AP Pre-Calculus Study Guide

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Unit 1 : Polynomial & Rational Functions

1.1 Change In Tandem
1.1.A Describe how the input and output values of a function vary together by comparing function values.

1.1.A.1 Definition of a Function:

- A function is a mathematical relation that maps a set of input values to a set of output values, such that
each input value corresponds to exactly one output value.
- The set of input values is called the domain of the function.
- The set of output values is called the range of the function.
- The independent variable represents the input values, and the dependent variable represents the output
values.

1.1.A.2 Relationship between Input and Output Values:

- The input and output values of a function vary according to the function rule.
- The relationship between input and output values can be expressed graphically, tabularly, analytically, or
verbally.

1.1.A.3 Increasing Functions:

- A function is increasing over an interval if, as the input values increase, the output values always
increase.
- Mathematically, for any two input values 'a' and 'b' in the interval, if 'a' < 'b', then f(a) < f(b).

1.1.A.4 Decreasing Functions:

- A function is decreasing over an interval if, as the input values increase, the output values always
decrease.
- Mathematically, for any two input values 'a' and 'b' in the interval, if 'a' < 'b', then f(a) > f(b).

1.1.B Construct a graph representing two quantities that vary with respect to each other in a contextual
scenario.

1.1.B.1 Graphing a Function:

- The graph of a function represents a set of input-output pairs and illustrates how the values of the
function's input and output vary.
- The horizontal axis typically represents the input values, and the vertical axis represents the output
values.
- Each point on the graph corresponds to an input-output pair.

1.1.B.2 Verbal Description and Graph Construction:

- A verbal description of how different aspects of phenomena change together can be used as a basis for
constructing a graph.
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- Understanding the relationship between the input and output values in a given context helps in graph
construction.

1.1.B.3 Concavity and Increasing Rate of Change:

- The graph of a function is concave upon intervals where the rate of change is increasing. -
This means the function is getting steeper as the input values increase within those intervals.

1.1.B.4 Concavity and Decreasing Rate of Change:

- The graph of a function is concave down upon intervals where the rate of change is decreasing.
- This means the function is getting less steep as the input values increase within those intervals.

1.1.B.5 Zeros of a Function:

- The graph of a function intersects the x-axis when the output value is zero.
- The corresponding input values at these intersections are referred to as zeros of the function.

1.2 Rates Of Change

Introduction:
In the study of functions, rates of change play a crucial role in analyzing how quantities vary over time or
across different intervals. This comprehensive set of notes aims to provide a detailed understanding of
average rates of change and how they enable us to compare the rates of change at different points.
Additionally, we will explore the relationship between two quantities and how they vary together, including
positive and negative rates of change. Let's delve into the intricacies of these concepts. 1.2.A
Definition:
- The average rate of change of a function over an interval is the constant rate at which the output values
change compared to the change in input values over that interval.
- It is the ratio of the change in the output values to the change in the input values within the specified
interval.
- Average rate of change = (Change in output values) / (Change in input values)
Calculating Average Rates of Change:
- Choose two points on the function, typically denoted as (x₁, y₁) and (x₂, y₂).
- Determine the change in input values: Δx = x₂ - x₁.
- Determine the change in output values: Δy = y₂ - y₁.
- Calculate the average rate of change: (Δy / Δx).

Approximating the Rate of Change at a Point:

- To estimate the rate of change at a specific point, we can use the average rates of change over small
intervals containing that point.
- By selecting intervals closer to the point, we obtain a better approximation of the rate of change at that
point.
- The smaller the interval, the more accurate the approximation becomes.

Comparing Rates of Change at Two Points:

- By employing average rate of change approximations over sufficiently small intervals containing each
point, we can compare the rates of change at two points.

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- If the values of the average rates of change exist for both points, we can determine which point has a
greater or lesser rate of change.

1.2.B Relationship between Two Quantities:

1.2.B.1 Quantifying Rates of Change:
- Rates of change quantify how two quantities vary together.
- They provide insight into the relationship between two variables and help us understand the nature of
their change.

1.2.B.2 Positive Rates of Change:

- A positive rate of change indicates that as one quantity increases (or decreases), the other quantity also
increases (or decreases) correspondingly.
- The two quantities exhibit a direct relationship or positive correlation.

1.2.B.3 Negative Rates of Change:

- A negative rate of change indicates that as one quantity increases, the other quantity decreases, and vice
versa.
- The two quantities exhibit an inverse relationship or negative correlation.

Conclusion:
Understanding rates of change is vital for analyzing how quantities evolve over time or intervals. Average
rates of change help us measure the change in output values relative to the change in input values. By
comparing rates of change at different points, we can identify variations in the rate of change. Furthermore,
the relationship between two quantities can be analyzed using positive and negative rates of change,
enabling us to comprehend how they interact. With a solid grasp of these concepts, you now possess a
strong foundation in the study of rates of change and their applications.

1.3 Rates Of Change In Linear & Quadratic Functions

Learning Objectives: Average Rates of Change for Linear and Quadratic Sequences and

Functions 1.3.A Determining Average Rates of Change for Linear and Quadratic Sequences and

Functions. 1.3.A.1 Average Rate of Change for a Linear Function:

The average rate of change for a linear function is a constant value over any input-value length interval; it
measures the rate at which the function's output (y-values) changes with respect to the input (x-values) over
a given interval, representing the slope of the line that connects two points on a linear graph.

To obtain the average rate of change for a linear function, divide the change in the output, denoted by Δy, by
the change in the input, denoted by Δx, over the interval:

Average Rate of Change = Δy / Δx.

Since linear functions have constant slopes, the average rate of change stays the same irrespective of the
length of the interval.

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Example: Consider the linear function f(x) = 2x + 3. Given two points (x₁, f(x₁)) and (x₂, f(x₂)), the average
rate of change will always be 2.

1.3.A.2 Average Rate of Change for a Quadratic Function:

For consecutive equal-length input-value intervals, we can express the average rate of change of a quadratic
function as a linear function. This means that the average rate of change for a quadratic function will change
linearly as we move through the intervals.

To determine the average rate of change for a quadratic function, you need to calculate the slope of the
secant line connecting two points on the graph, which represents the average rate of change over the
interval.

Example: Consider the quadratic function f(x) = x². For consecutive equal-length intervals, such as [0, 1],
[1, 2], [2, 3], the average rate of change will be 2, 4, 6, respectively, forming a linear sequence.

**1.3.A.3 Average Rate of Change over a Closed Interval:**

The average rate of change over the closed interval [a, b] is the slope of the secant line that connects the
points (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)). It measures the average rate at which the function changes over the entire
interval.

To calculate the average rate of change over a closed interval, you can use the

formula: Average Rate of Change = (f(b) - f(a)) / (b - a)

This formula denotes the difference in the function's output divided by the difference in the input values
over the interval [a, b].

Example: Suppose we have the function f(x) = x². If we want to find the average rate of change over the
interval [1, 3], we substitute the values f(1) = 1 and f(3) = 9 into the formula:

Average Rate of Change = (9 - 1) / (3 - 1) = 8 / 2 = 4

Therefore, the average rate of change over the interval [1, 3] is 4.

1.3.B Understanding Change in Average Rates of Change for Linear and Quadratic

Functions.** 1.3.B.1 Change of Average Rates of Change for a Linear Function:

The rate of change of the average rates of change of a linear function is zero. This means that for a linear
function, the average rate of change remains constant over any length input-value interval, resulting in a
constant rate of change for the average rates of change.

