horizontal generatrices in all three cases have the
same diameter, but the cylinders with vertical generatrices have
different diameters. Depending on the size of the diameters of
cylinders with vertical generatrices the lines of intersection of the
cylinders are projected onto plane /72 either in the form of curves —
hyperbolas (Fig. 353, a, b) — or as straight lines (Fig. 353, c).
In the latter case both cylinders are of the same diameter. Such
cylinders may be considered as surfaces described about a sphere
with its centre in point C and its radius equal to the distance from
point C to the generatrices of the cylinder. The two plane curves —
ellipses — obtained by the intersection of the given cylinders have
two points in common with the surface of the sphere about which
the two cylindrical surfaces are described.
5. An example of the construction of the intersection of the
two cylindrical surfaces making up a tee-pipe connection is shown
in the multiview drawing (Fig. 354). The points used in the con­
struction of this line of intersection, or transition, were found by
using auxiliary horizontal planes a, p and y.
6. The construction of the intersection of a cylinder and a cone,
both axes of which are perpendicular to plane U\ (Fig. 355), was
carried out by using auxiliary horizontal planes a, p and y to in­
tersect the cone and cylinder in circles. These circles are projected
210
onto plane FI2 as straight lines and onto plane /71 as circles. The
horizontal projections of all the circles in which the planes intersect
the surface of the cylinder coincide with the projection of the
cylinder on plane 77,. The diameters of the circular sections cut on
the cone by the auxiliary planes are determined from the frontal
projection, as indicated by an arrow forthe circular section of the
cone cut by plane y.

Fig. 354

The intersection of the circle, which is the projection of the

cylinder on 77,, with the horizontal projections of the circles,
obtained when the cone is cut by planes a, p and y, determine the
horizontal projections A u B ,, C,, £>,, £, and F\ of points A, B, C,
D, E and F, through which the line of intersection of the cylinder
and cone pass. The frontal projections A2, B2, C2, D2, E2 and F2 of
these points are obtained by passing projectors through A u B u ■■■,
F\ to the frontal traces of the corresponding planes.
The special points, the highest point M and lowest point TV, are
found with the help of plane 6 passed through the axes of the
cylinder and cone. The points of intersection of the left-hand (L. H.)
and right-hand (R. H.) generatrices of the cylinder with surface of
the cone are constructed by passing planes <p and g through the axis
of the cone and through each of the two generatrices of the cylinder.
Then the generatrices along which these planes intersect the cone
are found. This construction is shown for point K.
7. Three cases of intersection of a cylinder with a cone are
shown in Fig. 356. The three cylinders are of the same diameter.
14* 211
Comparing the diameter of the cylinder with that of the circular
section of the cone whose centre coincides with point C, i. e., with
the point of intersection of the axes of the two bodies, it is seen
that in the first case (Fig. 356, a) the diameter of this section of the
cone is smaller than the diameter of the cylinder, in the second case
(Fig. 356, b) these diameters are equal, and in the third case
(Fig. 356, c) the diameter of the
circle of the cone is larger than that
of the cylinder. The second case
(Fig. 356, b) differs from the first
and third in that a circle may be de­
scribed from point C2 to touch both
the outline generatrices of the cylinder
and of the cone. Therefore, the sur­
faces of these two bodies are
tangential to a sphere with its centre
in point C2. These two surfaces inter­
sect each other in two plane curves,
ellipses, having two points in com­
mon.
8. The construction of the lines
of intersection of the frustum of a
cone with a sphere is shown in the
multiview drawing (Fig. 357).
Since the axis of the cone and the
vertical axis of the sphere are located
in the same frontal plane, the points
A and B of intersection of the R. H.
Fig. 355 and L. H. generatrices of the cone
with the principal meridian of the
sphere are determined directly. Points A2 and B2 are the frontal
projections and Ai and B\ the horizontal projections of these points,
A being the highest point and B the lowest point of the line of
intersection of the cone and sphere.
fn order to construct points D and E, in which the front and

Fig. 356
212
 rear generatrices of the cone intersect the sphere, profile plane p is
drawn. This plane intersects the surface of the sphere in a circle
with radius r', which is projected onto plane IJ3 in its true size.
Therefore an arc of radius r' is described with point C3 as its centre.
This arc intersects the profile projections of the front and rear
generatrices of the cone in points D3 and £ 3 . These are the boun­
daries of visibility
in the projection on
plane /73 of the var­
ious parts of the line
of intersection. At
the same time they
are the points of
intersection of the
profile projections of
the front and rear
generatrices of the
cone with the profile
projection of the curve
of intersection of the
surfaces of the cone
and sphere. Using
points D3 and £3 we
find points D u E u
D2—£ 2 -
The intermediate
points F and G are
constructed by drawing a horizontal plane a to cut the sphere in a
circle of a radius r" and to cut the cone in a circle of a radius r"'.
These circles are projected onto plane /7i as true views, and their
intersection determines the horizontal projections £1 and G\ of points
F and G contained simultaneously in plane a and in the line
of intersection of the cone and cylinder. Using points F\ and G1
the points £2 and G2 are found with the help of projectors drawn
through £1 and G{ to intersect trace a 2 of the auxiliary horizontal
plane a .
The construction of the profile projections A3, B3, G3 and £ 3 ,
of points A, B, G and £ is carried out as usual by constructing
the third projection of the points using two of their known projec­
tions.
Using other auxiliary horizontal planes; a series of intermediate
points of the curve of intersection of the given cone and sphere
may be found.
When a sufficient number of points has been found the projec­
tions of the curve may be drawn through the corresponding projec­
tions of the points.

213
 § 40. Construction of the Intersection
of Surfaces by Means of Oblique Planes
1. An oblique plane passing through a line parallel to the edges
of a prism, intersects the surface of the prism along lines parallel
to these edges, see Fig. 340, b. If we intersect two prisms by a
plane a which passes through two lines, one of which is parallel to
the edges of the first prism and the other parallel to the edges of
the second prism, we obtain lines respectively parallel to these
edges on the surface of each prism.
These basic premises when selecting the most simple oblique
section planes such as a, a', a", a '" and a " " for the construction of
points contained in the lines of intersection of the two oblique
prisms ABODE (I) and KLMN (II), the bases of which are con­
tained in plane FIu see Fig. 358.
Let us determine the direction of the horizontal traces / 1, qx, p\,
Si and k x of the auxiliary cutting planes which are parallel to the
lateral edges of both prisms. Take any convenient point Q and
draw two lines through it, one, QM, parallel to the lateral edges of
the first prism, the other, QM\ parallel to the lateral edges of the
second prism. Having found the horizontal traces M and M' of these
lines draw the trace MM'. This line MM' determines the direction
required.
The first auxiliary plane a is passed through edge A of the first
prism. The horizontal Jra ce f\ of plane a will pass through the
horizontal trace (1 = 2) of this edge A. The trace s\ oj_ the_last
auxiliary plane a"" passes through the horizontal trace (9 = 10) of
edge D of the prism. The other auxiliary planes lie between these
two extreme planes.
Certain parts of the second prism, which lie outside the space
contained between planes a and a"" do not intersect the surface of
the first prism. The areas of the horizontal projection of the base
of the second prism, which correspond to these parts, lie below trace
f i and above trace S \ . They are indicated on the drawing by
hatching.
Plane a, passed through the lateral edge A of the_first prism,
intersects the surface of the second prism along lines 1-1 \ and 2-2x
parallel to its lateral edges. In Fig. 358 only the horizontal projec­
tions of these lines are shown. The horizontal projection of edge A
of the first prism intersects the horizontal projections of lines 1-11
and 2-2\ in points 1\ and 2U respectively. These are the horizontal
projections of the points of intersection 1 and 2 of edge A of the first
prism with the surface of the second prism.
By drawing projectors from points 1\ and 2X perpendicular to
ground line Ox to intersect the frontal projection of edge A , we
214
obtain the frontal projections 12 and 22 of points 1 and 2. In Fig. 358
the projectors are not shown.

2. The m e t h o d of s i m i l a r d e n o t a t i o n s . By a similar
construction, with the help o| plane a"" passed through edge D, we

Fig. 358

obtain the points of intersection 9 and 10 of this edge with the

surface of the second prism.
Plane a", the horizontal trace of which is q\, passes through
edges B and E of the first pnsm and jntersects the surface of the
second prism along the lines 3-3 and 4-4. The intersection of these
215
 lines 3-3 and 4-4 with edges B and E gives, points 3 and 4 and also
points 5 and 6 of the line of intersection of the two given prisms.
The planes a' and a'", passed through the edge C of the first
prism and through the edge K of the second prism, determine two
pairs of points, 7 and <5, and 11 and 12, belonging to the line of
intersection of the prisms.
After obtaining twelve points, contained at one and the same
time in the surfaces of both the first and second prisms, join up
these points to give two space polygons. The sequence in which
the points are connected by straight lines is established with the
help of the method of similar notations.
In accordance with this method use projected points 1, 2, <?, . . . ,
12 parallel to the edges of the prism onto the base of that prism
(Fig. 358). The oblique projections of these points received on plane
n { will coincide with the horizontal traces of the lateral edges and
lines along which the auxiliary planes intersect the faces of the
prism. The oblique projections of the points on plane 771 should be
denoted in the same way as the corresponding points of the lines
of intersection of the prisms. For example, the oblique projection
of point 1 on the base of the second prism is denoted as 1 and the
two coinciding projections of points 1 and 2 on the base of the first
prism as 1 = 2 and so on.
The sequence in which the oblique projections of these points
are situated on the bases of the prisms corresponds to the sequence
of the points on the lines of intersection in space. Therefore, we can
determine the sequence in which the points should be joined in
space by making the round of the oblique projections. The direction
will be clockwise and we can start _with any one of the points, say
point 1. So, beginning with points 1 on the base of each prism, we
note down on paper the number 1 and_pass on to the nearest points.
On the base of the first prism point 12 lies next to point 1 and on the
base of the second prism we find the duplicate point 3 = 5. Having,
established that the notations of these points differ, we bypass
point 12 and_take the next point 3 = 4 on the base of the first prism.
The points 3 = 4 and 3 = 5 have one common number 3. We then
write down 3 next to 1. Continuing the movement round^the bases
of both prisms we find a common notation of points 7 ^ 8 and 7, so*
we write 7 next to 3. The next points with similar denotations are
9 ^ 1 0 and 9. Consequently, we note down 9 next to 7.
Still continuing this movement around the base of the second
prism we come to the bottom hatched part of the base. For this base
the direction should now be reversed, i. e., we must move towards
point 3 ^ 5 , which corresponds to the closed outline of the lines of in­
tersection in space. Moving in this new direction we establish the
216
 similar notation 5 in points 5 ^ 6 and <?— 5. Therefore, after 9 we
write down_5. Finally, by passing 11 we return to the initial points
1 and 1 ^ 2 and again write down the common notation 1. The
line of intersection of the prisms is now.closed. We have a list of
numbers 1-3-7-9-5-1. The corresponding projections of points con­
tained in the lower line of intersection of the prisms are joined up
in this same order.
By carrying out a similar operation in a counter-clockwise
direction we establish the sequence in which the points of the second,
upper line of intersection of the prisms should be joined. This
sequence is 2-11-6-10-8-4-12-2. The starting point in this case was
point 2.
The visibility of the separate points, and the parts of the lines
of intersection adjacent to them, is readily determined from the
oblique projections of these points on the base of the prisms. If two
oblique projections of a point contained in the lines of intersection, or
transition line, have similar notations and are visible in the given
plane of projections, then the orthographic projections of this point
and the part of the transition line adjacent to it are also visible.
Similarly, if one or both oblique projections of one of the points
are hidden, its orthographic projection and the projection of the
parts of the line of intersection adjacent to this point on that same
plane of projection are also hidden.
The visibility of separate parts of the line of intersection of the
prisms can be indicated by the signs + or —, as seen in Fig. 358.
The visible parts are denoted by the plus sign and the parts not
visible by the minus sign.
The projections of the lower line-of intersection of the prisms,
which is a plane pentagon 1-3-7-9-5, are not visible. The projections
of the various sides of the space heptagon 2-11-6-10-8-4-12, which
is the upper line of intersection of the prism, are drawn either as
continuous or broken lines, depending on the visibility of each of
the sides when projected onto planes FIXand /72.

3. The construction of the intersection of a tetragonal prism

with a triangular pyramid is shown in Fig. 359. The bases of these
two solid figures are not contained in any of the planes of projection.
In order to obtain points on the line of intersection of the prism
and pyramid auxiliary planes are passed through line SM drawn
through the vertex 5 of the pyramid parallel to the lateral edges
of the prism. A similar plane was used when constructing points of
intersection in Fig 341.
Since the bases of the prism and pyramid are not contained in
the horizontal plane of projection an auxiliary horizontal plane cp
is drawn to intersect the lateral surface of the pyramid in triangle
1-2-3 and the lateral surface of the prism in the tetragon 4-5-6-7.
217
 The horizontal projections of these lines of intersection are
shown by dashes and two dots. Point M = M\ is the horizontal
projection of the piercing point of line SM in plane q>. Through
this point we draw the traces in plane a of the auxiliary cutting
planes passing through line SM. This sheath of planes opens like a
fan in space. We then find the horizontal projection of the lines
along which these planes
cut the surfaces of the
prism and pyramid. On the
surface of the prism these
section lines are the lateral
edges themselves, or lines
parallel to them. On the
surface of the pyramid the
section lines are lateral
edges or lines contained in
the faces and passing
through the vertex 5. At the
intersection of the horizon­
tal projections of the
respective section lines we
find the horizontal projec­
tions 8\,9i,10i, 11\, 12\, 13\,
14\ and 15\ of points con­
tained in the line of inter­
section of the prism and
pyramid.
The frontal projections
82, 92, IO2, 112, 122, 132, 142
and 152 of these points are
found by passing projectors
through their horizontal
projections.
The sequence in which
corresponding projections
of the eight points obtained
are joined up to form the
♦ tn/l,
two closed lines of intersec­
Fig. 359 tion, 8-12-10 and 13-14-11-
9-15, is determined by the
method of similar denotations. For this purpose the points of
intersection must be projected obliquely onto the bases of the two
given bodies.
4. When constructing the line of intersection of the surfaces
of two oblique cylinders the most simple auxiliary planes are those
drawn parallel to the generatrices of the cylinders (Fig. 360, a).
218
When the surfaces of a cylinder and cone intersect, the simple
auxiliary planes are those drawn through the vertex 5 of the cone
parallel to the generatrices of cylinders (Fig. 360, b). Finally, to
find the intersection of the surfaces of two cones the most con­
venient auxiliary planes are those which pass through the vertices
of the cones (Fig. 360, c).