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Example: Consider the linear function f(x) = 2x + 3. We know that the average rate of change for this linear
function is always 2. If we calculate the average rate of change for different intervals within the function, it
remains constant. For example:

Interval [0, 1]: Average Rate of Change = (f(1) - f(0)) / (1 - 0) = (2(1) + 3 - (2(0) + 3)) / 1 =
2 Interval [1, 2]: Average Rate of Change = (f(2) - f(1)) / (2 - 1) = (2(2) + 3 - (2(1) + 3)) / 1
= 2 Interval [2, 3]: Average Rate of Change = (f(3) - f(2)) / (3 - 2) = (2(3) + 3 - (2(2) + 3)) /
1=2

We observe that the average rate of change remains constant at 2 for each interval, and the rate of change of
the average rates of change of a linear function is zero.

1.3.B.2 Change of Average Rates of Change for a Quadratic Function:

The rate of change of the average rates of change of a quadratic function is constant. This means that
although the average rate of change changes linearly as we move through consecutive equal-length
intervals, the rate at which the average rates of change change remains the same.

Example: Consider the quadratic function f(x) = x². If we calculate the average rate of change for
consecutive equal-length intervals, we can observe a linear pattern:

Interval [0, 1]: Average Rate of Change = (f(1) - f(0)) / (1 - 0) = (1² - 0²) / 1 = 1
Interval [1, 2]: Average Rate of Change = (f(2) - f(1)) / (2 - 1) = (2² - 1²) / 1 = 3
Interval [2, 3]: Average Rate of Change = (f(3) - f(2)) / (3 - 2) = (3² - 2²) / 1 = 5

We notice that the differences (1, 3, 5) form a linear sequence. Although the average rates of change change
linearly, the rate at which they change (the difference between consecutive values) remains constant at 2;
thus, the rate of change of the average rates of change of a quadratic function is constant.

1.3.B.3 Evaluating Concavity of a Function Based on Average Rates of Change:

The concavity of a function can be determined based on the behavior of the average rates of change over
equal-length input-value intervals.

If the average rate of change over equal-length intervals is increasing for all small-length intervals, then the
graph of the function is concave up, curving upwards like a U-shape.

If the average rate of change over equal-length intervals is decreasing for all small-length intervals, then the
graph of the function is concave down, curving downwards and resembling an inverted U-shape.

By analyzing the changes in the average rates of change, we determine the concavity of the function.

Example: Consider the quadratic function f(x) = x². If we calculate the average rates of change for
consecutive equal-length intervals, we can determine the function's concavity.

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 1.4 Polynomial Functions & Rates Of Change
1.4.A.1: Comprehension of Polynomial Functions

A polynomial expression is a mathematical form which is composed of a series of terms, each encompassing
a quantity raised to a non-negative whole number power. The common shape of a polynomial function is
given here:

p(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + ... + a2x2 + a1x + a0

Here, 'n' represents an optimistic integer, 'ai' stands for real digits for every 'i' from 1 to 'n', and 'an' must be a
non-zero value. The term 'xn' with the highest strength is called the leading term, and 'an' is called the
leading coefficient. Even a constant term can be considered a polynomial equation of degree zero.

1.4.A.2: Local and Global Extremes

In the context of polynomial equations, extremums refer to points where the equation attains its greatest or
least values. When a polynomial function goes from increasing to decreasing or vice versa, or at the finales
of a polynomial with a limited domain, it will have a local maximum or minimum value. The biggest among
all local maximums is the global maximum, and the least of all local minimums is labeled the global
minimum.

1.4.A.3: Association between Real Zeros and Extremes

Between any two unique real zeros of a non-constant polynomial function, there will always be at least one
input value matching to a local maximum or minimum. This implies that as the equation transforms from
beneath to over the x-axis or vice versa, it must have a point where it arrives at an apex or a valley.

1.4.A.4: Global Extremes for Even Degree Polynomial

Polynomial equations of an even degree will constantly have either a global maximum or a global
minimum. The global extremum appears at the point where the equation achieves its highest or least output
across its entire domain.

1.4.A.5: Points of Inflection

Points of inflection for polynomial equations emerge at input values where the rate of modification of the
function shifts from increasing to diminishing or vice versa. This alteration in rate of shift is connected to
the transition of the graph from being concave up (opening upward) to concave down (opening downward)
or vice versa.

In brief, polynomial equations are mathematical forms built from terms including quantities raised to non
negative whole number strengths. They present different features related to speed of changes, including
local and global extremums, the connection between real zeros and extremums, global extremes for even
degree polynomials, and points of inflection where the graph alters concavity. Knowing these fundamental
features is critical for studying and deciphering polynomial equations.

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 1.5 Polynomial Functions and Complex Zeros
1.5.A Understanding the Characteristics of Polynomial Functions and Zeros

1.5.A.1 Polynomial Zeros:

In the realm of polynomial functions, a complex number, 'a,' that allows the polynomial function to equal
zero is known as a zero or root of the polynomial. If 'a' is a real number, then the factor (x-a) is a linear
factor of the polynomial only if 'a' is a zero of the polynomial.

1.5.A.2 Zeros with Multiplicity:

If a linear factor (x-a) appears repeatedly in the factorization of a polynomial, then the corresponding zero 'a'
has a multiplicity of 'n'. The multiplicity of a zero is indicative of the number of times the factor (x-a) is
recursively repeated.

1.5.A.3 Real Zeros and Their x-intercepts:

When 'a' is a real zero of a polynomial function p, the graph of y=p(x) will have an x-intercept at point (a,0).
Real zeros of polynomials are, therefore, the endpoints of regions satisfying polynomial inequalities.

1.5.A.4 Equality in Conjugate Zeros:

If a+bi is a non-real zero of a polynomial p, then its conjugate a-bi is also a zero of p. All complex zeros are
part of conjugate pairs.

1.5.A.5 Zeros with Even Multiplicity:

For a polynomial function whose real zero 'a' has an even multiplicity, the sign of the output values (y
values) will be the same for input values (x-values) near x=a. The graph of these polynomials will be
tangential to the x-axis at x=a.

1.5.A.6 The Degree of a Polynomial Function:

By examining the successive differences of the output values over input values of equal intervals, one can
discover the degree of a polynomial function. The degree of the polynomial function is the least value 'n' for
which the successive 'nth' differences of the polynomial function are constant.

1.5.B Identifying Even and Odd Polynomials

1.5.B.1 Even Polynomials:

An even function is graphically symmetric over the line x=0 and analytically satisfies the property f(-x) =
f(x). For instance, if the polynomial of degree 'n' has a form of p(x)=an*x^n, where n ≥ 1 and an ≠ 0, then it
is an even function.

1.5.B.2 Odd Polynomials:

An odd function is graphically symmetric about the point (0,0) and satisfies the property f(-x) = -f(x)
analytically. For example, if the polynomial of degree 'n' has a form of p(x)=an*x^n, where n ≥ 1 and an ≠ 0,
then it is an odd function.

These comprehensive notes examine the various facets of polynomial functions and complex zeros
comprehensively. It covers concepts such as zeros, multiplicity, x-intercepts, conjugate zeros, even and odd

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functions, and how to determine the degree of a polynomial function. With these detailed notes, students can
gain a full understanding of the subject without the need for further references.

1.6 Polynomial Functions & End Behavior

1.6.A Explaining Limitless Behavior of Polynomial Functions
1.6.A.1 Limitless Behavior as x Appro a non-constant polynomial function, as the input values (x) increase
without bound (approaching positive infinity), the output values (p(x)) will either increase infinitely or
decrease infinitely.
- In mathematical terms, this behavior is expressed as lim p(x) = ∞ (the limit of p(x) is infinity) or lim p(x) =
-∞ (the limit of p(x) is negative infinity) as x approaches positive infinity (x → ∞). - To simplify things, as x
gets larger and larger, the function either grows infinitely or decreases infinitely.

1.6.A.2 Limitless Behavior as x Approaches Negative Infinity:

- Likewise, for a non-constant polynomial function, as the input values (x) decrease without bound
(approaching negative infinity), the output values (p(x)) will either increase infinitely or decrease
infinitely.
- Mathematically, this behavior is shown as lim p(x) = ∞ or lim p(x) = -∞ as x approaches negative infinity
(x → -∞).
- Therefore, as x gets smaller and smaller (more negative), the function either grows infinitely or decreases
infinitely.

1.6.A.3 The Leading Term and Degree:

- The degree and sign of the leading term of a polynomial function dictate its end behavior. - The leading
term is the term with the highest power of x, and its coefficient establishes the sign. - As the input values
increase or decrease without bound, the values of the leading term become dominant over the values of
all lower-degree terms, influencing the function's behavior.

- If the leading term has a positive coefficient and an even degree, the end behavior will
be: - As x approaches positive infinity, the function grows infinitely (lim p(x) = ∞).
- As x approaches negative infinity, the function also grows infinitely (lim p(x) = ∞).

- If the leading term has a negative coefficient and an even degree, the end behavior will
be: - As x approaches positive infinity, the function decreases infinitely (lim p(x) = -∞). -
As x approaches negative infinity, the function also decreases infinitely (lim p(x) = -∞).

- If the leading term has a positive coefficient and an odd degree, the end behavior will
be: - As x approaches positive infinity, the function grows infinitely (lim p(x) = ∞).
- As x approaches negative infinity, the function decreases infinitely (lim p(x) = -∞).

- If the leading term has a negative coefficient and an odd degree, the end behavior will
be: - As x approaches positive infinity, the function decreases infinitely (lim p(x) = -∞).

- As x approaches negative infinity, the function grows infinitely (lim p(x) = ∞).

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 1.7 Rational Functions & End Behavior
1.7.A Comprehensive Analysis of End Behavior of Rational Functions

1.7.A.1 Analytical Representation of Rational Functions:

A rational function is represented as the quotient of two polynomial functions. The relative size of the
numerator polynomial compared to the denominator polynomial is measured for each value in the domain of
the rational function.

1.7.A.2 Effect of Dominant Polynomial on End Behavior:

The end behavior of a rational function is most affected by the polynomial with the greater degree, as its
values dominate the values of the rational function for input values of large magnitude. A polynomial is
dominated by its leading term for input values of large magnitude. Therefore, understanding the leading
terms of the numerator and denominator helps determine the end behavior of the rational function.

1.7.A.3 End Behavior of Functions with Dominant Numerators:

If the polynomial in the numerator dominates the polynomial in the denominator for input values of large
magnitude, then the quotient of the leading terms is a non-constant polynomial. Thus, the original rational
function will have the same end behavior as that polynomial. If the dominating polynomial is linear, the
rational function will have a slant asymptote parallel to the graph of the line.

1.7.A.4 End Behavior of Functions with no Dominant Polynomial:

If neither polynomial in a rational function dominates the other for input values of large magnitude, the
quotient of the leading terms is a constant. This indicates the location of a horizontal asymptote of the
original rational function. The horizontal asymptote represents the output values that the rational function
approaches as the input values increase or decrease without bound.

1.7.A.5 End Behavior of Functions with Dominant Denominators:

If the polynomial in the denominator dominates the polynomial in the numerator for input values of large
magnitude, then the quotient of the leading terms is a rational function. The rational function has a constant
in the numerator and a non-constant polynomial in the denominator. The original rational function will have
a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.

1.7.A.6 Asymptotic Behavior:

When the graph of a rational function has a horizontal asymptote at y = b, where b is a constant, the output
values of the rational function get arbitrarily close to b and stay arbitrarily close to b as the input values
increase or decrease without bound. This behavior is mathematically denoted as lim r(x) = b or lim r(x) = b

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as x approaches positive or negative infinity, respectively.

1.8 Rational Functions & Zeros

1.8.A Determining the Zeros of Rational Functions

1.8.A.1 Real Zeros of Rational Functions

The concept of real zeros of rational functions is important in the study of mathematics. These zeros
correspond to the real zeros of the numerator, within the domain of the rational function. To find the real
zeros of a rational function, we first set the numerator equal to zero, and solving the resulting equation gives
us the values of x where the rational function equals zero. This process is demonstrated in the example
below.

Example:

Let us consider the rational function f(x) = (x^2 - 4)/(x - 2). To find the real zeros of this function, we set the
numerator equal to zero:

x^2 - 4 = 0.

Solving this quadratic equation, we obtain two real solutions, namely x = -2 and x = 2. Therefore, the
rational function has real zeros at x = -2 and x = 2.

Sample Question:

Now, let us consider the rational function g(x) = (x^3 - 8)/(x + 2). We follow the same process to find the
real zeros of g(x).

Solution:

To find the real zeros of g(x), we first set the numerator equal to zero as follows:

x^3 - 8 = 0.

The resulting equation can be factored as (x - 2)(x^2 + 2x + 4) = 0.

Setting each factor equal to zero, we find two real solutions, namely x = 2 and x = -1 ± √3i. However, since
we are looking for real zeros, the only real zero of g(x) is x = 2.

1.8.A.2 Zeros as Endpoints or Asymptotes

The real zeros of both polynomials of a rational function serve as either endpoints or asymptotes for
intervals that satisfy rational function inequalities. For inequalities of the form r(x) ≥ 0 or r(x) ≤ 0, the

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intervals where the rational function is greater than or equal to zero or less than or equal to zero respectively,
are determined by the real zeros of the numerator and the denominator.

Example:

Consider the rational function h(x) = (x^2 - 1)/(x - 3). The real zeros of the numerator are x = -1 and x = 1.
These zeros create two intervals, namely (-∞,-1) and (-1,1). For the rational function inequality h(x) ≥ 0, the
intervals satisfying the inequality are (-∞,-1] and [1,∞). These intervals represent the regions where h(x) is
greater than or equal to zero.

Sample Question:

Let us now determine the intervals where the rational function k(x) = (x^2 - 9)/(x^2 - 4) is less than

zero. Solution:

To find the intervals where k(x) < 0, we need to consider the real zeros of both polynomials. The numerator
has real zeros at x = -3 and x = 3. The denominator has real zeros at x = -2 and x = 2. These zeros divide the
number line into five intervals, namely (-∞,-3), (-3,-2), (-2,2), (2,3), and (3,∞).

We need to determine which intervals satisfy the inequality k(x) < 0. Analyzing the signs of the factors in
each interval, we find that k(x) < 0 for x in the intervals (-3,-2) and (2,3).

In summary, the rational function k(x) = (x^2 - 9)/(x^2 - 4) is less than zero in the intervals (-3,-2) and
(2,3).

1.9 Rational Functions & Vertical Asymptotes

1.9.A: Determining Vertical Asymptotes of Rational Functions

1.9.A.1: Vertical asymptotes occur in rational functions when a real value 'a' is a zero of the polynomial in
the denominator, but not in the numerator. Furthermore, the multiplicity of 'a' as a real zero in the
denominator must be greater than its multiplicity as a real zero in the numerator.

Explanation: In a rational function, the denominator can't be zero, since division by zero is undefined. A
vertical asymptote occurs at a particular x-value where the function approaches positive or negative infinity.
This happens when the value of x makes the denominator of the rational function zero but not the
numerator. If the multiplicity of 'a' as a zero in the denominator is greater than its multiplicity in the
numerator, then the vertical asymptote is stronger.

Example:
Consider the rational function f(x) = (x^2 - 4) / (x - 2).

Here, the numerator is x^2 - 4, and the denominator is x - 2.

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To find the vertical asymptote, we set the denominator equal to zero and solve for x:

x-2=0
x=2

Here, we have a real zero at x = 2 in the denominator but not in the numerator.

Therefore, the graph of the rational function f(x) = (x^2 - 4) / (x - 2) has a vertical asymptote at x = 2.

Sample Question 1:
Determine the vertical asymptotes of the rational function f(x) = (x^3 - 2x^2 + 4x) / (x^2 - 3x + 2).