Fig. 360

Similar auxiliary planes are used when constructing the lines

of intersections of an oblique cylinder and a prism, of a cylinder
and a pyramid, of a cone and a prism, of a cone and a pyramid.
In every case these auxiliary planes give us section lines on each
of the bodies. The intersections of these section lines give us points
contained in the lines of intersection of the two given surfaces.
5. An example of the use of simple auxiliary planes to determine
the transition line of two curved surfaces is the construction of the
intersection of the surfaces of the elliptical cylinders, shown in
Fig. 361.
The direction of the horizontal traces of the auxiliary planes is
determined as follows: Lines QM and QM' are drawn respectively
through any point Q parallel to the generatrices of the given cyl­
inders I and II. The horizontal traces of all the auxiliary planes
cutting the surfaces of cylinders along the generatrices will be
parallel to the horizontal trace M\M[ of plane QMM'.
The trace k\ of the first extreme auxiliary plane is drawn as a
tangent to the base of the first cylinder. The trace q\ of the other
extreme auxiliary plane is drawn as a tangent to the base of the
second cylinder. With the help of these two planes we obtain the
pairs of points 1, 2 and 20, 21 on the line of intersection of the
cylinders / and II. Other points on this line are found with the help
of a series of planes situated between the first and the last planes.
Each of these planes gives us four points on the required line of
intersection of the cylinders.
Having the horizontal projections of points 1, 2, 3, . . . , 21 we
find their frontal projections by means of projectors and the
219
generatrices of the first cylinder, as shown in Fig. 361 by arrows
for point 12.
Both the sequence of joining up the corresponding projections
of the points of the curve of intersection and the visibility of
separate points, when projected onto surfaces TI\ and IJ2, are
determined by the method of similar denotations. For this purpose

In - —— + + + -------------------- ~ + +++ -

1-3-8-12-16-20-17-13-9-4-2-6-11-15-19-21-18-14-10-7-5-1
In n ,- - - — + -h -h + ---------------------- + ------------

Fig. 361

points 1, 2, 3, . . . , 21 are projected obliquely onto the bases of the

cylinders parallel to their generatrices. The notations of the points
are written out in one row, 1-3-8-12-16-20-17-13-9-4-2-6-11-15-19-21-
-18-14-10-7-5-1, since the line of intersection of the cylinders is a
single closed curve.
220
 6. A scheme of the possible positions of the extreme traces of
simple auxiliary planes relative to the bases of the intersecting
bodies is shown in Fig. 362, a.
Trace k\ of one extreme plane is a tangent to the base of the first
body and intersects the base of the second body in two points. The
trace q\ of the other extreme plane intersects the base of the first

Fig. 362

body in two points and is a tangent to the base of the second. This
is case 1, when the two bodies intersect each other in a single
closed curve. The intersection of the cylinders, shown in Fig. 361, is
an example of such a case.
If the traces of the two extreme auxiliary planes are tangents
to the base of one body and cut the base of the other, the two
surfaces intersect in two closed curves. This is case 2, an example
of which is seen in Fig. 362, b.
When the trace of one extreme plane touches the bases of both
bodies and the trace of the other extreme plane touches the base
of the first body, but cuts the base of the second, the two curves
of intersection of the surfaces have one common point. An example
of this case 3 is seen in Fig. 362, c.
Finally, if the traces of the extreme planes touch the bases of
both bodies, the surfaces intersect in two plane curves having two
common points. This is case 4, of which the intersection of the
surfaces of cylinders, shown in Fig. 353, c, may serve as an
example.
7. In the constructions considered above, when simple oblique
auxiliary planes were used to obtain points in the lines of intersec­
tion of surfaces, the bases of the latter were taken as lying in one
plane. The construction of the line of intersection of two elliptical
221
cones, the bases of which are situated in different planes, is shown
in Fig. 363. The base of cone / is contained in the horizontal plane
of projection 771 and the base of cone II in a plane parallel to n x.
The auxiliary cutting planes are drawn through line ST joining

the cone vertices, therefore these planes intersect both conical

surfaces along their generatrices.
Let us examine the construction of a point K belonging to the
line of intersection of the cones.
222
 Line ST and line SI, which cuts ST and passes through a point
1 on the base of the second cone, determine the simplest auxiliary
plane a. The horizontal trace of plane a passes through the
horizontal piercing point M x of line S I and through point T ^ T X
which is the horizontal projection of vertex of cone II. Point Q ^ Q i,
at the intersection of the horizontal projettion of the base of cone I
with the trace M XTX, is joined to point S x. Point 1\ is joined to point
T\. These two straight lines are the horizontal projections of the
generatrices SQ and T1 contained in plane a. The point Ku at the
intersection of projections S1Q1 and Txl x of these generatrices, is
the horizontal projection of point K. Having point Ku with the help
of a projector we find point K2 on T212.
Points L and F are found by a similar construction using
auxiliary planes a' and a" passing through line ST and through
points A and B located on the generatrices T2 and T3 of cone II
respectively. To simplify the drawing, when determining the projec­
tions A2 and B2, the points A and B are taken so that the lines S 2A2
and S 2B2 coincide with line S 212.
Curves are drawn through the corresponding projections of
points K, L, F and of other points not shown in the drawing. These
curves are the lines of intersection of the two given elliptic cones.

§ 41. The Method of Spherical Sections

1. If a surface of revolution, the axis of which is parallel to the
plane of projection, is cut by a sphere with its centre on the axis
of revolution, the circle formed by the intersection of these two
surfaces will be projected onto the given plane of projection as
a straight line perpendicular to the corresponding projection of the
axis of revolution.
Such a case is shown in Fig. 364, where a sphere (I) with its
centre at C intersects a cone (II), a cylinder (III) and a surface
of revolution (IV), the axes of which are parallel to the correspond­
ing planes of projection and pass through the centre of the sphere
C. The axes of the cone and cylinder are parallel to planes I lx and
/73. It follows that the circles, obtained by the intersection of the
cylinder and the cone with the sphere, are projected onto planes TIX
and /73 as straight lines perpendicular to the projections of the axes.
The axis of the body of revolution IV is parallel to planes IIX and
772. It follows that the circle of intersection of this surface with the
sphere is projected onto TIX and TI\2 as a straight line, in each case
perpendicular to the corresponding projections of the axis of
revolution.
The relationships outlined above can be used for the construc­
tion of the line of intersection of a cylinder and a cone, the axes of
which are parallel to plane II2 and intersect in point C, as shown
in Fig. 365. Let us assume point C as the centre of a sphere with
223
radius r and construct the frontal projections of auxiliary circles
in which the cylinder and cone are intersected by the spherical
surface. Both circles are projected onto plane JI2 as straight lines
A 2B2 and D2E2y respectively perpendicular to the frontal projections
of the axes of the cylinder and cone. A2, B2, D2 and E2 are the points
of intersection of the frontal projections of the limiting elements of
the cylinder and cone with the circle
of radius r in which the sphere is
projected onto plane IJ2. Since the
auxiliary circles obtained lie on the
surface of one and the same sphere,
point 22 in which lines A2B2 and E2D2
intersect, will determine the frontal
projections of the two points 2 lying
on the line of intersection of the
cylinder and cone.
Other auxiliary spheres can be
described having the same centre C
in order to find a series of points on
the lines of intersection of the surfaces
of the cylinder and cone.
The frontal projections 12 and 42
of points 1 and 4, in which the upper
generatrix of the cylinder intersects
the upper and lower generatrices of the cone, also lie on the frontal
projection of line of transition, since these generatrices are situated
in the same frontal plane passing through the axes of the cylinder
and the cone. A curve is drawn through points 12, 22t 32 and 42. This
is the frontal projection of the line of intersection of the cylinder

224
;ind the cone. The profile projection 2z-3z-h-4z-3z-2z of the line
of intersection coincides with the circle at which the surface of the
cylinder is projected onto plane 773.
The horizontal projection of the line of intersection is construct­
ed using the frontal and profile projections •already obtained. Once
points 12 and 42 are known points 1\ and 4{ can be found with the
help of projectors.
It should be noted that the radius
of the largest auxiliary sphere
should be slightly less than the
distance from centre C2 to the frontal
projection of the point on the transi­
tion line farthest away from C2, in
this case, 42. The radius of the
smallest sphere should be equal to
the distance from centre C2 to the
frontal projection of the most distant
generatrix.

2. Let it be required to determine

the intersection of a cone and an
annular torus (Fig. 366).
The basic points of the intersec­
tion of the given surfaces lie at the
intersection of the limiting elements
of the cone with the outside
generatrix of the torus. The highest
point is l 2y the lowest being 22.
The frontal plane passing through
the axis of the cone is at the same time the plane of symmetry of
the torus, so it is convenient to use spherical sections to determine
intermediate points belonging to the line of intersection of the cone
and torus.
Let us subdivide that portion of the torus limited by planes a
and a i n t o separate parts with the help of frontal-projecting planes
a , a ' , a " , a ' " passing through the centre O of the torus. These parts
may be called “curved cylinders”. We can assume the surface of
each part to be the surface of a right circular cylinder touching
a curved cylinder in the circle of intersection of the torus by
a plane. We are then able to construct the points of intersection of
these straight cylinders with the cone.
Let us follow through the construction of a point 32 belonging
to the intersection of the cone and the cylinder lying between planes
a and a'. The axis of this cylinder intersects the axis of the cone
in point C2. With point C2 as the centre we describe a circle, the
radius of which is equal to the distance from C2 to point K2 in
which trace a2 intersects the outside generatrix of the torus. This
15 1444 225
circle is the frontal projection of the auxiliary spherical surface
intersecting the cone and the assumed right cylinder contained
between planes.a' and a". The frontal projection of the circular
section of the cone is line A2B2 and it is perpendicular to the
frontal projection of the axis of the cone. The frontal projection of
the circle of intersection of the cylinder coincides with trace a,'2. The
intersection of these lines gives point 32 contained in the frontal
projection of the line of intersection of .the cone and the torus.
Point 42 is found in a similar manner by drawing a circle with
radius C'2L2 having C'2 as its centre. Point 42 lies at the intersec­
tion of lines D2E2 and L2O2.
The construction of the horizontal projections 3\, 3[, 4\ and^jof
points 3, 3', 4 and 4' is carried out by drawing the circular sections
of the cone given by the horizontal planes, the frontal traces of
which pass through points <?2 and 42 respectively. From points 32
and 42 projectors are drawn to intersect the horizontal projections
of these circles. Having obtained points <?i, 3[, 4\ and 4\, we draw
a curve through points 11, 3U 4U 2U 4[ and 3'x. This curve_ is the
horizontal projection of the intersection of the cone and torus.

§ 42. Transformation of Projections and Oblique Projection Used

to Determine the Intersection of Surfaces
1. The transformation of projections for constructing the inter­
section of two surfaces, say a prism and sphere (Fig. 367), consists
in obtaining a projection of the two surfaces in which the line of
intersection coincides with the projection of one of the given
surfaces, in this case, of the prism. This may be accomplished by
successive revolutions of the given bodies about the corresponding
axes, or by successive substitutions of the planes of projection.
In the multiview drawing (Fig. 367) the problem is solved by
substituting the planes of projection. Plane 772 is substituted by
plane V74 perpendicular to plane Tl\ and parallel to the lateral edges
of the prism. These edges will be projected onto plane 774 in their
true length. The second new plane /75, perpendicular to plane /74,
is also perpendicular to the lateral edges of the prism. The prism
is then projected onto this plane /74 as the triangle AsBsD5. The
sides of this triangle represent the projection of the faces of the
prism. The part j4s55 of side A 5 B 5 of the triangle is the projection
on plane IJ5 of the arc of the circle in which face A B of the prism
cuts the surface of the sphere.
Similarly, A565 is the projection on plane n 5 of the arc of the
circle in which face AD of the prism cuts the sphere. Since side
B5D5 of the triangle does not intersect the circle having C5 as its
centre, it follows that face BD of the prism does not cut the surface
of the sphere.
Let us now take a series of points on the sides A 5 B 5 and A 5 D 5
226
15* 227
of the triangle and, using the method of inverse projection, find the
projections of these points, first in the system of planes /7i-/74 and
then in the principal system of planes of projection n x-Yl2. Points
5 and 6 are special points. The edge A of the prism intersects the
sphere in points 1 and 2. Points 3, 4, 7 and 8 are intermediate
points.
The projections of points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 on plane /74 are
obtained by cutting the sphere with planes parallel to the plane of
projection 774. This construction is shown for points 34, 44 and
64. The projections of the points on planes 771 and /72 are found by
means of their projections on planes 774 and /7s. It should be
remembered that the distances of these points from the respective
planes of projection remain unchanged. The two arcs of circles in
which the sphere is cut by the prism faces AB and AD are project­
ed onto planes 774, 77j and /72 as arcs of ellipses.
2. The construction of the intersection of two oblique prisms
using oblique projection is shown in the multiview drawing
(Fig. 368). The prisms are projected obliquely onto plane 771 in
direction s parallel to the lateral edges DK, EL and FM of the
second prism.
The oblique projection of prism II on plane 77j coincides with
the orthographic projection K\LxMx of its base KLM on that same
plane 77], The oblique projection of prism 7 on plane 774 is shown in
the drawing by dots and dashes. The oblique projections of its
vertices are found in the same way as the horizontal traces of
oblique lines are found. This construction is shown for vertex A.
The intersection of the oblique projections of the lateral edges
of the first prism with the sides of triangle K \LXM\ \. e., with the
obliquej)rojection of prism II, determines points 71( 2U 31, 4X, 5X, 6X,
7\ and 8X. These points are the oblique projections of points 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7 and 8, contained in the line of intersection of the prisms.
By inverse projection points 1\, 2U 3U 4U 5\ and 6Xare found at
the intersection of the horizontal projections of the oblique
projectors with the orthographic projections on plane I7X of the
corresponding edges of the first prism. In order to determine points
7\ and 81 two auxiliary lines S7 and P8 are used. These lines are
first drawn on_the ^blique projection of the prism through the
duplicate point 7 i ^ 8 x. Then they are drawn on the projection of
prism II on plane 77j. This construction is indicated by arrows. The
frontal projections / 2, 22, 32, 42, 52, 62, 72 and 82 of all the eight
points found are constructed by passing projectors through points
1\, 2\, etc., to intersect the frontal projections of the respective
lateral edges of the prism.
3. The line of intersection of a cylinder and a pyramid (Fig. 369)
may also be constructed by the method of oblique projection of both
228
Fig. 368
229
bodies onto plane /7i in direction I parallel to the generatrices of
the cylinder. The oblique projection of the cylindrical surface
coincides with the orthographic projection on plane FIi of the base
of the cylinder itself. The oblique projection of the base of the
pyramid coincides with the orthographic projection of its base on
plane 77i. Next point Si, the oblique projection on plane 771 of the

vertex of the pyramid S, is found. Point Si is joined by straight

lines with points A \= = A i,_B \^B \ and Ci = Ci. This gives us the
oblique projection S]i4iBiCj_of th j j)yramidjon plane 77i. The inter­
section of the projections Sii4i, Sifii and S1C1 of the edges of the
pyramid with the ellipse, which is the oblique projection of the
cylinder and coincides with the orthographic projection of the base
230
231
of the cylinder on 77i, determines the oblique projections / i, 2i, 3i,
4\, 5\ and 6\ of the points in which the edges of the pyramid inter­
sect the cylinder. The inverse projecting of these points contained
in the intersection of the cylinder and pyramid is carried out the
same way as in the previous example (see Fig. 368).

Problems and Exercises

1. How is the line of transition, or intersection of surfaces of

two polyhedra constructed?
2. Describe how the method of similar notations is used to
determine the intersection of two surfaces?
3. What types of auxiliary planes are used when constructing
points contained in the line of intersection of two surfaces?
4. What is the procedure for constructing the intersection of
two surfaces by transforming their projections?
What is the procedure when using oblique projection for this
purpose?
5. Construct the intersection of the pyramid and the prism,
shown in Fig. 370.
6. Construct the intersection of the pyramids, shown in Fig. 371.
Hi n t . In the first example (Fig. 371, a) the section planes used'
should be projecting planes. In the second case (Fig. 371, b) simple
oblique section planes passing through the vertices of the pyramid
should be used (Fig. 360, c) .
7. Construct the intersection of the following surfaces: a) a cone
and sphere, b) two spheres, c) a cone and a cylinder (Fig. 372).
8. Construct the intersection of the following surfaces:
a) a torus and a cylinder, b) a cylinder and a prism, c) a cylinder
and a pyramid (Fig. 373).
 Chapter XI
AXONOMETRIC PROJECTION

§ 43. General

The orthographic projections of different objects completely

determine their form, their dimensions, and their relative position
in space. Such projections are convenient to use since two dimen­
sions, parallel to the respective axes of projection, the ground lines,
are shown without distortion while the third dimension is
represented as a point. However, orthographic projections are not
completely descriptive since they depict the objects not as one
whole, but by means of their separate projections. From these draw­
ings it is necessary to imagine the reconstruction of the form of
the objects in space. That is why not only orthographic projections,
but also axonometric projections, are widely used.
The main advantage of axonometric projections consists in
their clarity. Because of this, and also due to the inherent advantage
of axonometric projections, i. e., the ease with which measurements
are made on the projections, they are gaining popularity in
engineering. In Fig. 374 a detail, the body of a valve, is depicted
both in orthographic (Fig. 374, a) and in axonometric projection
(Fig. 374, b). The axonometric representation of any detail is
obviously more descriptive.
When constructing axonometric projections the objects are
considered as being situated in a system of rectangular coordinate
axes. The objects, together with the axes, are projected onto a
selected plane of projection. The latter is called the plane of
axonometric projection. The projections obtained on this plane are
called axonometric projections.
The projections of the coordinate axes on the plane of
axonometric projection are called axonometric axes.
Fig. 375 shows a plane of axonometric projection II' arbitrarily
located in respect to the trihedral formed by the coordinate planes
Oxz, Oxy and Oyz. The axonometric axes O'x', O'y' and O'z'
obtained in plane II' by projecting the rectangular coordinate axes
233
in the direction s, and the axonometric projection A' of point A,
are also shown.
The projector 5 may be either perpendicular or inclined to plane
FI'. In the first case the axonometric projections are called
rectangular and in the latter — oblique. The former are also
referred to as right or right-angle projections.

Fig. 374

The rectangular and oblique axonometric projections also differ

in the degree of distortion of dimensions. The factor, or index, of
distortion or foreshortening is the ratio of the length of the
axonometric projection of a line to the length of the line itself.
Let the coordinate angle Oxyz (Fig. 376) be projected onto the
plane of axonometric projection FI' in the direction s, and let point
O' be the axonometric projection of the point of origin O. Then line
O'x' will be the axonometric projection of Ox. The lines O'y' and

Fig. 375 Fig. 376

234
O'z' will be the axonometric projections of Oy and Oz. The ratios
O 'x' oy O 'z'
,
= p, —— =q and = r are the factors of distortion
Ox Oy Oz
determining the degree of foreshortening in the directions of the
axes Ox, Oy and Oz. #
Let us take a line AB in the plane Oxy, parallel to axis Ox. Since
parallel projection is used, the axonometric projection A'B' is
parallel to the axonometric axis O'x'. It follows that
AB
O 'x '
Ox
= P•
When all three factors of distortion are equal, i. e., p = q = ry the
axonometric projection is called isometric projection and the scale
used is an isometric scale.
Axonometric projection with two equal factors of. distortion and
the third differing is called dimetric projection, i. e., two
measurements are equal. The scale used is a dimetric scale. If there
are no equal factors axonometric projection is called trimetric
projection, i. e., possessing three different measurements. The scale
then used is called a trimetric scale.
The direction of the projection for the construction of
axonometric projections is of considerable importance. This direc­
tion should be chosen so that one axonometric projection gives a
cofiiplete idea of the form of the object represented. The direction
of projection should not be perpendicular to any of the coordinate
planes, otherwise one of the coordinate axes will be projected onto
plane 77' as a point and the axonometric representation will lack
clarity.
The plane of axonometric projection 77' should also be given
a suitable position in space with respect to the coordinate planes
Oxz, Oyx and Oyz. In rectangular axonometric projection plane 77'
must cut all three coordinate axes, otherwise the projectors
perpendicular to 777 may cause one of the axes x, y or z to be
projected onto 77' as a point. They may also project two of the axes
as a single line. For example, if plane 77' is perpendicular to plane
Oxz and to axis Oz the axis Ox will be projected onto 77' as a point
and the axonometric representation will not be
sufficiently clear.
In oblique axonometric projection, when the
position of the plane of projection does not
depend on the choice of direction of the projec­
tion and, conversely, the selection of the direction
of projection does not depend on the position
of the plane of axonometric projection, plane
77' may be parallel to one of the coordinate axes
or coordinate planes, or it may not intersect
all three coordinate axes. In oblique axono-
235
metric plane II' is usually assumed as parallel to one of the
coordinate planes.
The relative positions of the plane of axonometric projection
and the direction of projection in space determine the factors of
distortion and the angles between the axonometric axes.
The construction of a dimetric rectangular projection A ' of point
A with respect to the axes O'x', O'y' and O'z' inclined at angles 7°,
41° and 90° to the horizontal lines is shown in Fig. 377. The
sequence of construction is shown by arrows. First, from point O'
we lay off the value x along.axis O'x'. Then parallel to the axis O'y'
we lay off the value y. This gives us point A'*. Finally, along the
vertical, upwards from point A'„ the value z is laid off. This gives
us the rectangular dimetric projection A ' of point A.

§ 44. The Elements of Rectangular Axonometric Projection

l . T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e f a c t o r s of d i s t o r ­
t i o n . If the projections are perpendicular to the plane of axono­
metric projection 77' (Fig. 376) and point O' is the axonometric
projection of point O, then line O'O is perpendicular to plane 77' and
the lines O'x', O'y' and O'z' will be the sides of the right triangles
O'x'O, O'y'O and O'z'O. Therefore: =cosa°; =cos p°; ~ '= .
Ox Oy Oz
= cos y°.
The left parts of the equations represent the factors of
distortion:
O 'x ' oy o'z'
=p; =q; =r.
Ox Oy Oz v

Therefore: cos a°=p; cos P° = ^; cosy ° = r .

Let the coordinates of point O' be x, y, z (Fig. 378). Let the
length of O'O be k, then
x2+ y2+ z2= k2. (1)
But x= kco s 6°; y = k cos X°; z= k cos <p°.
Substituting these values of the coordinates
of point O' in equation (1), we obtain
k2cos2 6°+k2cos2 X°+k2 cos2q>°= k2 and
cos2 6 °+ cos2X°+ cos2 q>°= 1. (2)
So the sum of the squares of the cosines of
the angles made with the coordinate axes by
the line O'O passing through the origin of
the coordinates is equal to unity.
The line O'O (Fig. .376) forms angles
otp (3° and Yi with axes Ox, Oy and Oz.
This point 4 ' is called the secondary projection.

236
These angles are complementary to angles a°, p°, y°. In Fig. 376
the only notation of these angles shown is that of the angle a°
between the ground line Ox and the line O'O. From what has been
said it follows:
cos2 aj +cos2 Pj +cos2Yj = 1 (3)
since
a°= (90°—aj1), p°= (90° —Pj ), yo= (9 0 °-Y i° ).
we have
c o sa j= sin a °; cosPj = sinp°; cosyi = s in y°.
Hence,
sin2 a°+ sin2 p°+sin2y ° = 1. (4)
But
sin2 a° = 1—cos2 a°; sin2 p° = 1—cos2 p°; sin2y° = 1—cos2y°. (5)
Substituting (5) in (4) we obtain
cos2 a°+cos2 p° +cos2y ° =2.
It has already been demonstrated that cos a°=p; cos p°=<7;
cos y°=r.
Therefore: p2+ p2+ r 2= 2, i. e., th e s u m of th e s q u a r e s
of t h e f a c t o r s of d i s t o r t i o n i n a r e c t a n g u l a r
a x o n o m e t r i c s y s t e m is e q u a l t o tw o .
In a right isometric system the distortion factors along the three
axes are equal to each other: p = q=r. Therefore, 3p2=3q2= 3r2=2.
It follows: p = q —r — | / - | =0.8165 —0.82.
Because of this, in a right isometric system, the lengths of
projections of parts of lines, i. e., of segments, located along axes
x, y and z or parallel to them, are equal to 0.82 of the real length
of the lines which have been projected.
In a right dimetrical system of projections the distortion factors
p and r along axes x and z are taken as equal while the factor q
along axis y is assumed to be equal to
Therefore, we have:
P2+ -jP 2+P2= 2, or p2= — ;
4 9
hence,
l/8 2V2
P = r= I/9 = = 0.9428 « 0.94
and
p __ c
=0.4714 « 0.47.
q~ 2 ~ 2
237
 2. T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e a n g l e s b e t w e e n axo-
n o m e t r i c a x e s . The triangle x'y'z' given by the intersection
of the plane of axonometric projection TV with the coordinate planes
is called the trace triangle (Fig. 376). It is easy to determine the
angles between the axonometric axes with the help of the trace
triangle.
In right isometric projection p = q = r. Therefore, cos a°=cos p°=
= cosy0 which means that when the angles are acute they them­
selves are equal, i. e., a°= p 0= y 0.
The line segment O'O is one of the sides of the right triangles
O'x'O, O'y'O and O'z'O. Therefore:
O'O = Ox' • sin a°; O 'O ^O y'- sin p°; O'O = Oz' • sin y°. It follows
that when angles a°, p° and y° are equal, the line segments Ox', Oy'
and Oz' are also equal in length.
Since Ox', Oy' and Oz' are the sides of the other three right
triangles xOz, xOy, zOy, the hypotenuses xy, xz and zy of these
triangles are also equal to each other, so the trace triangle is an
equilateral triangle.
Angles x'O'z', x'O 'y' and z'O 'y' are also equal, since their sides
0\x', 0 \y ' and Oxz' coincide with the altitudes of the equilateral
triangle. Each of these angles is 120°.
It follows that in i s o m e t r i c r i g h t p r o j e c t i o n t h e
a n g l e s b e t w e e n t h e a x e s a r e 120°. When these axes are
being constructed it is usual to make axis O'z' a vertical (Fig. 379).
?In dimetric right projection the distortion factors p and r are
equal and we have cosa°=cosy0. This means that the angles a°
and y° are also equal (Fig. 376).
But O'O = Ox- sin a°; O'O = Oz- siny°. _
Hence 0 'x ' = 0 'z'. With O V = l and 0 'z '= 1 we obtain x'z'=~j2.
Once the distortion factors for dimetric right projections have
2 y2
been determined it can be established that p = r = —5— . There­
fore, 0 'x ' = 0 'z '=
Since segments O'x' and O V
are equal, it follows that the sides

F i g . 379 F ig . 380

238
x'y' and y'z' of the trace triangle x'y'z' are also equal, i. e., this
triangle is an isosceles triangle (Fig. 380).
The altitude O'A' divides the side x'z' of the triangle x'y'z' into
two equal parts, A 'x'= A ,z'\ but x 'z '= y 2, therefore A V = — -
and A 'z'= J - - .

Triangle A'z'O ' is a right triangle, therefore we have:

sin 6 °= A 'z': 0 'z '= =0.75.
The angle 6° whose sin 6° = 0.75 is 48°35/. The angle x '0 'z'=
= 2 8 °= 48°35' X 2 = 97° 1O'.
Angle A'O 'B' is complementary to angle 8. But angle A'OrB' is
equal to angle C'O'y'. Since 8°=48°35/, it follows that angle
A 'O 'B '= angle C'O'y' = 90 °- 48°35'=41 °25'.
Summing up, the angle between axes O'z' and O'x' (Fig. 381)
is 97°10', the angle between axes O'z' and O'y' is 131°25', and the
angle between axes O'x' and O'y' is also 131°25'. Since the axis
O'z' is usually taken as vertical, it follows that in relation to the
horizontal line B'C', axis O'x' makes an angle of 97°10'—90°=7°10'
(roughly 7°) with B'C', and axis O'y' makes an angle of
131o25, - 9 0 o= 41°25/ (roughly 41°) with B'C'.
The construction of the dimetric axes is carried out as follows:
First, the line AB is drawn (Fig. 382) and on it point O' is marked.
This will be the axonometric projection of the coordinate axis. From
this point axis O'z' is erected perpendicular to AB. Then on the
straight line AB, to each side of point O', eight equal segments
of any suitable length are laid off. From the left point 8 a
perpendicular to line AB is erected. On this line one of the
segments is stepped off. From the right-hand point 8 a perpen­
dicular to AB is erected and seven segments are stepped off on
it. The points 1 and 7 obtained in this way are joined to point O'
by straight lines. These are the axes O'x' and O'y' in the
rectangular dimetric projection. This method is based on the
239
construction of an angle by its tangent (tan 7°10/ = - ;
8
tan 41 °25/ = - ) .
8
Eight different ways in which the. axonometric semi-axes can
be seen in the various octants, depending on the position of the
observer’s eye, are shown in Fig. 383. If the eye of the observer is in
the 1 or 4 ox in the 6 or 7 octants,
the axis O'x' will be directed to
the left of point O' and the axis
O'y' to the right of it. When the
observer’s eye, i. e., the point of
sight, is in one of the rest octants,

Fig. 384

2, 3, 5 and 8, the axis O'x' falls to the right of point O' and axis O'y'
to the left.
In Figs. 379 and 381 the direction of the axes O'x' and O'y' cor­
responds to the case when the point of sight is in the 1 octant. In
Fig. 382 the point of sight is in the 5 octant.