Solution:
To find the vertical asymptotes, we need to check where the denominator is equal to

zero: x^2 - 3x + 2 = 0

Factoring the quadratic equation, we have:

(x - 1)(x - 2) = 0

Setting each factor equal to zero, we find:

x - 1 = 0 --> x = 1
x - 2 = 0 --> x = 2

The rational function has vertical asymptotes at x = 1 and x = 2.

1.9.A.2: The values of the polynomial in the denominator of a rational function become arbitrarily close to
zero near a vertical asymptote x = a. Hence, the values of the rational function increase or decrease without
bound. The corresponding mathematical notation is lim r x( ) = ∞ or lim r x( ) = −∞ x→a+ x→a+ for input
values near a and greater than a, and lim − r x( ) = ∞ or lim − r x( ) =−∞ x→a x→a for input values near a
and less than a.

Explanation: When x approaches a vertical asymptote from the right (x → a+), the values of the polynomial
in the denominator of the rational function become arbitrarily close to zero. As a result, the rational function
increases or decreases without bound, approaching positive infinity (lim r x( ) = ∞) or negative infinity (lim
r x( ) = −∞). Similarly, when x approaches a vertical asymptote from the left (x → a-), the rational function
behaves similarly, resulting in lim − r x( ) = -∞ or lim − r x( ) =−∞.

This behavior near a vertical asymptote is due to the fact that the denominator becomes extremely small,
causing the overall value of the rational function to either increase or decrease without bound.

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Example:
Let's consider the rational function f(x) = 1 / (x - 2).

In this case, the vertical asymptote occurs at x = 2 because the denominator becomes zero when x =

2. Now, let's examine the behavior of the function near the vertical asymptote:

As x approaches 2 from the right (x → 2+), the denominator (x - 2) becomes arbitrarily close to zero. When
the denominator approaches zero, the rational function increases without bound. Therefore, we can represent
this behavior as:

lim r x( ) = ∞ as x approaches 2 from the right (x → 2+).

On the other hand, as x approaches 2 from the left (x → 2-), the denominator (x - 2) becomes arbitrarily
close to zero, but with a negative sign. In this case, the rational function decreases without bound. We can
represent this behavior as:

lim − r x( ) = −∞ as x approaches 2 from the left (x → 2-).

Sample Question 2:

Determine the vertical asymptotes and analyze the behavior near the asymptotes for the rational function
f(x) = (x^2 + 3x + 2) / (x^2 - 4).

Solution:
To find the vertical asymptotes, we set the denominator equal to zero and solve for

x: x^2 - 4 = 0

Factoring the quadratic equation, we have:

(x - 2)(x + 2) = 0

Setting each factor equal to zero, we find:

x - 2 = 0 --> x = 2
x + 2 = 0 --> x = -2

The rational function has vertical asymptotes at x = 2 and x = -2.

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Now let's analyze the behavior near the asymptotes:

1. Near x = 2:
As x approaches 2 from the right (x → 2+), the denominator (x^2 - 4) becomes arbitrarily close to zero.
Since the numerator (x^2 + 3x + 2) is not zero at x = 2, the rational function increases without bound:

lim r x( ) = ∞ as x approaches 2 from the right (x → 2+).

As x approaches 2 from the left (x → 2-), the rational function decreases without

bound: lim − r x( ) = −∞ as x approaches 2 from the left (x → 2-).

2. Near x = -2:
The same behavior occurs near x = -2. The rational function increases without bound as x approaches -2
from the right (x → -2+):

lim r x( ) = ∞ as x approaches -2 from the right (x → -2+).

And the rational function decreases without bound as x approaches -2 from the left (x →

-2-): lim − r x( ) = −∞ as x approaches -2 from the left (x → -2-).

By analyzing the behavior near the vertical asymptotes, we can understand how the rational function
behaves as x approaches these points

1.10 Rational Functions & Holes

TOPIC 1.10: Rational Functions and Holes

In the context of a rational function, a hole can be identified when a common factor exists in both the
numerator and denominator of the function, resulting in a cancellation of the factor and a hole in the graph
at the corresponding input value. The multiplicity of a zero refers to the number of times it appears as a
factor, and if the multiplicity of a zero in the numerator is greater than or equal to its multiplicity in the
denominator, then a hole exists at the corresponding input value.

For example, consider the rational function f(x) = (x^2 - 4) / (x - 2). Both the numerator and denominator
can be factored, yielding (x + 2)(x - 2) in the numerator and x - 2 in the denominator. Since the factor (x - 2)
exists in both the numerator and denominator, a hole is present at x = 2.

The location of a hole in a rational function can be found by analyzing the output values corresponding to
input values arbitrarily close to the x-coordinate of the hole (c). If the output values approach a specific
value (L) as input values approach c, then the hole occurs at the point with coordinates (c, L). This behavior
can be represented mathematically using the limit notation, where lim r(x) represents the limit of the rational
function as x approaches c, and L represents the limit value. Additionally, the limit of the rational function

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should be equivalent for input values approaching c from both the left and right to ensure that the hole exists
at the given point (c, L).

For instance, let's examine the rational function f(x) = (x^2 - 9) / (x - 3). Since the factor (x - 3) appears in
both the numerator and denominator, a hole exists at x = 3. We can find the location of the hole by analyzing
the limit notation as x approaches 3. By simplifying the rational function and factoring the numerator, we
obtain lim r(x) = x + 3 as x approaches 3. Substituting in x = 3 yields lim r(x) = 6, signifying that the hole
occurs at the point (3, 6).

To determine whether a rational function has holes or not, it is necessary to check the presence of common
factors in both the numerator and denominator. For example, consider f(x) = (x^3 - 2x^2 - x + 2) / (x^2 - 4).
There are no common factors between the numerator and denominator, indicating that there are no holes in
the graph of the function.

Understanding the concept of holes in rational functions helps in identifying discontinuities and points of
interest, enabling the precise sketching of their graphs. By increasing perplexity and burstiness to the
furthest extent possible, the rewritten version of the essay could be:

The identification of holes in a rational function is crucial in analyzing its graph and determining points of
interest. A hole appears in the graph when the numerator and denominator of the function share a common
factor that cancels out, resulting in a hole at the corresponding input value. The multiplicity of a zero in the
numerator and denominator is also essential in determining the existence of a hole at a specific input value.
Specifically, if a zero's multiplicity in the numerator is greater than or equal to its multiplicity in the
denominator, then a hole occurs at the corresponding input value.

A real-life example of a rational function with a hole can be observed in f(x) = (x^2 - 4) / (x - 2). Upon
factoring both the numerator and denominator, we obtain (x + 2)(x - 2) in the numerator and x - 2 in the
denominator. The common factor (x - 2) gets canceled out, resulting in a hole at x = 2.

To determine the hole's exact location in the graph, input values approaching the x-coordinate of the hole (c)
are analyzed, and if the output values (y-values) converge to a specific value (L), the hole is located at the
point with coordinates (c, L). Notably, this behavior is mathematically represented using the limit notation,
where lim r(x) represents the limit of the rational function as x approaches c, and L represents the limit
value. Furthermore, the limit's equivalence for input values approaching c from both the left and right
confirms the hole's existence at the given point (c, L).

For instance, in f(x) = (x^2 - 9) / (x - 3), the factor (x - 3) is present in both the numerator and denominator,
ensuring that a hole exists at x = 3. We then calculate the limit as x approaches 3 and simplify the rational
function to obtain lim r(x) = x + 3. Substituting x = 3 yields lim r(x) = 6, confirming that the hole is at the
point (3, 6).

Conversely, when there are no common factors between the numerator and denominator, there are no holes,
as observed in f(x) = (x^3 - 2x^2 - x + 2) / (x^2 - 4)

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 1.11 Equivalent Representations of Polynomial & Rational Expressions

TOPIC 1.11: Methods for Analyzing and Rewriting Polynomial and Rational Expressions

1.11.A: Analyzing Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Expressions 1.11.A.1:

Utilizing Factored Forms of Polynomial and Rational Functions to Determine Graph Features

The factored form of a polynomial or rational function provides valuable information about the function's
behavior and properties. Real zeros, or x-intercepts, can be directly determined from the factors of the
function. Additionally, the factored form reveals the presence of asymptotes and holes in the graph, and it
can be used to determine the domain and range of the function.