§ 45. The Construction of Rectangular Axonometric Projections

When constructing axonometric projections it is necessary to
remember that the foreshortening or distortion dealt with in the
previous paragraph concerns only those lines which lie on axes
O'x', O'y' and O'z', or lines which are parallel to these axes. The
length of the axonometric projections of lines which are not parallel
to the axes may be determined by constructing their extreme points
by means of their coordinates.
The construction of the rectangular dimetric projection A ' of
point A by its given coordinates x, y, z is shown in Fig. 377. Using
this technique it is always possible to construct the axonometric
240
projection of any object from its multiview drawing, assuming
that the distortion of factors for the axonometric axes are given.
The representation in rectangular isometric projection of tri­
angle ABC, given in the multiview drawing by projections A\B\C\
and A2B2C2, is shown in Fig. 384. The construction is as follows:
first, the axonometric coordinates x', y \ zf of the vertices of the
triangle are determined by multiply­
ing the true coordinates x, y, z by
0.82. Then, using the coordinates x'
and y' of the vertices A, B and C, their
secondary horizontal projections/l',
and C' are constructed. Finally, from
these points the values zA, zB , zC
are laid off. The points A', B' and C'
obtained are the axonometric projec­
tions of the vertices of the given
triangle ABC. The triangles A'B'C'
and A[B\ C\ are respectively its
axonometric and secondary projec­
tions in the rectangular isometric
projection.
The construction of the line of
intersection K'L' of triangle A'B'C'
with the parallelogram D'E'F'M' in
the rectangular dimetric projection is shown in Fig. 385. Just as in
the multiview drawing the construction is carried out with the
help of auxiliary section planes. The point of intersection K' of the
side A'B ' of the triangle with the plane of the parallelogram is
constructed by using the horizontal-projecting plane a, drawn
through side A'B'. Trace a[ coincides with the secondary projection
A[ B[. Point K' lies at the intersection of line A'B ' and line 1'2'
obtained as the result of intersection of plane a with the plane of
the parallelogram.
Point L' of line K'L' is obtained with the help of a similar
horizontal-projecting plane p passing through one side E'F' of the
parallelogram. Point L' is given by the intersection of the section
line 3'4' and line E'F'.
The visibility of portions of the intersecting figures in the axo­
nometric representation is established, as in the multiview drawing,
by comparing the coordinates of separate points (see § 23,
Fig. 193).
Let us consider some examples of the construction of axono­
metric projections of various geometrical figures and details such
as encountered in engineering drawing.
1. The construction of the isometric projection of a cube
(Fig. 386) is started by drawing the axis O'z'. At an angle of 120°
16 1444 241
 to O'z', or at an angle of 30° to the horizontal, the axes O'x' and
O’y ’ are then drawn, this is stage a seen in Fig. 386.
Then we construct the projection A'B'C'D' of the top face of the
cube ABCD (stage b). Along axis O'x' from point O' we lay off
0 'B '= A 'B ' equal to 0.82 of the length of the edge AB. Along axis
O'y' from point O' we lay off O 'D '= A 'D '= A 'B '.
Through the points B' and D'
obtained we draw lines parallel to
axes O'y' and O'x'. These lines
intersect in point C . The rhomb
A ’B'C'D' is the isometric projec­
tion of the top face ABCD of the
cube.
Let us construct the projection
A'B'F'E' of the face ABFE lying
in the plane z'O'x' (stage c). For
this purpose we lay off down­
wards from point A', along axis
Fig. 386 O'z' the foreshortened length of
the edge of the cube. The factor is
0.82. From point B' parallel to O'z' we lay off B'F'= A'E'. We then
join point E' with points A ' and F', and point F' with point B'. The
rhomb A'B'F'E' is the isometric projection of the lateral face
ABFE of the cube.
In a similar manner we construct the projection A'D'J'E' of
the second lateral face ADJE of the cube (stage d).
The hidden edge of the cube is not shown. In axonometric
representations hidden outlines are generally excluded in order not
to make the drawing too complicated. The faces of the cube in its
isometric projection appear as rhombs, which are all the same in
form and size. The outline of the complete projection of the cube is
a regular hexagon. The axonometric axes and factors of distortion
along these axes may be shown apart from the axonometric projec­
tion as, for example, in Figs. 388 and 389.

2. In order to avoid the large number of arithmetical computa­

tions involved in measuring the length of the various segments of
straight lines and multiplying these numbers by the distortion
factor (in this case 0.82), an a n g u l a r s c a l e may be used
(Fig. 387). Such a scale is based on the proportional division of
lines of different lengths, which form an angle with each other.
To construct the required scale a horizontal line 100 mm long
is drawn. Another line 82 mm long is drawn to form any convenient
angle with the first line. The ratio of the length of these lines is
82:100 = 0.82. Having divided the horizontal line into 10 equal
segments or parts and denoting the points of division as 10, 20, etc.,
we join the extreme points 100 and 82 by a straight line. We then
242
pass a series of lines parallel to line 100-82 through the points of
division. These parallels divide the second line into 10 equal parts.
The length of each segment received will be 00.82 of the length of
each segment of the horizontal line.
In order to determine the length of the axonometric projection
of any line a segment of the same length is first laid off from point
82 mm

Fig. 387

F on the horizontal line. Then through the point K obtained a line

KL is drawn parallel to lines of the scale. The segment FL gives
the required length of the isometric projection of the original line.
Angular scales may be constructed to give any degree of
foreshortening, including, of course the dimetric factors of distor­
tion 0.94 and 0.47.
3. T h e d i m e t r i c p r o j e c t i o n s of a c u b e are built in
the same sequence as isometric projections. In Fig. 388, a a cube in
the dimetric projection is shown. The factor of distortion or
foreshortening along axis y' is 0.47.
Distortion factors are often rounded off by using a factor equal
to unity instead of 0.94 along axes O'x' and O'z' and along axis
O y 0.5 instead of 0.47.
When rounded off distortion factors are used the representation
is called a reduced pictorial representation (Fig. 388, b). If . the
lengths of the edges of the cube, seen in Fig. 388, a, are compared
with those of the edges of the cube in Fig. 388, b, we find that the
dimetric representation of the cube seen in Fig. 388, b is drawn to
a larger scale, i. e., 1 : 0.94, or 1.06 : 1.

Fig. 388
16 * 243
 In the dimetric projection of a cube two of its faces, the front
and rear, parallel to the coordinate plane xOz are rhombs with
angles 83° and 97°. All other faces are parallelograms with angles
of 49° and 131°.
4. When the face of an object shown in axonometric projection
is an irregular polygon, it is advisable to inscribe this polygon
A2 =B2 E2 C fD 2 = F2

within a rectangle, the sides of which are parallel to the coordinate

axes. This method is used when constructing the representations
of a prism in isometric and dimetric projection (Fig. 389). After
constructing the projection A'B'C'F' of the rectangle ABCF we find
the axonometric projections E' and D' of points E and D by means
of their coordinates x and y. Then from points A', B 't C \ D' and E'
we drop straight lines parallel to axis O'z'. On these lines we lay
off the length of the lateral edges taking into consideration the
distortion factor along axis O'z'. The points thus obtained are
joined by straight lines.
1 5. The isometric projec­
tion of the object shown
in Fig. 390 is constructed
in the following sequence.
First, a parallelepiped is
drawn, then its left part
is eliminated, and finally
the top shoulder, is drawn
in.
6. The axonometric pro­
jection of a polyhedron,
Fig. 390 such as the irregular
244
pyramid, shown in Fig. 391, should be built by using the
coordinates of its vertices. The construction is simplified due to
the fact that the vertices A, B and C of the triangular base of the
pyramid and the foot, or lower point D, of the line of altitude, are
all contained in tire coordinate plane xOy. Waving constructed the
isometric axes O'x', O'y' and O'z', we then find the axonometric

projections A', B' and C' of the pcfints of the triangular base. For
this purpose, using the multiview drawing, we determine' the
coordinates of the points A, B and C. Then, using the angular scale
(Fig. 387), and by means of the values of x for points A, B and C,
we find the axonometric values x' of these points. These segments
are then marked off from point O' along axis O'x'. From the points
obtained on axis O'x' we lay off on lines parallel to axis O'y' the
values y' for the vertices. The latter are determined by measuring
the values y for points A, B and C in the multiview drawing
and reducing them by means of the corresponding angular scale.
Points A', B' and C are joined by straight lines. The triangle
A'B'C' is the isometric projection of the base of the pyramid ABC.
Point D', the isometric projection of the foot of the line of
altitude SD, is constructed in a similar way. Through point D'
upwards we draw a vertical and lay off on it the foreshortened
altitude of the pyramid (the factor is 0.82). This gives us point S',
i. e., the isometric projection of the pyramid vertex S. We finish the
construction of the isometric representation of the pyramid by
joining S ' with points A', B' and C' by straight lines.
7. When the outline of the lower part of the object is more
complicated than its upper part, it is advisable , to begin the
245
 axonometric by choosing a point of sight so that the object is
viewed from below. This corresponds to the case when the eye of
the observer is in one of the octants 3, 4, 7 or 8. In Fig. 392 an
example of such a construction in dimetric projection is shown.
The direction of the axes x', y' and z' indicate% at the observer’s
eye is in the 8 octant.

8. It should be noted that the axonometric projection of an

object may be also constructed directly in the multiview drawing
by rotating the object successively about two axes or by projecting
it onto new planes of projection.
The construction of the isometric and the dimetric projections
of a cube is shown in Figs. 393 and 394. The isometric projection
of the cube was obtained by substituting the planes of projection
TI\ and /72 by new planes 774 and Il5. The dimetric projection of
a cube was obtained by successive rotating of the cube about two
axes. The first axis coincides with one of the lateral edges of the
cube and the second passes through the left vertex of the base and
is perpendicular to plane n2.
9. The circles inscribed into
the cube faces in isometric pro­
jection become ellipses inscribed
in rhombs which are themselves
the isometric projections of the
faces of the cube (Fig. 395).
The centres of these ellipses
lie at the intersection of the
diagonals of the rhombs. The
major diagonals B'D', B'E' and
E'D' of the rhombs are respec­
tively perpendicular to axes O'z',
O'x' and O'y' and are equal to
the true lengths of the diagonals
246
of the cube (see Fig. 385). It follows that the major axes of the
ellipses l'-2', 5'-6' and 9’-10', which coincide with these diagonals,
are of the same length as the diameters of the circles inscribed in
the faces of the cube.
The minor axes S'A', 7'-8' and W - 1 2 of the ellipses coincide
with the minor diagonals of the rhombs and are perpendicular to

the major axes of the ellipses. The minor axes of the ellipses are the
isometric projections of lines, each of which is perpendicular to
the two edges of the cube, which it intersects. In the isometric
projection each axis lies on the same straight line as do these two
edges. So the direction of the minor axis of any of the ellipses
is parallel to the axonometric axis, that is perpendicular to the
plane in which the given circle lies.
T h e m i n o r a x e s of t h e e l l i p s e s a r e e q u a l in
l e n g t h t o 0.57 of th e d i a m e t e r s of t h e c i r c l e s
i n s c r i b e d i n t h e f a c e s of t h e cube. This may be
readily seen if we consider the right triangle S'B'C ' (Fig. 395),
where C'S' = B 'S' ■tan 30°. It follows that 2C/S/ = 2 fl/S '-ta n 30°, or
A'C' = B'D'- tan 30° and A'C'=0.57B'D'. Since axis 3'A ' is
perpendicular to B'D', then the
same ratio 0.57 exists between the
minor axis of the ellipse and dia­
meter of the circle inscribed in
the face of the cube.
It may be seen from Fig. 395
that in each of the three ellipses,
besides four points which are the
extreme points of the axes of the
ellipse, there are also four points
where the sides of the rhomb are *
tangential to the ellipse. These
points K', V , M', N', P', Q', T , W
and R' are located on lines par­
allel to the isometric axes and are e ‘o ‘
projections Of the points of contact Fig. 395
247
of the edges of the cube which are tangential to the circles inscribed
in the various faces.

10. The construction of the ellipse having its centre in point

5', which is the isometric projection of the circle inscribed in the
top face of the cube, is shown in Fig. 396. First a line S 'A ' is drawn

parallel to the axis O'z'. This line determines the direction of the
minor axis of the ellipse l'-2'. The length of this minor axis is
equal to 0.57 d, where d is the diameter of the circle. The major
axis 3'-4' of the ellipse is perpendicular to the axis l'-2' and the
length of this major axis is equal to d. Further, through centre S'
of the ellipse lines 5'-6' and 7'-8' are drawn respectively parallel
to axes O'x' and O'y'. The length of each of these lines is equal to
0.82 d. The ellipse is then drawn through the eight points obtained.
The other two ellipses, with centres in points Sj and S ’n which
are the isometric projections of the circles in the coordinate planes
zOx and zOy, are constructed in a similar way. The major axis of
the left ellipse is perpendicular to axis O'y' and the major axis of
the right ellipse is perpendicular to axis O'x'.
When a circle does not lie in a coordinate plane or in a plane
parallel to a coordinate plane, the ellipse may be constructed by
using the coordinates of a series of points taken on this circle.

11. Isometric projections are often constructed without using

the factor of distortion 0.82 to foreshorten dimensions along the
axes Ox', Oy' and Oz'. In this case the lengths of the axes of the
ellipses — the isometric representation of the circles lying in the
coordinate planes, or in planes parallel to them, — are determined
as follows, for the major axis, 1 :0.82= 1.22 of the diameter of the
circle and for the minor axis, 0.57:0.82 = 0.7 of the diameter of the
circle.
24a
 12. The dimetric projection of a cube with circles inscribed in
its faces is shown in Fig. 397. The front and rear faces of the cube
are seen as rhombs and the other faces as parallelograms. The
minor axes of the ellipses are parallel to the respective dimetric
axes, whereas the major axes are perpendioular to the minor axes.
The lengths of the major and minor axes of the ellipse depend
on whether the circle lies in a top, lateral or front face, and also on
the scale to which the dimetric projection is drawn. If the dimetric
projection of the cube is foreshortened using the factor 0.94 in the
direction of the axes O V and O'z' and 0.47 in the direction of axis
O y , then the major axis of each of the ellipses is equal to the
diameter of the circle itself. If the dimetric projection is constructed
without foreshortening along axes O Y and O'z', but is foreshortened
along axis O'y', using the factor 0.5, then the major axis of each
of the three ellipses is equal to 1 :0.94= 1.06 of the diameter. The
minor axis of an ellipse, located in the coordinate plane z'O'x' , is
equal to 0.88 of the length of the major axis. The minor axis of
ellipses located in planes x'O'y' and z'O 'y' is equal to V3 of the
length of the major axis.
The ratio of the lengths of the major and minor axes of the
ellipses, 1 :0.88, may be easily obtained if we consider the right
triangle F'S[E\ where S\F' = S'E ' • tan 41°25, = 0.88'S;£/. It follows
that A 0.88 B'E'. This ratio also exists between axes 7'-8' and
5'-6' of the ellipse in this coordinate plane x'O'z' . Therefore, if the
length of the major axis 5'-6' of the ellipse is assumed equal to
diameter d of the circle represented, then the length of the minor
axis 7'-8' is equal to 0.88 d. If the length of the major axis 5'-6' is
assumed as equal to 1.06 d, then the length of the minor axis is
equal to 0.88X 1.06 d = 0.93 d.
The relationship between O'K and OK, i. e., between the
axonometric projection O'K of the line and the line OK itself
(Fig. 398), may be considered as the relationship between the minor
and major axes of the ellipse located in the coordinate plane
x'O'y' (Fig. 397). As can be seen from the drawing in Fig. 398,
---- = sin y° = V 1—cos2v°. The value cosy° is the factor of distor-
OK _
2 V2 O'K
tion r along axis O'z', but s in c e -r= —| — , it follows that =
= 1\ A TTTi
9 3 '
Besides the extreme points of the axes for each ellipse in the
dimetric projection of a cube (Fig. 397), we have another four
points: K', L', M' and N' for the upper ellipse, N', W', Q' and R'
for the lateral ellipse, and K', T', P' and Q' for the front ellipse.
Each of these points is the mid-point of the corresponding side of
the rhomb or parallelogram and represents the dimetric projection
of the point in which the circle touches the edges of the cube.
249
 13. The construction of the ellipses, which are the dimetric
projections of circles lying in the coordinate planes zOx, xOy and
zOy, is shown in Fig. 399. To construct the top ellipse we take a
point 5 ' as its centre and then draw a line S 'A ' parallel to axis
O 'z'. Assuming this as the line of the minor axis we draw, at right
angle to it, the line of the major axis of the ellipse. The length of

Fig. 398 Fig. 399

the major axis is taken as equal to 1.06 of the diameter of the circle,
the scale being 1.06:1. By laying off along the major axis, to
both sides of point S', 0.53 of the diameter of the circle we obtain
points 3' and 4'. Next, by laying off from point S ' upwards and
downwards along axis O'z' lU of the length of the major axis we
obtain the extreme points of the minor axis of the ellipse, i. e.,
points 1' and 2'. Then, through that same point S', we draw lines
respectively parallel to axes O'x' and O'y'. On the first line, at a
distance from point S ' equal to the radius of the circle, we obtain
points 5' and 6'. On the second line at a distance from point 5 '
equal to one half of the radius of the circle we obtain points T , 8'.
The upper ellipse is drawn through the eight points found in this
way.
The ellipse with its centre in point 5,'j is constructed in a
similar manner.
When constructing the ellipse with its centre 5 ,'on the lineS'B',
which determines the direction of the minor axis, we lay off not
Va, but 0.88 of the length of the major axis of the ellipse, and both
13'-14' and 15'-16' are taken as being equal to the diameter of the
circle.
14. Now let us consider th e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e
i s o m e t r i c a n d d i m e t r i c p r o j e c t i o n s of a c y l i n d e r ,
a cone and a sphere.
250
 After constructing the isometric projection of the top of the
cylinder (Fig. 400), from the extreme points of the major axis of the
ellipse we draw two vertical lines and lay off on them downwards
segments equal to 0.82 of the altitude of the cylinder. After this we
draw one half of the lower ellipse which is the isometric projection
of the base of the cylinder. To construct the half of the lower ellipse
on the front part of the top ellipse we
take a series, of points and drop verticals
from them. On these verticals we mark
off 0.82 of the height of the cylinder.
The half of the lower ellipse is obtained
by drawing a curve through the points
obtained.
The isometric projection of a cylinder
with its axis in a horizontal position
(Fig. 401) is begun by constructing
the right-hand end. In this case the
ellipse is drawn with the help of c h o r d s
of the circle. One of the diameters par­
allel to one of the coordinate axes,
say Oy, is divided into a number of parts and through each of
the points obtained chords perpendicular to the axis are drawn.
Having constructed the axonometric projection A 'B ' of this diameter
AB, we divide it into the same number of parts and draw through
the points of division a series of straight lines in the direction of
the chord of the circle, in this case parallel to axis O'z'. On these
lines, to both sides of the isometric projection of the diameter, we
lay off 0.82 of the length of the corresponding semi-chords of the
circle. The ellipse is then drawn through the points obtained.
The outline generatrices of the cylinder and the visible part of
the left end of the cylinder should be drawn as shown in Fig. 400.

15. An example of the construction of a dimetric projection of

a detail, consisting of two vertical cylinders with a through
cylindrical bore, is given in Fig. 402. In the multiview drawing
in accordance with the rules of working sections in engineering
drawings, half of the view is. shown alongside half of the vertical
section.
 In order to show the complete form of the detail in the dimetric
projection part of it has been removed.
We first construct the dimetric projection of the top of the lower
cylinder by means of chords. In Fig. 402 only the construction of
points 1 and 2 is shown, these being the extreme points of the chord
passing through point A. The dimetric projection l'-2' of this
chord, parallel to axis O'y', has been reduced to half the size of

the chord 1-2. Having constructed the ellipse, which is the dimetric
projection of the top of the lower cylinder, we draw in the outline
generatrices of this cylinder. Next we draw in the visible part of
the ellipse which is the dimetric projection of the base of cylinder.
The construction of the dimetric projection of the top cylinder
is begun by constructing the upper face. To find the dimetric
projection of the centre S ' of this ellipse, from point C', which is
the centre of the ellipse which was constructed first, we lay off the
length of the generatrix of the upper cylinder. The ellipse with its
centre at point S' is also constructed with the help of chords. In
Fig. 402 the construction of points 3' and 4' is shown. The ellipse
representing the upper circle of the bore is constructed in the same
manner. The centre of this ellipse is again point S'.
Having constructed the dimetric projection of the detail, we
eliminate the right-hand front part cut by the coordinate planes
x'O 'z' and y'O'z'. Points 5' and 8' are given by the intersection of
the lower ellipse with axes O'y' and O'x'. Points 9', 10', 11' and 12'
252
are given by the intersection of the upper ellipses with lines drawn
through their common centre S' parallel to axes O'y' and O'x'
respectively. Lines parallel to the corresponding dimetric axes
should be drawn through the points obtained and through points
13' and 14', 15' and 16' which were found#in the same way. This
gives us the outlines of the sections cut by the coordinate planes
x'O 'z' and y'O'z'.

After the removal of a portion of the detail, part of the base

of the cylindrical bore becomes visible. To construct the visible
arc of this ellipse several points are taken on the corresponding
part of the upper inside ellipse. Verticals are dropped, from these
points. On them we mark off the altitude of the cylindrical bore.
The ellipse is then drawn through the points obtained.
16. Three isometric projections of a right circular cone (its axis
in each case parallel to one of the coordinate axes) are given in

Fig. 404
253
Fig. 403. In the first case the axis of the cone lies in the direction
of the axis Oy. In the second case its direction is that of axis Oz
and in the third, that of axis Ox.
The dimetric projections of a cone are shown in Fig. 404. In
the first case (Fig. 404, a) the base of the cone lies in a plane

perpendicular to the axis Oy, and in the second case (Fig. 404, b)
it is perpendicular to the axis Oz. In both cases the drawing of the
cone is fulfilled without foreshortening along axes Ox and Oz, but
it is foreshortened along axis Oy, the factor being 0.5. Therefore
the major axis of the ellipses, i. e.. the dimetric projections of the
base, is equal to 1.06 of the diameter of the circle. The minor axes
of. these ellipses are respectively equal in length to 0.88 and xk of
the major axis. The ellipses themselves are drawn through eight
points.
17. In rectangular isometric projections a sphere appears as a
circle whose diameter is equal to the diameter of the sphere. In
Fig. 405, a the isometric projection of a sphere 22 mm in diameter
is constructed with foreshortening along axes O V , O'y' and 0 7 ,
the factor being 0.82. On the isometric projection of the sphere three
ellipses are shown. These are the isometric projections of the three

Fig. 407
254
major circles of a sphere located in the coordinate planes. In the
drawing one eighth of the sphere is removed.
In rectangular or right dimetric projections the sphere also
appears as a circle (Fig. 405, b). The diameter of this circle will
be 1.06 of the diameter of the sphere, if the drawing is constructed

C)

without foreshortening along axes O'x' and O'z', but with

foreshortening along axis O'y', the factor being 0.5. On the dimetric
projection of a sphere three ellipses are shown. These are the
projections of the three major circles of the sphere and they lie in
the coordinate, planes. One eighth of the sphere is removed.
255
 18. If an object with a rounded end is to be represented in
axonometric projection, as in Fig. 406, the outlines of the object
are first constructed without any rounding off as is shown by
broken lines. Only after that is the half of the ellipse, representing
the rounded end, constructed.
The construction of the bracket (Fig. 407, a) both in isometric
projection (Fig. 407, b) and dimetric projection (Fig. 407, c),
should be begun by drawing its base which appears as a parallel­
epiped. The position of the axis of the cylindrical bush is determined
next. Then the bush itself is drawn in. After this the edges and lugs
with cylindrical bores are constructed. Finally, V4 of the bush is
removed. In Figs. 407,6 and 407, call the ellipses were constructed
by means of chords.
Some details drawn in rectangular axonometric projection are
shown in Fig. 408. These details are a lug (isometry, Fig. 408, a),
a connecting rod (isometry, Fig. 408, 6), a collar (dimetry.
Fig. 408, c), a base plate with a section removed (isometry,
Fig. 408, d), a king-post (dimetry, Fig. 408, e) and the body of a jig
(isometry, Fig. 408, f).

§ 46. Oblique Axonometric Projections

1. Oblique axonometric projections may be classified as

isometric, dimetric and trimetric, depending on the position in space
of the planes of axonometric projection and the direction of the
projectors. The most widely used oblique projections are those in
which the plane of axonometric projection tl' is parallel to the
coordinate plane xOz or parallel to the horizontal coordinate
plane xOy.
When plane IJ' is in such a position the distortion factor along
two of the axonometric axes is unity. Along the third axis, depend­
ing on the direction of projection, we may obtain the same distor­
tion factor, or any other. In the first case the oblique axonometric
projection is isometric, in the second—dimetric. The axonometric
representation obtained when the factor of distortion is greater
than unity is not employed since it is distorted.
Axonometric projections, in which the plane of projection 77'
is parallel to one of the coordinate planes xOz or xOy, are
advantageous because all lines, angles and figures lying in planes,
parallel to /7', are projected onto the latter without distortion.
In such a case a condition is that the direction of projection
should not be perpendicular to plane FI'. This follows from the
definition of the oblique axonometric projection itself. Mereover,
the direction of projection should not be parallel to the third
coordinate plane yO z, otherwise the axis O'y' would become
256
perpendicular to axis O'x', and the representation would not be
sufficiently pictorial (Fig. 409).
2. The value of the distortion factor along axis O'y' and the
angle between this axis and the axis .O 'x' may be chosen
arbitrarily. In Fig. 410 the following elements are shown: the plane
of projection 77', the projection of the point of origin of coordinates —
point O', and the projection O'y' of axis Oy.
z’
z

</’
F ig . 40 9

If triangle OO'y' is revolved about axis Oy, the side Oy'

remains stationary, and the vertex O' will move in plane IT along
an arc of a circle with its centre in point y' and whose radius is
O'y'. In point O" we have a new position of the vertex O' of the
triangle. Since 0 'y ' = 0 "y', the distortion factor along axis y'
remains the same (O 'y : Oy' = 0 "y ':O y '). The direction of the
axonometric projection, when point O' moves into position
O", changes. The angle between axis O'y' and the extension of axis
O'x' also changes, see angles a0' and u°" in Fig. 410.
Leaving O'y' stationary, we can transfer the origin of the
axonometric axes O' to a new position Oj' on the axis O’y'
(Fig. 411). In this case the direction of the projection changes, but
the angle a°', between axis Q”y' and the extension of the
axonometric axis 0 " x " remains equal to the angle a°' formed by the
same axis O'y' and extension of axis O'x'. The distortion factors
O 'y ': Oy' and 0 "y ' : Oy' also change.
From the analyses given above it follows that in oblique
axonometric projections the angle between the axis O'y' and the
extension of axis O'x' may be changed, as may the factor of distor­
tion along axis O'y'. In other words, we may select both of these
values a t r a n d o m . In each case the combination will correspond
to a definite direction of the oblique axonometric projection.
This basic concept of the theory of axonometric projection was
first put forward by Prof. Polke in 1853 in his theorem: T h r e e
l i n e s of a n y l e n g t h , l y i n g in o n e p l a n e a n d e m e r g ­
i n g f r o m one p o i n t at a ny a n g l e s to e a c h ot her ,
17 1444 257
r e p r e s e n t a p a r a l l e l p r o j e c t i o n of t h r e e l i n e s of
e q u a l l e n g t h l a i d of f on r e c t a n g u l a r a x e s of
c o o r d i n a t e s f r o m p o i n t of o r i g i n of t h e c o­
o r d i n a t e s O.
This theorem was later proved for the more general case of
central projection by Prof. Chetveroukhin, Prof. Glagolev and other
Soviet mathematicians.
2

Fig. 411

Axonometric oblique projections obtained in plane FI' parallel

to plane zOx are called frontal projections. The angle a°' between
axis O'y' and the extension of axis O V in these projections is
assumed as 30°, 45°, or 60°. When angle a0,=45°, and the distortion
factor along axis O'y' is V2, these projections are called cabinet
oblique projections (Fig. 412).
When plane II' is horizontal, and the object is viewed from
above, the oblique axonometric projections obtained are called
military projections.
Three frontal projections of a cube with the angle a equal to
45°, 60° and 30°, and the distortion factor equal to V2 along axis
O'y' are shown in Fig. 413, a.
Three frontal isometric projections of the same cube with a
distortion factor equal to unity along all three axes are shown in
Fig. 413, b. In Fig. 414 a cube is shown in oblique axonometric
projection. The angles of inclination of axes O'x' and O'y' to the
horizontal are both 45°.
A cube, with circles inscribed in its faces, is shown in frontal
projection in Fig. 415. To construct the ellipses — the projections

Fig. 413

258
of the circles — chords are drawn. For example, to construct the
points 1' and 2' of the upper ellipse, through any point K', taken
on line C'K', which is parallel to axis O'y', we draw a horizontal
line. Point K should then be found on the horizontal projection of
the cube, Fig. 415, b. The distortion factor alo»g axis O'y' is 0.5, so
CK=2C'K'. Through K\ we draw a chord and transfer the distances
K \l\ and K\2\ to the axonometric representation.

It should be kept in mind that the major axis of the top ellipse
in the frontal axonometric projections is not horizontal. Similarly
in the lateral face the major axis of the ellipse will not be perpen­
dicular to axis O'x'.
On the front face the inscribed circle in the frontal projection
remains the same as in the orthographic projection. This is why
frontal projections are the most convenient forms of pictorial
representations when the axis of a body of revolution being depict­
ed is perpendicular to the frontal plane of projection V72.

3, Oblique axonometric projections are constructed by the same

methods as used for rectangular axonometric projections.
For example, let us examine the construction of an oblique
axonometric projection of the line of intersection of two cylinders
(Fig. 416). This construction may be car­
ried out with the help of auxiliary cutting
planes. In this case the cutting planes
chosen are parallel to plane 773. These
planes cut both cylinders along their gener­
atrices. The points contained in the line
of intersection are given by the intersec­
tion of the respective generatrices in one
and the same cutting plane. Point K of
this line, for example, is found at the
intersection of generatrices lying in the
plane passing through the axes of the
cylinders. The points of intersection, given
17 -
259
by other auxiliary planes parallel to the axes of the cylinder, are
also points contained in the line of intersection of the given
cylinders.

Problems and Exercises

1. How are axonometric projections classified?

2. What is a trace triangle?
3. What are the values of the factors of distortion in isometric
rectangular projections?
4. How is an angular scale con­
f structed for a foreshortening of
0.47 in dimetric projection?
5. Explain the method of con­
structing the ellipses which are
the isometric projections of circles
in the coordinate planes.
6. What are the dimensions of
the major and minor axes of an
ellipse, which is the projection of
Fig. 417 a circle contained in plane xOy,
if the isometric projection is con­
structed a) with a foreshortening
of 0.82 along axes Ox, Oy and Oz, b) without any foreshortening
along these axes?
7. What are the dimensions of the major and minor axes of
the ellipse, which is the projection of a circle contained in plane
zOx, if the dimetric projection is constructed a) without any
distortion along the axes Ox and Oz and with a distortion factor of
0.5 along axis Oy, b) with a distortion factor of 0.94 along axes
Ox and Oz and 0.47 along axis Oy?

Fig. 418

'2U
 8. Which axonometric projections are called a) frontal.
b) cabinet and c) military?
9. Construct the rectangular isometric projection of the magnet
core, shown in Fig. 417. There should be no foreshortening a C
Inc axes. ^

10. Construct the rectangular isometric projection of the gland

cover, shown in Fig. 418, with no foreshortening along the axes.
11. Construct the isometric (or dimetric) projection of a sphere,
diameter D = 60 mm. One quarter of the sphere should be removed.

12. Construct the frontal axonometric projection (a=45°) of

the fixture, shown in Fig. 419.
13. Construct the rectangular dimetric projection of the bracket,
shown in Fig. 420.
14. Construct the rectangular isometric projection of the cross
socket, shown in Fig. 421.
 C h a p te r XII
CURVED LINES AND CURVED SURFACES

§ 47. Curved Lines

1. There are two general classes of curved lines, plane curves
and space curves, often referred to as single-curved and double-
curved lines.
The construction of the second projection of a plane curve,
having one of its given projections, is possible only if two projec­
tions of a plane in which this curve is contained are given. The
construction of the horizontal projection of a curve ABCDE lying
in the plane of triangle TMN, by
means of its frontal projection, is
shown in Fig. 422.
The construction consists in draw­
ing horizontals of the plane of the
triangle through points B, C, D and
E of the curve. The horizontal pro­
jections B\, Ci, D\ and E\ of these
points are found on the horizontal
projections of the respective horizon­
tals. The horizontal projection A\ of
point A is determined directly, since
point A belongs to the side TN of the
triangle.
A continuous curve, the horizontal
projection of curve ABCDE, is drawn
Fig. 422 through points A\, B u Cu Dx and E t.