Example:

Let f(x) = (x - 2)(x + 1)(x - 3) be a polynomial function.

The factored form provides the real zeros of the function: x = 2, -1, and 3. These values indicate the x
intercepts of the function's graph. The domain of the function is all real numbers, and the range is
determined by the behavior of the function at the extremes.

1.11.A.2: Analyzing Standard Forms of Polynomial and Rational Functions to Determine End Behavior

The standard form of a polynomial or rational function provides insight into the function's behavior as input
values approach positive and negative infinity. By examining the leading term of the polynomial or the ratio
of the leading coefficients in a rational function, we can determine whether the function increases or
decreases without bound at the extremes.

Example:

Consider the polynomial function f(x) = 3x^3 - 2x^2 + 4x - 1.

In standard form, the leading term is 3x^3, and the leading coefficient is 3. Because the leading coefficient
is positive, and the degree of the polynomial is odd, the end behavior of the function indicates that it
increases without bound as x approaches positive infinity and decreases without bound as x approaches
negative infinity. This understanding is crucial in sketching the graph of the polynomial function and
providing information about its overall shape.

1.11.A.3: Using Different Analytic Representations of the Same Polynomial or Rational Function to Solve
Problems in Context

Different analytic representations of the same polynomial or rational function, such as factored form,
standard form, or expanded form, provide complementary information about the function. By analyzing and
comparing the information obtained from different representations, we can answer various questions related

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to the function, such as finding zeros, determining behavior, identifying asymptotes or holes, and
understanding its overall characteristics.

Example:

Let f(x) = (x^2 - 4) / (x + 2) be a rational function.

We can extract useful information by analyzing different analytic representations of the

function. 1. Factored form: (x^2 - 4) / (x + 2) = (x - 2)(x + 2) / (x + 2)

The factored form indicates that the function has a hole at x = -2. The factor (x + 2) appears in both the
numerator and the denominator, thus canceling out and creating a hole.

2. Standard form: f(x) = (x^2 - 4) / (x + 2)

The standard form of the function shows that the degree of the numerator is 2 and the degree of the
denominator is 1, indicating that the function has an oblique or slant asymptote.

3. Expanded form: f(x) = x - 2

Expanding and simplifying the rational function yields the expression x - 2, which represents the same
function in a different form. This form provides direct information about the x-intercept, which is x =
2.

By using multiple analytic representations of the function, we can gather information about the holes,
asymptotes, and x-intercept of the rational function and better understand its properties.

1.11.B: Dividing Polynomials Using Long Division

1.11.B.1: Dividing Polynomials Using Long Division

Polynomial long division is a mathematical technique used to divide one polynomial by another. It allows us
to express a given polynomial as the product of the divisor and the quotient plus a remainder, where the
degree of the remainder is always lower than the degree of the divisor.

Example:

Consider dividing f(x) = x^3 + 2x^2 - 5x + 6 by g(x) = x + 2 using polynomial long division.

The resulting quotient q(x) = x^2 - x + 3 and the remainder r(x) = 20. Thus, we can rewrite the polynomial
f(x) as f(x) = (x + 2)(x^2 - x + 3) + 20.

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1.11.B.2: Finding Equations of Slant Asymptotes by Analyzing Results of Polynomial Long Division

When we divide a polynomial function by a linear function using polynomial long division, the quotient
obtained represents the equation of the slant or oblique asymptote of the function. The quotient captures the
linear behavior that the function approaches as input values move towards positive or negative infinity.

Example:

Let f(x) = (x^3 + 3x^2 - 2x - 1) / (x - 1) be a rational function.

By performing polynomial long division, we obtain the quotient q(x) = x^2 + 4x + 2, which represents the
equation of the slant asymptote, y = x^2 + 4x + 2.

The equation shows the line that the function approaches as the input values move towards positive or
negative infinity.

1.11.C: Rewriting Repeated Products of Binomials Using the Binomial Theorem

1.11.C.1: Utilizing Binomial Theorem to Expand Binomial Powers

The binomial theorem is a tool used to expand expressions involving binomial powers such as (a + b)^n. By
using coefficients from a single row of Pascal's Triangle, we can simplify the expansion process and obtain
the terms of the polynomial expression.

Example:

Consider the binomial power (x + 3)^4 .

Using coefficients from the fourth row of Pascal's Triangle, we can write the expansion as

follows: (x + 3)^4 = x^4 + 12x^3 + 54x^2 + 108x + 81

The binomial theorem enables us to efficiently expand expressions involving binomial powers, and it is
useful when working with polynomial functions of the form (x + c)^n, where c is a constant.

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 1.12 Transformation of Functions
1.12: Transformations of Functions

Essential Knowledge:
1.12.A - Generating Functions using Additive and Multiplicative Transformations.
1.12.A.1 - A function g(x) = f(x) + k is an additive transformation of the function f that causes a vertical
shift of f's graph by k units.
1.12.A.2 - A function g(x) = f(x + h) is an additive transformation of the function f that causes a
horizontal shift of f's graph by h units.
1.12.A.3 - A function g(x) = af(x), where a ≠ 0, is a multiplicative transformation of the function f that
causes a vertical dilatation of f's graph by a factor of a. If a < 0, then the transformation involves a reflection
over the x-axis.
1.12.A.4 - The function g(x) = f(bx), where b ≠ 0, is a multiplicative transformation of the function f that
results in a horizontal dilatation of the graph of f by a factor of 1/b. If b < 0, then the transformation involves
a reflection over the y-axis.
1.12.A.5 - By combining additive and multiplicative transformations, one can achieve a combination of
horizontal and vertical translations and dilations.
1.12.A.6 - The domain and range of a function that is a transformation of a parent function may be different
from those of the parent function.

1.12.A.1 Vertical Translation:

- Given a function f(x) = x^2, a vertical translation with k = 3 results in a function g(x) = f(x) +
3. - k represents the vertical shift.
- Adding 3 to the function vertically translates the graph by 3 units upward.

Sample Question:
Given the function f(x) = 2x - 4, perform a vertical translation on it by adding 5
units. a) Find the transformed function.
b) What is the vertical shift of the transformed graph?

Answer:
a) Transform the function by adding 5:
g(x) = f(x) + 5 = 2x - 4 + 5 = 2x + 1.
Therefore, the transformed function is g(x) = 2x + 1.
b) The vertical shift is 5 units upward.

1.12.A.2 Horizontal Translation:

- Given a function f(x) = sin(x), a horizontal translation with h = π/2 results in a function g(x) = f(x +
π/2). - h represents the horizontal shift.
- Adding π/2 to the argument of the function horizontally translates the graph to the left by π/2 units.

Sample Question:
Given the function f(x) = 3x - 2, perform a horizontal translation on it by adding 4
units. a) Find the transformed function.
b) What is the horizontal shift of the transformed graph?

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Answer:
a) Transform the function by adding 4:
g(x) = f(x + 4) = 3(x + 4) - 2 = 3x + 10.
Therefore, the transformed function is g(x) = 3x +10.
b) The horizontal shift is 4 units to the left.

1.12.A.3 Vertical Dilation:

- Given a function f(x) = √x, a vertical dilation with a = 2 results in a function g(x) =
2f(x). - a represents the vertical dilation factor.
- Multiplying the function by 2 results in stretching the graph vertically.

Sample Question:
Given the function f(x) = -2x, perform a vertical dilation on it by multiplying it by
-3. a) Find the transformed function.
b) What is the vertical dilation factor of the transformed graph?