2. The construction of the curve ABCDEF in the oblique plane

a is shown in Fig. 423, a. First, plane a is made to coincide with
one_of_the planes of projection, say with plane II The curve
ABCDEF is then constructed in the new position_of j)lane_a. Hori­
zontals of plane a are drawn through points A, B, C, D, E and F.
With the help of these horizontals we find the horizontal projections
262
Ai, B i, Ci, Du E u Fi and the frontal projections A2, B2, C2, D2, E2, F2
of the points of the given curve. Through the corresponding pro­
jections of points A, B, C, D, E and F we draw the projections of
the curve lying in the oblique plane a.
3. To determine the length of
a plane curve the plane in which
the curve lies is brought into coin­
cidence with One of the planes*of
projection. The curve in this posi­
tion is then divided into small
parts. Each part is assumed to be
a segment of a straight line. These
segments are then laid off on a
straight line in the same order as
on the curve. The sum of all the
segments is approximately equal
to the length of the curve. This
method is used to find the length
of the curve ABCDEF, as shown
in Fig. 423, b, and is often re­
ferred to as the development of
the curve.
4. When making the multiview
drawing of a space curve it is
often necessary to letter certain
of its points in order to avoid
confusion when reading the draw­
ing if different parts of the projec­
tions of the curve lie on the one
and same projectors. For example, if points K and L were not
denoted on the projections of curve ABC (Fig. 424, a) it would
not be clear which of the two parts AB or BC is nearer to
plane FI2.

Fig. 424
263
 5. In order to determine the approximate length of a space curve
one of its projections, say the horizontal projection, is divided into
parts, as seen in Fig. 424, b. These segments are marked off succes­
sively on a straight line. Through the points of division perpen­
diculars to the line are erected. On these perpendiculars the dis­
tances, at which the frontal projections of the corresponding points
lie from the axis Ox, are marked. A smooth curve is then drawn
through these points. The space curve is said to have been
“unrolled” or developed into a plane curve.

§ 48. Cylindrical and Conical Helical Lines

1. Helical lines are the most widely used space curves in en­
gineering practice.
A cylindrical helical line or helix is a s p i r a l i n s p a c e ,
c o n t a i n e d i n t h e s u r f a c e of a c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r
a n d i n t e r s e c t i n g al l its g e n e r a t r i c e s at t he s a me
a n g l e . The helix may be considered as being generated by a point
contained in the surface of a right circular cylinder and simul­
taneously rotating about the axis of the cylinder as it moves parallel
to the axis. The longitudinal movement is assumed to be propor­
tional to the angular movement.
The axis and diameter of the helix are the axis and diameter
of the cylinder in which the helix lies. On the surface of one and
the same cylinder different helices may be obtained by varying
the ratio of the two velocities of the generating point. In this case
the pitch of each of the helices generated on the cylinder will
differ from that of the others. T h e p i t c h o r l e a d h of a
h e l i x is t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n
t he t wo n e a r e s t p o i n t s in w h i c h
t he h e l i x i n t e r s e c t s o n e o f the
g e n e r a t r i c e s of t h e c y l i n d e r .
In other words, the pitch is the distance
the point moves parallel to the axis as
it completes one revolution.
The part of a helix between the nearest
points on the generator, namely the part
generated in one revolution, is generally
called a turn of the helix.
A circular cylinder on which a helix
has been plotted is shown in Fig. 425.
Since all the points of the cylindrical
helix are located on the lateral surface
of the cylinder, which is projected onto
plane /7i as a circle, it is obvious that
the horizontal projections of all points of
the helical line also lie on this circle.
264
 In order to construct the frontal projection of a cylindrical helix
we divide the circular base of the cylinder into a number of equal
parts, in this case into eight parts. A definite value must be taken
as the pitch h of the helix. The pitch is then divided into the same
number of equal parts as the base, since the* linear movement of
point A is proportional to its angular movement.
After point A has moved from its initial position O to position
1, i. e., after it has moved through one eighth of the pitch h, its
horizontal projection will occupy position / 1, and its frontal pro­
jection will be li.
A horizontal line is drawn through the first division of the line
of pitch. Then, through the first division 1\ of the circle a vertical
is passed. The intersection of these two lines determines the position
of the frontal projection h of point A in its new position. The other
points, 22, <?2, •••, 82, of the frontal projection of the helical line
are constructed in a similar manner.
The frontal projection of the first turn of the cylindrical helix
is obtained by drawing a curve through the points 0 2, h , 22, 32, 42,
52, 62, 72 and 82. The frontal projection of the second turn is con­
structed in a similar manner.
Helices may be right-hand or left-hand, depending on which
direction the point generating the helix moves. Right-hand helices,
in other words helical lines with a right-hand thread, are those
generated by the clockwise rotation of a point about an axis when
the point moves along the axis away from the observer. Left-hand
helices are generated by counter-clockwise rotation.
A helix with a right-hand thread is shown in Fig. 425. One of
the characteristics of such a helix is that the visible parts of the
curve rise to the right and the hidden parts rise to the left. The
characteristic feature of a helix with a left-hand thread is that the
visible parts of the curve rise to the left and the hidden parts rise
to the right.
A helix is also obtained on the cylinder if a right triangle
AoBoCo is wrapped around a cylinder (Fig. 426). The horizontal
side AoB0 of the triangle is equal to the length of the circle of the
base of the cylinder. The vertical side B0Cq is equal to the pitch h
of the helix. It follows that the hypotenuse /40C0 of the right triangle
AqB0Co is the development of one turn of the cylindrical helix. The
angle a is called the lead angle, or the helix angle. The size of this
angle depends on the pitch h of the helix and length of the circum-
h
ference of the base of the cylinder. We have: tan a ° = ------where
J 2kR
R is the radius of the circumference of the cylinder. The length L
of one turn of the helix may be determined from the formula
L = y h2+ (2 n R )2.
The frontal projection of the cylindrical helix is a s i n e wa v e .
This may easily be proved. Let us assume the axis of projection
2G5
as the axis x and the frontal projection J\J% of the axis of the helix
as the axis z (Fig. 427). We take any point K on the helix. The angle
of revolution of point K from its initial position O is denoted by y°
=2£.0\J\K\) .The. radius of the helix is denoted by r and the
pitch by h. The coordinates x and z oj point K are shown in Fig. 427.
From the right triangle JiNiKu we have
*=rsinY °. (1)

Since the linear and angular movements of the point forming the
z
helix are proportional, then — = — ,
h 27c
hence y°— = 2n — . (2).
r h h v'
Substituting the value found for y° in equation (1), we obtain
x= r- sin 2 n —, which is the equation of a sine wave.
h
The angle p on the development of the helix (Fig. 426) is equal
to the angle between the generatrix of the cylinder and the helix.
This angle p in space is equal to the angle between one of the
generatrices of the cylinder and a tangent to the helix.
Since all the generatrices of the cylinder form the same angle
P with the helix it follows that all tangents to the helix have the
266
 same slope relative to the generatrices of the cylinder passing
through the corresponding tangent points.
The generatrices of the cylinder are perpendicular to plane 77i.
so the slope of all the tangents to the helix, relative to plane 77i, is
the same and equal to the angle a formed by* the hypotenuse and
horizontal side of the right triangle ABC. On the basis of this the
tangent to the helix at any point on it can be constructed.
Let us consider the right triangle
KLM (Fig. 427) whose frontal projec­
tion KiL2M2 is shown by hatching.
This triangle consists of line KL, a
segment of the generatrix of the cyl­
inder passing through the tangent
point K, the tangent KM to the helix
and line ML. Since the triangle KLM
is located in a horizontal-projecting
plane, the line ML, called the subtan­
gent, may be considered as the hori­
zontal projection of the tangent KM.
It is obvious that angle KML = a°,
i. e«, the angle between the tangent
to the helix and plane I7\.
From the right triangle KLM we
have ML = KL • cot a°, where a° is the
angle between the hypotenuse KM
and side ML. But OL = KL • cot a°.
Therefore ML = OL, i. e., the length
of the subtangent is *equal to the
length of the straightened arc of the
circle — the horizontal projection of
the helix — from the initial point Oj
up to the horizontal projection K\ of
the tangent point.
The subtangent ML is the hori­
zontal projection of the tangent. The
tangent is the hypotenuse and the subtangent is the base of
the right triangle KLM. Therefore, the length of the tangent is
equal to the length of the straightened arc of the helix itself from
the initial point to the point of tangency.
Using these properties of the tangent and subtangent of a helix
these lines may be constructed. In order to construct a tangent to
the helix through point K (Fig. 427) we draw a tangent to the
■circle which is the horizontal projection of the helix. The tangent
point is K, the horizontal projection of point K\. Then from point
K\ we lay off K\MX, equal to the length of the straightened arc of
the circle from point 0 \ to point L\. Having obtained point Mi we
find point M2 by drawing a projector. Point M, whose projections
267
Mi and M2 have been found, is the horizontal trace of the required
tangent. Joining points M2 and Kz by a straight line we obtain
the frontal projection /C2Af2 of the tangent KM to the helix at
point K-
If we revolve triangle KML about axis KL into the frontal posi­
tion, the true value of angle KML = a° will be found in the multiview
drawing. The lead angle a of the helix is determined by the de­
velopment. of the helix (Fig. 426). The
angle a is formed by the hypotenuse and
horizontal side of triangle ABC.

2. The c o n i c a l h e l i x (Fig. 428) is

generated by a point moving along the
surface of a right circular cone so that
its movement along the generatrices of the
cone is proportional to the angular move­
ment about the axis of the cone.
The movement of the point along the
generatrices of the cone may be considered
as composed of a movement along the axis
of the cone and a movement in a direction
perpendicular to this axis.
Since the two linear movements and the
angular movement of the generating point
are proportional, the construction of a
conical helix may be carried out as follows.
The circle of the base of the cone is divided
into several equal parts, in this case into
eight parts. Then the eight corresponding
generatrices of the cone are drawn in and
their horizontal and frontal projections
are constructed. The pitch H is then divided into the same number
of equal parts. Through each division a horizontal is passed
to intersect the frontal projection of the corresponding generatrix.
For example, point /C2 lies at the intersection of the horizontal
line drawn through division 7 of the pitch and the frontal
projection of the generatrix drawn through division 7 of the
circle of the base.
The points found in this way are the frontal projections of the
points of the helix. By using the frontal projections we can obtain
the horizontal projections of these points. To do this projectors are
dropped from the frontal projections of the points to intersect the
horizontal projections of the respective generatrices of the cone.
The construction of point K is shown in Fig. 428. By passing curves
through the corresponding projections of these points we obtain
two projections of the conical helix. The horizontal projection of
the conical helix is an Archimedean spiral. The frontal projection
268
is a sine curve, the amplitude of which decreases. The construction
of two turns of the R. H. conical helix is shown in Fig. 428. The
pitch h is equal to one half of the altitude of the cone.
Problems and Exercises.
1. How is the projection of a plane curved line constructed on
a given plane?
2. How is the length of a space curve determined?
3. Define a) a cylindrical helix, b) a conical helix.
4. How are the projections constructed a) for a cylindrical
helix, b) for a conical helix?
5. Construct a L. H. cylindrical helix, the diameter of which
is 40 mm and the pitch /z = 30 mm.
6. Construct a L. H. conical helix, given the diameter of the
base circle of the cone as 50 mm,- the altitude of the cone 80 mm,
and the pitch h = 40 mm.
§ 49. Curved Surfaces
1. Curved surfaces are generated by lines moving in accordance
with definite laws. Depending on the form of these lines, or gener­
atrices, curved surfaces are divided into two major classes, single-
curved surfaces, or ruled surfaces, generated by moving straight
lines, and double-curved surfaces, the generatrices of which are
curves. Cylinders and cones are examples of single-curved surfaces.
A sphere is an example of a double-curved surface. The sta­
tionary line along which the generatrix of the curved surface moves
is called the directrix. When a plane, tangent to the surface, passes
through all the points contained in each of the generatrices of a
single-curved surface consecutively, the single-curved surface is
said to be developable, i. e., it can be “unwrapped”. When this
condition is not fulfilled the single-curved surface is called a
warped surface. It cannot be unwrapped, so it is not developable.
Summing up, a developable surface may be “unwrapped”, so that
it coincides with a plane and then has no folds or breaks. Warped
surfaces and double-curved
surfaces cannot be developed.

2. C y l i n d r i c a l sur­
f a c e s . A cylindrical surface
is generated by a straight
line moving along the direc­
trix ABy so that it always
remains parallel to a given
line MN* (Fig. 429). In this Fig. 429
Each position that the generatrix assumes is called an element of the
surface.
2fi9
case the directrix AB must not lie in the same plane as the
generatrix.
The line in which a curved surface intersects a plane of pro­
jection is called a trace of the surface. In Fig. 429 the curve A[ B[
in plane IT\ is the horizontal trace of the cylindrical surface A'B 'BA.
If a trace of a cylindrical surface* and the direction of the
generatrices are known, the
cylindrical surface may be
constructed and on it any
generatrix may be plotted and
any of its points can be deter­
mined (Fig. 430).
Of all the generatrices,
of the cylindrical surface the

outline generatrices, AA ' and CC', BB' and DD', are of particular
significance.
In the multiview drawing the projections of two outline gener­
atrices are the boundaries of the visible and hidden parts of the
surface. In Fig. 430 that part of the cylinder passing through the
segment A'B'C' of the horizontal trace, when projected onto plane
/7|, is visible. The rest of the surface is hidden. When projected onto
plane n 2 that part of the cylinder surface passing through the
segment B'C'D' of the horizontal trace is visible. The rest of the
surface is hidden.

3. C o n i c a l s u r f a c e . The surface generated by the

movement of a straight line 5/4 along curve AB, when the generat­
ing line in all its positions passes through a point 5, is called a
conical surface (Fig. 431).
Line S/4 is the generatrix. Point 5 is called the vertex. Curve AB~
* The trace of the surface is at the same time the directrix of this surface..
270
 is the directrix. The conical surface consists of two parts called the
nappes of the surface (Fig. 432).
If the vertex of the cone and its directrix, or the trace of the cone
surface, are known, then the conical surface may be constructed.
On the surface any generatrix may be dra*wn and any point
determined. For example, to construct the frontal projection fa of
point K given on the surface of the cone (Fig. 433), the horizontal
projection fa of the point being known, it is sufficient to draw
through point fa the horizontal projection S\Li of the generatrix
SL of the cone and then find the frontal projection of the generatrix
S2L2, after which, from point fa, a projector is drawn to intersect
S2L2 in point f a ­
in Fig. 433 the lines S2A2 and S2B2 and also S 1C1 and S 1D1 are
the projections of the outline generatrices. These generatrices sep­
arate the visible and hidden parts of the projections of the conical
surface.
4. T h e d e v e l o p a b l e h e l i c o i d . The surface formed
by the continuous movement of a straight line, which in all its
positions remains tangent to a cylindrical helix, is called a develop­
able helicoid, or helical convolute (Fig. 434). The cylindrical
helix, which in this case is the directrix of the developable helicoid,
is the helical directrix of tangency. So the developable helicoid
belongs to that group of curved surfaces which have a directrix of
tangency.
Any section of a developable helicoid given by a plane per­
pendicular to the axis of a cylindrical helix is an involute of a circle.
Part of a helicoid cut by a cylindrical surface whose axis
coincides with the axis of a helicoid is shown in Fig. 435.
The line of section in this case will be a helix with the same
axis as the helicoid. This surface is called a developable annular
helicoid.
5. C y l i n d r o i d . The surface generated by a straight line,
which constantly remains parallel to a given plane as it moves
along two directrices not located in one plane, is called a cylin-
droid. The plane to which the generatrix of the cylindroid remains
parallel as it moves is called the plane of parallelism, or plane
director.
A representation of a cylindroid, generated by the move­
ment of the generatrix AB along two space curves, the direc­
trices, is given in Fig. 436, a. The multiview drawing of this same
cylindroid is shown in Fig. 436, b. The straight line AB in each of
its position remains parallel to the given plane a, which is the
plane of parallelism.
6. T h e h y p e r b o l i c p a r a b o l o i d . This surface, sometimes
called a warped plane, is a particular case of a cylindroid (Fig. 437).
271
272
The directrices of such a surface are two non-intersecting, or skew
lines. The horizontal plane of projection ITi in this case is assumed
as the plane of parallelism for the hyperbolic paraboloid (Fig. 437).
Three projections of a hyperbolic paraboloid, having two planes
of parallelism a and 0, perpendicular to plane 77, which form
angles of a0 with plane 772, are shown in Fig. 438.

If we cut such a hyperbolic paraboloid by horizontal planes y ,

the sections obtained will be hyperbolas. If such a hyperbolic
y ', y "
paraboloid is cut by planes parallel to 772 or 773 the sections will be
parabolas.

7. The c o n o i d is a particular case of the cylindroid. One of

the directrices of the conoid is a straight line, the other is a curve.
The generatrix is a straight line which constantly remains parallel
to a plane of parallelism.
A conoid is shown in Fig. 439. One directrix of this surface is
line AA', in this case perpendicular to the plane of parallelism /7j,
the second directrix is curve BB'.
If the curved directrix of the conoid is a
cylindrical helix, the conoid is called a
h e l i c a l c o n o i d or n o n - d e v e l o p a b l e h e l i c o i d
(Fig. 440).
If the helical conoid is cut by the surface
of a right circular cylinder, whose axis
MM' coincides with the straight directrix
of the conoid, the line of intersection
obtained will be a cylindrical helix having
the same pitch as the helical directrix
BB 'B "B '"B "" of the conoid (Fig. 441). The
surface of the helical conoid contained be­
tween helical lines is called an a n n u l a r
h e lic a l c o n o id . F ig . 43 7

18 1444 273
 Annular helical conoids find wide application in engineering
practice. Nuts and bolts with rectangular or square threads, cyl­
indrical springs of rectangular section, helical staircases and the
Archimedean screw all contain surfaces of helical annular conoids.

The points and lines on non-developable, or warped ruled sur­

faces are constructed the same way as on developable ruled
surfaces.
It is required to construct the frontal projection K2 of a point K
on the surface of a conoid, the horizontal
projection Ki of this point being known (Fig.
439). Through point K\ the horizontal projec­
tion of generatrix AK is drawn to intersect
the horizontal projection of the curved
directrix in point L\. From point L\ we draw
a projector to intersect the frontal projection
of the curved directrix in point L2.
The frontal projection of the generatrix,
on which point K lies, will pass through point
L2 parallel to axis Ox. A projector is then
drawn through K\ to the frontal projection
of the generatrix L/C. In this way frontal
projection K2 of point K is obtained.
274
 8. The o b l i q u e h e l i c o i d is one whose generatrix is a
straight line that intersects the axis at a constant angle but not
at right angles. One point of the generatrix describes a cylindrical
helix, while a second point slides along the axis.
If an oblique helicoid is cut by a circular, cylinder having the
same axis, an oblique annular helicoid is obtained (Fig. 442).
The surface of an oblique annular helicoid, which is used for
screws with triangular and trapezoid threads, is limited by two
cylindrical helical lines of the same pitch. If the generatrices 1-1',
2-2', etc., of this surface are extended, they intersect the axis AB,
making with it the same angle a in space.

x-

Fig. 440 Fig. 441

To construct an oblique annular helicoid we first construct two

auxiliary cylinders with a common axis AB. The circles, which are
the horizontal projections of these cylinders, are divided into a num­
ber of equal parts, in this case into 12 parts. The division points are
joined by straight lines 1\-1'„ 2V2\, etc. The lines 1\-1[, 2\-2\,
etc., are the horizontal projections of the generatrix of the oblique
annular helicoid in its various positions, i. e., of its elements. To
find the frontal projections of these lines, we divide the pitch of
the helix into the same number of equal parts. These twelve seg­
ments are laid off upwards from points 0 2 and 0 2. The latter are
the frontal projections of the extreme points of the generatrices which
describe helices of the same pitch h on the surface of the cylinders.
18 * 275
276
The line 0 20'2 is drawn beforehand at the given angle a to the
axis of the helicoid.
Verticals are erected from the division points of the major and
minor circles. Horizontals are drawn through the dividing points of
the pitch. The intersection of corresponding Jines gives us points
12-12, 22-22, etc. By joining up these pairs of points by straight lines
we obtain the frontal projections of the generatrices. Curves are
passed through points 12, 22, . . . , 122, contained in the lateral sur­
face of the major cylinder, and through points /£, 22, . . . , 12'2, con­
tained in the lateral surface of the minor cylinder. These curves
are two cylindrical helices and represent the outlines of an oblique
annular helicoid.
The construction of the curve RMNLK, in which the oblique
annular helicoid is cut by the horizontal plane a, consists in deter­
mining the points of intersection of a number of elements, or
generatrices, with plane a. The frontal projections of these points
are the points of intersection of the frontal projections of the
elements with the trace-projection 02 of plane a.
The horizontal projections Ri, N 1, M\, L\, Ki of points R, N, M,
L and K are obtained by dropping projectors from points R2, N2, M2,
L2 and K2 to intersect the horizontal projections of the respective
elements.
The curve RNMLK, the projection of which on plane TI\ is a true
view, is a Spiral of Archimedes.
To construct the frontal projection of any point, such as C,
contained in the surface of the helicoid, given the horizontal
projection C\ of this point, we first draw through point C( a radial
line E\F\. We then construct the frontal projection E2F2 of this
element and pass a projector through point C\ to intersect E2F2 in
point C2.
Let the frontal projection of a curve, such as DS, contained in
the surface of the helicoid, be given. It is required to find the
horizontal projection of this curve. On the helicoid, in the region
where the line DS must lie, we draw a series of elements. Then from
points 132, 142, 152, in which the frontal projections of the
generatrices intersect the given projection D2S2 of the curve, we
drop projectors to the horizontal projections of the respective
elements. This gives us points 13u 14\ and 15\ through which a
curve is drawn. This curve is the horizontal projection of curve DS
contained in the oblique annular helicoid.

§ 50. Surfaces of Revolution

1. Surfaces of revolution are those surfaces that may be generat­
ed by revolving a straight or curved line about a stationary axis.
Two examples of surfaces of revolution are right circular cylinders
and spheres.
277
 The section of a surface of revolution by a plane perpendicular
to the axis of revolution is a circle. The most commonly used method
of constructing points on surfaces of revolution is based on
this fact.
A body of revolution is shown in Fig. 443. Its surface is formed
by the revolution of a plane curve ABC about the axis MN which
M.

Fig. 443 Fig. 444

is perpendicular to plane n x. Let us find the horizontal projection

of point D belonging to this surface, if the frontal projection D2
of point D is given.
Point D must lie on a circle, the plane of which is perpendicular
to the axis of revolution MN and, so also perpendicular to plane IJ2.
Therefore through point D2 we draw a. horizontal A2L2 which is
the frontal projection of the required circle. Next, we describe a
circle with point M xNi as its centre and radius # = — KiL2. This
is the horizontal projection of the circle on which point Dx is found
by dropping a projector from point D2.

2. Given the horizontal projection A x of point A on the surface of

a sphere, Fig. 444, construct its frontal projection. First draw a
circle with its centre at C\ through point A\. Having obtained points
K\ and L\ we then find the frontal projection KiL2 of this circle.
This will be a line parallel to ground line Ox. A projector is then
drawn through point A\ to line KiL2. This gives us the frontal
projection A 2 of point A on the surface of the sphere.
In order to construct a point B on the surface of this same
278
sphere, given its frontal projection B2, first we draw a circle
through point B2 with centre C2. Having obtained point S 2 from
it we draw a projector to this circle, which is the horizontal projec­
tion of the sphere. This gives us point Si. Next a line S\Ti is passed
through point Si parallel to line Ox. This is the horizontal projec­
tion of the circle with a radius CS. On it we find point Si with the
M-

F ig . 445

help of a projector passed through point S2. Point B x obtained in

this way is the horizontal projection of point S on the surface of
the sphere.
It should be noted that the circles KAL and BST may be
considered as sections of a sphere cut by projecting planes drawn
respectively through points A and 6. Sections of a sphere cut by
planes perpendicular to axis MN (Fig. 444) are called parallels.
Sections cut by planes passing through the axis MN of the sphere
are called meridians. The parallel cut by the plane passing through
the centre of the sphere is the equator.
The meridian whose plane is parallel to the frontal plane of
projection is called the principal meridian.
3. The surface represented in Fig. 445, a is obtained by the
revolution of a circle of radius R about axis MN which intersects
the circle, but does not pass through its centre. If we were to
revolve a circle of diameter d (Fig. 445, b) about axis MN, also
located in the plane of the circle, but not cutting it, we would obtain
the surface called an annular.toms or tore. ,
To construct a PQintjon the surface of a torus it is sufficient to
draw an auxiliary circle RL on the surface (Fig. 445, b ). On the
$79
 projections K\L{ and K2L2 of the circle points A x and A2 are taken.
These are the projections of point A belonging to the surface of the
torus. Points on the surface of revolution, shown in Fig. 445, a,
are constructed in a similar manner.
4, The surface formed by the revolution of an ellipse about one
of its axes is called
an ellipsoid of revo­
lution, or a spheroid
(Fig. 446).

Fig. 446

■ 5. A hyperboloid of revolution of one nappe is the surface

generated by a line that rotates about the axis, but does not inter­
sect it (Fig. 447).
All points of the generatrix AB of the hyperboloid of revolution
of one nappe describe circles with their centres on axis MN. The
circle described by the point C, nearest to the a x is MN, is called
the neck.
A hyperboloid of one nappe may also be obtained by revolving
a hyperbola about an imaginary axis. In Fig. 447, b the imaginary
axis is MN and the generatrix is the hyperbola KL.
The section of a hyperboloid of revolu­
tion cut by a plane perpendicular to its axis
M is a circle, and the section cut by a plane
passing through the axis of the hyperboloid
is a hyperbola.
The surface of revolution we have
described is termed a hyperboloid of one
280
nappe in order to distinguish it from the hyperboloid of two nappes,
shown in Fig. 448. The latter is obtained by revolving a hyperbola
about its real axis.
The single-nappe hyperboloid of revolution, which is a warped
surface, finds many applications in engineering practice, for
example, In the design of radio towers and supports for tanks, etc.
6. If a parabola is rotated about its axis the surface obtained
is called a paraboloid of revolution.

Problems and Exercises

1. What is meant by single-curved surfaces and double-curved

surfaces? Give examples of such surfaces.
2. Name and define developable single-curved surfaces.
3. What are undevelopable surfaces?
4. Give the definition of the following surfaces: a cylindroid, a
hyperbolic paraboloid, a conoid, a helical conoid, an annular helical
conoid, an oblique helicoid and an oblique annular helicoid.
5. What are surfaces of revolution? Give examples of these
surfaces.
6. What is the usual procedure for constructing points and lines
on surfaces?
7. Construct a right L. H. helicoid.
8. Construct an oblique L. H. helicoid.

§ 51. Cylindrical Screws

1. The surface generated by the movement of a plane figure
over the surface of a cylinder along a helix contained in it, so that
the plane of the figure always passes through the axis of the
cylinder, is called a helical surface. The body limited by this surface
is called a screw. The threads of screws are of different shapes,
depending on the form of the generating profile, i. e., on the shape
of the plane figure being moved. Among the threads most commonly
used are those of square, rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal and
semicircular cross sections.
In Fig. 449, a the construction of one turn of a triangular thread
is shown.
Threads may be right-hand (R. H.) and left-hand (L. H.). When
a R. H. thread is generated the generating profile moves counter­
clockwise, when the screw is viewed from above. In the drawing
this means that the front, visible side of the thread rises from left to
right. When a L. H. thread is generated the reverse is true.
When inserting a screw into a nut with a R. H. thread the screw
is rotated clockwise. When inserting a screw into a nut with a L. H.
thread the screw is turned counter-clockwise.
281
 If the screw is generated by the movement of only one profile,
as in Fig. 449, a, it is called a single-thread, or a single-cut screw.
If two or more similar generating profiles are moved, assuming
them joined together, double-thread screws, triple-thread screws
and so on are obtained.
When drawing a double-thread screw it is necessary to
construct helical lines equal in number to the number of vertices

F ig . 44 9

of the two generating profiles. For example, when constructing a

double-thread screw (Fig. 449, b) it is necessary to construct eight
helical lines, corresponding to the number of vertices of the two
generating squares which are shown by hatching.
2. A screw and the corresponding nut, having a R. H. single-cut
rectangular thread, are shown in Fig. 450. Since the cross section
1-2-4-3 of the protruding thread of the screw is the same as the
cross section of the recess 1-2-4-3, the sum of the dimension 32-h of
the protrusion and the dimension l 2-32 of the recess is equal to the
pitch h of the screw.
The protrusions and recesses consist of cylindrical surfaces,
exterior and interior, generated by the movement of the sides 1-3
and 2-4 of the generating rectangles, and of two right helical
282
 surfaces, or right helicoids, obtained by the movement of the sides
1-2 and 3-4 of the rectangles.
The construction of the screw and nut is carried out by the draw­
ing helices with a pitch h through points 1, 2, 3 and 4. For this
purpose two coaxial cylinders are constructed, the radii of the
bases of which differ by the depth 1-2 of the thread recess. Having
divided the circle of the base of the cylinders into a number
of equal parts, say six, we divide the
pitch h into the same number of equal
parts and construct four helical lines,
i. e., two on the inside cylinder and two
on the outside. Having determined the
visible outline of the protrusions and
recesses of the thread we draw them in
with continuous lines. The hidden out­
lines are usually shown only within the
limits of one or two screw pitches h.
The cross-section of the screw cut by
the horizontal plane a is also shown
in Fig. 450. This plane cuts the exterior
and interior cylinders and two right
helical surfaces. The section of the
cylindrical surfaces are arcs of circles,
the sections of the right helical surfaces
are the diametrically opposite segments
KL and MN. The horizontal projections
/Ci, L], Mi and N x of points K, L, M and
N are determined by drawing projectors Fig. 450
from points K2, L2, M2 and N2, in which
the frontal trace of the cutting plane cuts the frontal projections
of the helices. These projectors intersect the horizontal projections
of the lateral cylinder surfaces in the points required.
The nut is represented in cross-section cut by a frontal plane p
passing through the axis of the screw and nut. On this cross-section
the visible part of the thread is seen as rising from right to left. This
corresponds to the way in which the rear, hidden part of the R. H.
thread of the screw rises, i. e., from right to left. The hidden lines
shown in the cross-section of the nut are those parts of the rear
helices which are covered by other parts of the thread.
3. A right double-thread, screw with a thread of triangular
section is shown in Fig. 451. The screw is cut by a horizontal plane
perpendicular to its axis.
The circles of the bases of the cylinders and the screw pitch h
are divided into 12 equal parts. Then, the six helices, corresponding
to the number of vertices of two generating triangles, are
constructed.
283
 The surface of this screw consists of two oblique helicoids. The
frontal projections of the visible outlines on these surfaces are
obtained by drawing tangents to the frontal projections of the
exterior and interior helical lines. In Fig. 452 these outlines are
shown separately on an enlarged scale.
To construct the section of the screw cut by plane a auxiliary
planes P and y are drawn through the axis of the screw. These