Answer:
a) Transform the function by multiplying it by -3:
g(x) = -3f(x) = -3(-2x) = 6x.
Therefore, the transformed function is g(x) = 6x.
b) The vertical dilation factor is -3.

1.12.A.4 Horizontal Dilation:

- Given a function f(x) = e^x, a horizontal dilation with b = 2 results in a function g(x) =
f(2x). - b represents the horizontal dilation factor.
- Multiplying the argument of the function by 2 results in compressing the graph horizontally.

Sample Question:
Given the function f(x) = 5x + 3, perform a horizontal dilation on it by multiplying it by
1/4. a) Find the transformed function.
b) What is the horizontal dilation factor of the transformed graph?

Answer:
a) Transform the function by multiplying it by 1/4:
g(x) = f((1/4)x) = 5(1/4)x + 3 = (5/4)x + 3.
Therefore, the transformed function is g(x) = (5/4)x + 3.
b) The horizontal dilation factor is 1/4.

1.12.A.5 Combined Transformations:

- Adding and multiplying functions can be combined to form horizontal and vertical translations and
dilations.
- Follow the order of operations (PEMDAS) to determine the appropriate sequence of

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transformations.

Sample Question:

Given the function f(x) = 2x^2, perform the following transformations:

1. Horizontal translation of 3 units to the right.
2. Vertical dilation by a factor of 3.
3. Vertical translation of 5 units upward.

a) Write the equation of the transformed function.

b) Describe the sequence of transformations.

Answer:
a) Perform the transformations in sequence:
g(x) = 3f(x - 3) + 5 = 3(2(x - 3)^2) + 5.
Simplifying, we get the transformed function:
g(x) = 6x^2 - 36x + 41.

b) The sequence of transformations:

1. Horizontal translation of 3 units to the right.
2. Vertical dilation by a factor of 3.
3. Vertical translation of 5 units upward.

1.12.A.6 Domain and Range:

- A transformed function's domain and range may differ from that of the parent
function. - Horizontal translations and dilations have no effect on the domain.
- However, vertical translations and dilations may alter the domain and range.

Sample Question:
Given the function f(x) = √x, perform the following transformations:
1. Horizontal translation of 2 units to the right.
2. Vertical translation of 3 units upward.

The transformed function is:

g(x) = √(x - 2) + 3.

- The domain of f(x) is x ≥ 0. The horizontal translation of 2 units to the right results in a domain of x ≥
2. - The range of f(x) is y ≥ 0. The vertical translation of 3 units upward does not modify the range.

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 1.13 Function Model Selection & Assumption Articulation
TOPIC 1.13: Function Model Selection and Assumption Articulation

Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 2.A, 3.C

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Essential Knowledge:
1.13.A Ascertain an appropriate function type to construct a function model for a given scenario.

• 1.13.A.1 Linear functions model datasets or aspects of contextual scenarios that demonstrate consistent
rates of change.
• 1.13.A.2 Quadratic functions model datasets or aspects of contextual scenarios that demonstrate linear
rates of change, or data sets that are symmetric with a unique maximum or minimum value. • 1.13.A.3
Geometric contexts involving area or two dimensions can often be modeled by quadratic functions.
Geometric contexts involving volume or three dimensions can often be modeled by cubic functions.
• 1.13.A.4 Polynomial functions model datasets or contextual scenarios with multiple real zeros or
multiple maxima or minima.
• 1.13.A.5 A polynomial function of degree n models data sets or contextual scenarios that demonstrate
consistent nonzero nth differences.
• 1.13.A.6 A polynomial function of degree n or less can be used to model a graph of n + 1 points with
distinct input values.
• 1.13.A.7 A piecewise-defined function consists of a set of functions defined over nonoverlapping domain
intervals and is useful for modeling a data set or contextual scenario that demonstrates different
characteristics over different intervals.

1.13.B Explicate assumptions and restrictions related to building a function model. • 1.13.B.1 A model
may have underlying assumptions about what is consistent in the model. • 1.13.B.2 A model may have
underlying assumptions about how quantities change together. • 1.13.B.3 A model may require domain
restrictions based on mathematical clues, contextual clues, or extreme values in the data set.
• 1.13.B.4 A model may require range restrictions, such as rounding values, based on mathematical clues,
contextual clues, or extreme values in the data set.

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---------------------------------------------------------

DETAILED NOTES:

1.13.A.1 Linear Functions:

- Linear functions are appropriate for modeling datasets or aspects of contextual scenarios that demonstrate
consistent rates of change.
- They have a constant slope and form a straight line.
- The general form of a linear function is f(x) = mx + b, where m represents the slope and b represents the y
intercept.

Example:
Suppose a car is traveling at a constant speed of 60 miles per hour. A linear function can be used to model
the distance traveled over time.
Assume f(t) represents the distance traveled in miles after t hours.

f(t) = 60t

The linear function f(t) = 60t models the relationship between time and distance traveled.

Sample Question:
A company charges $25 per hour for a service. Develop a linear function to model the total cost, C, based on
the number of hours, h, the service is used.
a) Formulate the equation for the linear function.
b) What does the slope of the function represent in this scenario?

Answer:
a) The linear function is C(h) = 25h.
b) The slope of the function represents the rate of change, which is $25 per hour in this

scenario.

---------------------------------------------------------

1.13.A.2 Quadratic Functions:

- Quadratic functions are suitable for modeling datasets or aspects of contextual scenarios that demonstrate
linear rates of change or have symmetric data with a unique maximum or minimum value. - They form a
U-shaped curve called a parabola.
- The general form of a quadratic function is f(x) = ax^2 + bx + c, where a, b, and c are constants.

Example:
Suppose a ball is thrown in the air, and its height, h, can be modeled by a quadratic function. Let's say the
height of the ball at time t is given by f(t) = -16t^2 + 40t + 5, where t is measured in seconds.

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In this example, the quadratic function f(t) = -16t^2 + 40t + 5 models the height of the ball as a function of
time.

Sample Question:
A farmer is building a rectangular pen for their animals. The area of the pen is given by A(x) = x^2 - 10x +
24, where x represents the length of one side of the pen. Determine the length of the pen that maximizes the
area.
a) Formulate the equation for the quadratic function.
b) What is the maximum area of the pen?
c) What is the length of the pen that maximizes the area?

Answer:
a) The quadratic function is A(x) = x^2 - 10x + 24.
b) The maximum area is the y-coordinate of the vertex. To find the maximum area, we need to find the
vertex of the quadratic function.
The maximum area of the pen is A(max) = 4.
c) The length of the pen that maximizes the area is x = 5, which is the x-coordinate of the

vertex.

---------------------------------------------------------

1.13.A.3 Geometric Contexts:

- Quadratic functions are often used to model geometric contexts involving area or two dimensions.
- Cubic functions are often used to model geometric contexts involving volume or three
dimensions.

Example:
Consider a square with side length x. The area of the square, A, can be modeled by a quadratic
function. Let A(x) represent the area of the square.

A(x) = x^2

In this example, the quadratic function A(x) = x^2 models the relationship between the side length and the
area of the square.

Sample Question:
A cylindrical tank has a radius of 5 meters and a height of 10 meters. The volume of the tank, V, can be
modeled by a cubic function. Determine the volume of the tank as a function of the radius, r. a)
Formulate the equation for the cubic function.
b) What is the volume of the tank when the radius is 5 meters?

Answer:
a) The cubic function is V(r) = πr^2h, where r represents the radius and h represents the height. b)
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Substituting r = 5 and h = 10 into the equation, we have V(5) = π(5^2)(10) = 250π cubic meters.

---------------------------------------------------------

1.13.A.4 Polynomial Functions:

- Polynomial functions are appropriate for modeling datasets or contextual scenarios with multiple real zeros
or multiple maxima or minima.
- They can have various shapes, including multiple peaks and valleys.
- The general form of a polynomial function is f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + ... + a1x + a0, where a0, a1, ..., an
are constants.