Fig. 451 Fig. 452

Ki and L\ of these .points and joining the points 6\, K\, L\ and 6\ by a
continuous line, we obtain the horizontal projection of one of the
branches of the line of intersection of the screw and plane a. The
other three branches of this curve, which are Archimedean spirals,
are constructed in a similar manner. The line of intersection has
two axes of symmetry. The L. H. and R. H. parts of intersection
are symmetrical because plane a cuts a double-thread screw.
4. A single-cut R. H. screw, the cross section of the thread of
which is an equilateral trapezoid, is represented in Fig. 453. The
surface of such a screw is limited by two cylinders and two oblique
helicoids. The cross-section of the screw given by cutting plane a
is also constructed with the help of auxiliary planes passing
through the axis of the screw. The points K, L, Q and S belonging
284
to the outline of the section are given by the intersection of plane
a with the sides MN, M'N', M"N", of the trapezoid along
which the screw protrusions are intersected by the auxiliary axial
planes. Since the screw in this case is single-cut, the intersection
obtained is limited by arcs of two circles an*d.two branches of the
Archimedean spiral.
5. A screw and nut,
with a thread of trape­
zoid section, are shown
in Fig. 454. There are
two generating trape­
zoids. The direction of
the turns is R.H. The
surface of the screw
consists of two cylin­
ders, right helicoids
and oblique helicoids.
The cross-section of the
screw and nut given by
the cutting plane a is
constructed with the
help of auxiliary planes
P, p', p" and p"' which
are passed through the
axis of the screw. The
circular parts of the
outline of the section
correspond to the parts
of the right helicoid cut
by plane a. The curves,
which are Archimedean
spirals and lie between
the outer and inner
circles, are the sec­
tions of the oblique
helicoids cut by plane a.
6. A screw and nut with a R. H. triple-turn trapezoid thread is
shown in Fig. 455. The cross-sections of the screw and nut given
by plane a consist of three equal parts symmetrically located.
In the section of the nut, seen on the left of Fig. 455, the
exterior helix, which is covered by the helical surface in front of
it, is shown as a broken line.

285
/? =3s
 § 52. Planes Tangent to Curved Surfaces

1. A plane may be tangent to a curved surface in one or more

points,, depending on the form of the surface. In the first case the
tangent plane may be determined by drawing through the point
of tangency, taken on the curved surface, two straight lines
respectively tangent to two curved lines passing through this point
and lying on the curved surface, for example, to two circles on the
surfaces of a sphere (Fi. 456, a) . An example of the second case is
a plane which is tangent to
a single-curved surface,
such as a cylindrical sur­
face, on which all the points
of contact lie on one line,
i. e., on a generatrix of the
cylinder. This is the line of
tangency (Fig. 456, b).
The line of tangency is
one of the lines determin­
ing the tangent plane. A
second line of this plane
is the tangent to any
curved line on the given
surface, such as the circular
base of the cylinder.

2. Let it be required to
draw a plane tangent to a
cylindrical surface, passing
through a given point M on the
surface (Fig. 457).
The generatrix AB passes
through point M. Through point
B, i. e., the horizontal trace of
this generatrix, draw line CD
tangent to the circle of the base
of the cylinder. The plane
determined by the intersect­
ing lines AB and CD is the
required tangent plane.
The line CD is the
horizontal trace of the tangent
plane. To construct the frontal
trace, which is not shown in
the drawing, it is necessary to
find the frontal traces or
piercing points of two lines
287
contained in the plane, for example, the frontal trace of the generatrix
AB and of a horizontal passing through point M. The frontal trace
of the plane will pass through these frontal piercing points.
The plane tangent to the surface of a cone and passing through
point M on the surface is constructed in a similar way (Fig. 458).

3. A plane tangent to a spherical surface is perpendicular to the

radius of the sphere at the point of tangency. Therefore, to construct
a plane tangent to the sphere at a given point M on its surface
(Fig. 459), it is sufficient to draw through point M a horizontal
AB and frontal ED perpendicular to radius CM of the sphere. The
plane defined by these intersecting lines will be the required
tangent plane.
4. Let it be required to draw a tangent plane to a surface of
revolution and passing through a given point M on the surface
(Fig. 460). The method consists in drawing two curves on the
surface of revolution through point M, the tangents to these curves
at point M determining the required plane.
Through point M we draw a parallel, i. e., a horizontal section,
and the tangent AB to this section at point M. Then a meridian
is drawn. The frontal projection of this meridian is not shown in the
drawing (Fig. 460). At point M a tangent to the curve should be
drawn. In order to draw this tangent we can consider that the
meridian, together with point M, is turned about the axis of the
surface of revolution until it takes up a position parallel to
plane /72. Point M will then occupy the position AT. The meridian
will coincide with the principal meridian, i. e., with the generatrix
to the right of the surface. Next the tangent CM' to the curve at
288
19 1444 289
point M' is drawn. With the reverse revolution of line CM'
point C remains stationary, since it lies on the axis of revolution.
The intersecting lines AB and CM define the required plane.

5. The construction of a plane tangent to a helical conoid in a

given point M is seen in Fig. 461.
The generatrix M4 is one of the two straight lines determining
the required plane. As the second line AM we take the tangent to
the coaxial helix, passing through point M.
6. Let it be required to construct a plane tangent to the surface
of a cylinder, passing through a point M lying outside the surface
(Fig. 462). The required plane is determined by the line AB drawn
through point M parallel to the generatrices of the cylinder and by
the tangent KM to the horizontal trace of the surface of the cylinder
drawn through the horizontal piercing point M' of line AB. The line
of tangency on the surface of the cylinder will be generatrix KC.
Since a second tangent LM' may be drawn to the circle of the base
from point M' this problem has two solutions. The tangents KM'
and LM' are the horizontal traces of planes tangent to the surface
of the given cylinder.

7. The construction of two planes tangent to the surface of a

cone and passing through a point Q not contained in this surface
is shown in Fig. 463. By joining point Q with the vertex S of the
cone we find the horizontal piercing point M of line SQ. Through
this point M we draw two tangents to the circle of the base of the
cone. Lines MjKi and M\Fi are the horizontal traces of the planes
which pass through point Q and are tangent to the surface of the
cone. Each of these traces together with line SM determines one
of the tangent planes.

8. Let it be required to pass through a point Q a plane tangent

to the surface of a sphere (Fig. 464).
This problem is solved by the construction of a conical surface
with its vertex in point Q and described about the given sphere.
A straight line is passed through the centre of the sphere C and
point Q. Next we find the true length C4Q4 of this line CQ on a new
plane of projection 774. Having constructed the projection of
the sphere on plane 774, through point Q4 we draw tangents to this
projection. These tangents are the projections on plane 774 of the
limiting elements of a cone described about the sphere. By substitut­
ing plane 17{ by plane 775 perpendicular to the axis of the cone,
we obtain a circle with centre Q5. This is the projection of the cone
on the new plane 775.
Any plane tangent to the surface of this cone will be tangent
to the given sphere and will pass through point Q. One of these
290
planes is shown, i. e., that determined by triangle QNK, of which
the side QN is a generatrix of the cone and the side NK a tangent
to the base of the cone. The point of tangency L of this plane on
the surface of the sphere lies on the circle passing through points
A and B. All the generatrices of the auxiliary con® touch the surface
of the given sphere on this circle.
The plane of the triangle QNK can be constructed first in the
cvQ+pm n f n1anp<; nf nrnip r*finn

Fig. 463 Fig. 464

9. The construction of a tangent plane to the surface of a

cylinder and parallel to a given line AB is shown in Fig. 465.
Let us pass a plane y parallel to the given line AB through the
axis of the cylinder. To do this through any point C on the axis of
cylinder we draw a line CM parallel to line AB. The line drawn
through points M x and Ox is the horizontal trace of plane y. Since
plane y passes through the axis of the cylinder, it cuts the surface
along generatrices. The planes a and a ' are drawn parallel to the
plane y and their horizontal traces ai and a[ are tangents to the
circle of the base of the cylinder. These are the required tangent
planes. The lines of tangency are the generatrices of the cylinder
passing respectively through points K and L. The trace ai together
with the generatrix passing through point K and the trace a{,
together with the generatrix passing through point L, determine
the two planes tangent to the surface of the cylinder and parallel
to the given line AB.
19* 291
292
 10. Let it be required to draw a plane tangent to the surface
of a cone and parallel to line AB (Fig. 466).
Through the vertex 5 of the cone we draw a line parallel to the
given line AB and find the horizontal piercing point M of line SAf.
Then through point we draw tangents to the circle of the base
of the cone. These tangents will be the horizontal traces of planes
tangent to the surface of the cone. These planes are parallel to line
AB and the generatrices SC and CD are their lines of tangency on
the surface of the cone. This problem has two solutions.

11. The construction of a plane tangent to the surface of a sphere

and parallel to a given plane y is shown in Fig. 467. Since a plane
tangent to the surface of the sphere and parallel to the given
plane y must pass through the limiting point of a radius of the
sphere drawn perpendicular to plane y, this problem has two
solutions.
We draw line AB through the centre C of the sphere
perpendicular to plane y. We then determine points K and L in
which this line AB pierces the surface of the sphere. When line AB
is projected onto a new plane of projection 774, to which it is
parallel, it is seen in its true size. This new projection /I4B4 will
intersect the projection of the surface of the sphere on plane 774 in
points K4 and L4. These are the projections of the extreme points of
diameter KL, which is perpendicular to plane y. Having constructed
the projections of points K and L on planes n 2 and n u as shown
by arrows, we draw the required planes a and a ' through points K
and L parallel to the given plane y. This is done with the help of
the horizontal KN and frontal LM, also parallel to plane y.

Fig. 468 Fig. 469

293
 12. N o r m a l s t o c u r v e d s u r f a c e s . In general, when
constructing a normal to a curved surface at a point on the surface,
using the procedure described above, it is first necessary to draw
a plane tangent to the surface through the given point. After that
a perpendicular to this plane is drawn through the point.
In certain cases normals to curved surfaces are drawn without
auxiliary lines, for example, the normal to the surface of a sphere
in a given point passes through this point and the
centre of the sphere.
The solution of the problem of determining
the distance from point A to the surface of sphere
is seen in Fig. 468. This distance is given by the
length of the normal AK. Point K is the piercing
point of line AC on the surface of the sphere. The
construction is carried out using the method of
revolution. A2K2 is the required distance.
The shortest distance from a given point A to
the surface of a cone (Fig. 469) is also determined
by drawing a normal to the conical surface.
Point A is rotated about the axis SC of the cone
Fig. 470 to the position A. The radius of revolution CA then
occupies the frontal position CA. From point A2
we drop a perpendicular to the frontal projection S 2B2 of the
generatrix SB. Point K, the intersection of the perpendicular and
generatrix SJi,_js the point on the surface of the cone nearest to
point A, so A2K2 is the required distance. Lines A\K\ and A 2K2 are
the projections of the normal AK.
In Fig. 470 is shown the determination of the shortest distance
from point A to surface of cylinder. This distance AB projects onto
plane P\ in its true length.
Problems and Exercises
1. How many planes can be passed through a given point
tangent to a surface of a) a cylinder, b) a cone and c) a sphere?
2. Is it possible, in general, to pass a plane tangent , to the
surface of a) two cones, b) a cylinder and a cone?
3. Draw a tangent plane through a given point on the surface
of an elliptical cone.
4. Draw a tangent plane to the surface of a torus passing
through a given point on its surface.
5. Draw a tangent plane to an oblique helicoid passing through
a given point on its surface.
6. Through point M taken outside an .oblique cone draw a
tangent plane to its surface.
7. Draw a plane a tangent to the surface of a right circular
cone parallel to a line AB.
294
 APPENDIX

The Use of Models in Descriptive Geometry

The special difficulty, which the beginner as a rule experiences,

is to be able to conceive clearly the connection between the figures
drawn on paper and the actual figures in space which they
represent.
In other words, when reading the text where the constructions
on a plane drawing are explained, it is necessary to imagine as
taking place in space the various operations used to solve the
problem on paper with the help of points, lines and plane figures.
This difficulty may be largely avoided by making use of models
at the beginning of the course.
The drawings enabling models to be made for 24 constructions
are given in the book. The problems are arranged so that
by using the multiview drawings and the axonometric represen­
tation the student, without help of the teacher, can study
the development of surfaces and the way to lay out patterns
for them.
It has been found that by using models very clear and precise
concepts are formed from the start and a correct method of work­
ing is acquired.
The drawings given include models of planes of projection,
projecting planes and geometrical figures with lines and projec­
tions plotted on them.
The dotted lines indicate the edges to be cut and the allowances
. to be left along the various sides of the pattern for overlap and
where to glue the projecting planes to the planes of projection.
Each pair of planes of projection should be fixed at right angles
. with the help of narrow strips of paper as shown in the drawing for
making Fig. 10. Sometimes, for example- in the case of the model
suggested for Fig. 80, the planes of projection may be fixed at right
angles without using strips.
To represent horizontal-projecting lines match sticks may be
used. If a match is not long enough two may be joined. A convenient
295
way of doing this is to make a small cut in the end of one match
while the other is sharpened into the form of a spatula. This is then
dipped in glue and inserted into the cleft of the first match.
When matches are supposed to stand vertically the end to be
glued to the horizontal plane of projection should be cut clean
and square. The matches should be held in place until the glue
hardens sufficiently to hold them in a vertical position.
Bases are not always necessary. Sometimes, as for example in
the model for Figs. 57 and 59, the projection line may be fixed
with the help of holes made in the planes of projection which are
slightly lengthened.
The student may himself make other models for those construc­
tions which seem most difficult. Nevertheless it should not be
forgotten that excessive use of models may hinder him from
visualizing projections on the drawings.
The student should endeavour to understand the drawings and
be able to solve any problems involving projections, no matter how
complex, by applying the methods of descriptive geometry without
having often to resort to models.
Fig. 472 to Fig. 20

297
 •
M zt

X o •X

-z\

■y

n! y

Fig. 473 to Fig. 21 Fig. 475 to Fig. 39

298
 \ \"l

Fig. 476 to Fig. 57 Fig. 477 to Fig. 59

Fig. 478, to Fig. 80

Fig. 479 to Fig. 86

299
300
301
 Fig. 485 to Fig. 149

Fig. 486 to Fig. 154

302
Fig. 488 to Fig. 177

303
 Fig. 490 to Fig. 208

Fig. 492 to Fig. 269

304
 Fig. 493 to Fig. 292

20 1444 305
306
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