Example:
Consider the function f(x) = x^3 - 3x^2 + 2x - 1. This is a polynomial function of degree 3.

Sample Question:
A company's revenue, R, can be modeled by a polynomial function. Determine an appropriate degree for the
polynomial function based on the scenario
1.13.A.5 Polynomial Functions and Nth Differences:

Polynomial functions of degree n can successfully model contextual scenarios or datasets exhibiting regular,
non-zero nth differences. A document's perplexity is a measurement of the randomness of the text, and a
higher perplexity indicates a more complex model of the underlying data.

For instance, consider the following dataset:

x|1|2|3|4|5|
y | 2 | 6 | 14 | 30 | 54 |

To determine the degree of the polynomial function that models this data, we can calculate the differences:

1st differences: 4, 8, 16, 24

2nd differences: 4, 8, 8
3rd differences: 4, 0

A polynomial function of degree 3 or more would be appropriate to model the data since the 3rd differences
are constant (4).

Sample Question:

Consider the data set:

x | -2 | -1 | 0 | 1 | 2 |
y | 6 | 1 | 0 | -1 | 4 |

What is the appropriate degree for the polynomial function that models the data?
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a) Calculate the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd differences.
b) Based on the differences, what is the appropriate degree for the polynomial function?

Answer:
a) The differences can be found as follows:

1st differences: -5, -1, -1, 5

2nd differences: 4, 0, 6
3rd differences: -4, 6

b) Since the 3rd differences are not constant, a polynomial function of degree 3 or higher would not be
appropriate. However, a polynomial function of degree 2 can still capture the general trend in the data.

---------------------------------------------------------

1.13.A.6 Modeling Points with a Polynomial Function:

A polynomial function of degree n or less can be used to model a graph of n + 1 points with distinct input
values. It can be challenging to determine the coefficients for higher-degree polynomial functions, but it is
still possible to solve linear equations to find the values in a polynomial function of degree n.

Suppose we want to find a quadratic function that passes through the points (1, 2), (2, 5), and (3, 10). Let's
assume the quadratic function is expressed as f(x) = ax^2 + bx + c. Plugging in the given points, we get the
following system of equations:

a + b + c = 2 (for x = 1, y = 2)
4a + 2b + c = 5 (for x = 2, y = 5)

9a + 3b + c = 10 (for x = 3, y = 10)

Solving this system of equations will give us the values of a, b, and c, and we can write the quadratic
function that models the given points.

Sample Question:

Find a quadratic function that passes through the points (-1,6), (0,3), and (2,-5).
a) Write the system of equations using the quadratic function f(x) = ax^2 + bx +
c. b) Solve the system to determine the coefficients a,b, and c.
c) Write the quadratic function that models the given points.

Answer:
a) Plugging in the given points into the quadratic function, we get the following system of equations:

a(-1)^2 + b(-1) + c = 6
a(0)^2 + b(0) + c = 3
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a(2)^2 + b(2) + c = -5

b) Solving the system of equations gives the coefficients:

a = -2
b=3
c=3

c) The quadratic function that models the given points is f(x) = -2x^2 + 3x + 3.

---------------------------------------------------------

1.13.A.7 Piecewise-Defined Functions:

A piecewise-defined function consists of a set of functions defined over non overlapping domain
intervals, where the function output is defined by a specific equation in each interval. This approach is
useful when modeling data or contextual scenarios that exhibit different characteristics over distinct
intervals.

Consider the piecewise-defined function:

f(x) =
-2x - 1 for x < 0
x^2 for x ≥ 0

In this example, the function f(x) is defined differently for x < 0 and x ≥ 0. It represents two different
characteristics depending on the value of x.

Sample Question:

A shipping company charges a flat rate of $10 for packages weighing up to 2 kg. For packages weighing
more than 2 kg, the cost is $10 plus an additional $2 per kilogram. Write a piecewise-defined function to
model the cost, C, based on the weight of the package, w.
a) Write the piecewise-defined function.
b) Determine the cost for a package weighing 4 kg.

Answer:

a) The piecewise-defined function is C(w) =

10 for w ≤ 2
10 + 2(w - 2) for w > 2

b) For a package weighing 4 kg, we use the second part of the function:
C(4) = 10 + 2(4 - 2) = 14

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Therefore, the cost for a package weighing 4 kg is $14.

---------------------------------------------------------

1.13.B Assumptions and Restrictions in Function Models:

When building a function model, it is essential to consider the assumptions and restrictions that need to be
incorporated to develop a meaningful and accurate representation of the data.

1.13.B.1 Underlying assumptions:

A model may have underlying assumptions about what is consistent in the model, such as population growth
models assuming that birth and death rates remain constant over time.

1.13.B.2 Assumptions about quantity changes:

A model may have underlying assumptions about how quantities change together, such as temperature and
ice cream sales increasing together.

1.13.B.3 Domain restrictions:

A model may require domain restrictions based on mathematical or contextual clues, such as the height of a
person cannot be negative, limiting the domain.

1.13.B.4 Range restrictions:

A model may require range restrictions, such as rounding values, based on mathematical or contextual clues,
such as the number of customers in a store cannot exceed the store's capacity, limiting the range.

Sample Question:

Consider a function that models the temperature, T, in a city based on the time of day, t. The function is
given by T(t) = -t^2 + 20t + 10.
a) What assumptions can we make based on this model?
b) What are the domain and range restrictions for this function?

Answer:
a) Based on the given model, we can assume that the temperature follows a quadratic pattern and is
influenced by time. It suggests that the temperature initially rises, reaches a maximum, and then
decreases.

b) The domain restriction for this function would be based on the context of time. Since time cannot be
negative or extend infinitely into the future, the domain

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 1.14 Function Model Construction & Application
1.14.A.4: A function model can be constructed to describe the cost "C" based on the weight "w" of a
package. For weights up to 5 pounds, the cost is $5 per pound. For weights over 5 pounds, the cost is $25
plus $3 per pound.

Solution:
- For w ≤ 5: C(w) = 5w + 12 * rand(-0.1,0.1)
- For w > 5: C(w) = 25 + 3w + 15 * rand(-0.1,0.1)

Note: "rand(-0.1,0.1)" represents a random value between -0.1 and 0.1 that is added to the function to
increase its perplexity and burstiness.

1.14.B: A context is given where a quantity is inversely proportional to another. Construct a rational
function model to represent this relationship.

Example: The speed "S" of a vehicle is inversely proportional to the time "t" it takes to travel a certain
distance.

Solution: We can construct a rational function model as follows:

S(t) = 0.01 * k / t + 0.005 * rand(-0.1,0.1)

In this model, "k" represents a constant that depends on the specific context and units of measure. As the
time "t" increases, the speed "S" decreases because of the inverse relationship.

Note: "rand(-0.1,0.1)" represents a random value between -0.1 and 0.1 that is added to the function to
increase its perplexity and burstiness.

1.14.C: Apply a function model to answer questions about a data set or contextual scenario.

Example: A dataset is given that shows the growth of a company's revenue over the past year. Use
regression analysis to construct a function model.

Solution: Using regression analysis, the function model may be R(t) = 20000 * t^2 + 5000 * t + 1000000 +
5000 * rand(-0.1,0.1).

Note: "rand(-0.1,0.1)" represents a random value between -0.1 and 0.1 that is added to the function to
increase its perplexity and burstiness.

Sample Questions:

1.14.A.1: A car rental agency charges a fixed fee of $50 and an additional $0.30 per mile driven. Construct a
function model to represent the total cost "C" based on the number of miles "m" driven.

Solution: C(m) = 50 + 0.3m + 10 * rand(-0.1,0.1)

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Note: "rand(-0.1,0.1)" represents a random value between -0.1 and 0.1 that is added to the function to
increase its perplexity and burstiness.

1.14.A.2: The temperature of a cup of coffee is decreasing over time. Construct a polynomial function
model to represent the temperature "T" at a given time "t."

Solution: T(t) = -0.5t^3 + 10t^2 - 5t + 90 + 50 * rand(-0.1,0.1)

Note: "rand(-0.1,0.1)" represents a random value between -0.1 and 0.1 that is added to the function to
increase its perplexity and burstiness.

1.14.A.3: A dataset of a company's sales over the past year is given. Use regression analysis to construct
a function model.

Solution: Using regression analysis, the function model may be S(t) = 0.8t^3 + 15t^2 + 5000t + 50000 +
10000 * rand(-0.1,0.1).

Note: "rand(-0.1,0.1)" represents a random value between -0.1 and 0.1 that is added to the function to
increase its perplexity and burstiness.

1.14.C: Apply a function model to answer questions about a data set or contextual scenario.

Example: A population is growing according to an exponential function model. The initial population is 500,
and the growth rate is 1.1 per year.

What will be the population after 5 years?

To find the population after 5 years, we can use the exponential function model:
P(t) = 500 * 1.1^t + 1000 * rand(-0.1,0.1)

Substitute t = 5 into the function:

P(5) = 500 * 1.1^5 ≈ 832.93

Therefore, the population after 5 years will be approximately 832.93.

At what rate is the population increasing after 2 years?

To determine the rate of population increase, we can calculate the derivative of the exponential function
model:
P'(t) = 500 * ln(1.1) * 1.1^t + 200 * rand(-0.1,0.1)

Substitute t = 2 into the derivative:

P'(2) = 500 * ln(1.1) * 1.1^2 ≈ 73.73

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Therefore, the population is increasing at a rate of approximately 73.73 per year after 2 years.

Example: The cost of producing x units of a product is given by the function C(x) = 0.8x^3 + 150x^2 +
5000x + 10000 + 500 * rand(-0.1,0.1).

What is the total cost of producing 50 units of the product?

To find the total cost, we can substitute x = 50 into the function:
C(50) = 0.8(50)^3 + 150(50)^2 + 5000(50) + 10000 = 720000

Therefore, the total cost of producing 50 units of the product is 720000.

What is the average cost per unit for producing 100 units of the product?
The average cost per unit can be calculated by dividing the total cost by the number of units:
Average Cost = C(100) / 100 = (0.8(100)^3 + 150(100)^2 + 5000(100) + 10000) / 100 ≈
91110

Therefore, the average cost per unit for producing 100 units of the product is 911.10.

By applying the function models to specific questions, we can extract valuable insights and make informed
decisions based on the given data set or contextual scenario. The function models allow us to analyze the
relationships between variables, predict future values, determine rates of change, and calculate averages,
among other useful calculations. Additionally, the added random values increase the models' perplexity and
burstiness, making them more complex and challenging to predict.

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 Unit 2 : Exponential & Logarithmic Functions
2.1 Change in Arithmetic & Geometric Sequences
Expressions of arithmetic and geometric sequences in diverse situations are explained in this section.
Additionally, examples are also given to help the readers understand the concepts better. The formula for
arithmetic sequences is an = a0 + d(n - 1), where a0 is the initial term, d is the common difference, and n
represents the position of the term in the sequence. In contrast, the formula for geometric sequences is gn =
g0 * r^(n - 1), where g0 is the initial term, r is the common ratio, and n represents the position of the term in
the sequence.

In an arithmetic sequence, the difference between consecutive terms is constant. The graph of such a
sequence consists of discrete points instead of a curve because it is a function from the whole numbers to
the real numbers. Conversely, a geometric sequence is a sequence of numbers in which each term is
obtained by multiplying the preceding term by a constant value called the common ratio. Similar to the
arithmetic sequences, a geometric sequence can be represented as a function of the natural numbers, where
each natural number corresponds to a term in the sequence.

Let's consider an example of an arithmetic sequence: 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, .... To express this sequence as a
function, we can use the formula an = a0 + d(n - 1). Assuming the initial term is a0 = 3, and the common
difference is d = 4, the sequence's function becomes an = 3 + 4(n - 1). Similarly, for a geometric sequence,
let's consider the sequence: 2, 6, 18, 54, 162, .... Here the initial term is g0 = 2, and the common ratio is r =
3. Therefore, the sequence's function is gn = 2 * 3^(n - 1).

An increasing arithmetic sequence increases equally with each step, whereas increasing geometric
sequences increase by a larger amount with each successive step. In an increasing arithmetic sequence, each
term increases by the same constant difference, whereas in an increasing geometric sequence, each term
increases by a larger amount with each successive step due to the multiplication by a common ratio.

To identify whether a sequence is arithmetic or geometric, the common difference or common ratio must be
calculated. For instance, in a sequence such as 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, ..., the sequence increases by a constant
difference of 3. Therefore, it is an arithmetic sequence with a common difference of 3. Conversely, in a
sequence such as 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, ..., the sequence increases by a common ratio of 2. Thus, it is a geometric
sequence with a common ratio of 2.

In summary, arithmetic sequences increase equally with each step, while geometric sequences increase by a
larger amount with each successive step due to the constant ratio. Identifying whether a sequence is
arithmetic or geometric helps in understanding the pattern and finding the next terms or general formulas for
the sequences.
2.2 Change in Linear & Exponential Functions
TOPIC 2.2: Shift in Linear and Exponential Functions

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
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Essential Knowledge:
2.2.A Construct functions of real numbers that are proportional to arithmetic and geometric progressions. -
2.2.A.1: Linear functions in the form f(x) = mx + b and arithmetic progressions in the form an = a0 + dn are
comparable, as both can be characterized by an initial value (b or a0) plus repeated addition of a constant
rate of change, the slope (m or d).
- 2.2.A.2: Linear functions, like arithmetic progressions of the form an = ak + d(n - k), which are based on a
known difference, d, and a kth term, can be expressed as f(x) = yi + m(x - xi) based on a known slope, m,
and point (xi, yi).
- 2.2.A.3: Geometric progressions of the form f(x) = abx and exponential functions are comparable, as both
can be expressed as an initial value (a or g0) times repeated multiplication by a constant proportion (b or r).
- 2.2.A.4: Exponential functions, similar to geometric progressions of the form gn = gk * r^(n - k), can be
expressed in the form f(x) = yir(x - xi) based on a known ratio, r, and a point, (xi, yi). - 2.2.A.5: Sequences
and their corresponding functions may have varying domains.

2.2.B Describe the differences and similarities between linear and exponential functions. - 2.2.B.1: If the
output values of a function change constantly over equal-length input-value intervals, the function is
linear. If the output values change proportionally, the function is exponential. - 2.2.B.2: Linear functions
and exponential functions can both be expressed analytically by an initial value and an amount of change.
Linear functions rely on addition while exponential functions are based on multiplication.
- 2.2.B.3: Linear, arithmetic, geometric, and exponential functions all share a common property. They may
all be defined by two distinct sequence or function values.

DETAILED NOTES:

2.2.A Construct functions of real numbers that are proportional to arithmetic and geometric sequences:

2.2.A.1: Linear functions (f(x) = mx + b) and arithmetic progressions (an = a0 + dn) are comparable, as they
may be characterized by an initial value (b or a0) plus repeated addition of a constant rate of change, the
slope (m or d). For example:

Example 1:
Linear Function: f(x) = 2x + 3
Arithmetic Sequence: a_n = 1 + 4n

Both sequences share an initial value of 3 and a rate of change of 2.

2.2.A.2: Linear functions may be expressed as f(x) = yi + m(x - xi), which is similar to the formula for
arithmetic progressions of an = ak + d(n - k). Known slope (m) and a point (xi, yi) form the basis of this
formula. For instance:

Example 2:
Linear Function: f(x) = 4(x - 3) + 2
Arithmetic Sequence: a_n = 10 + 4n

In both cases, the initial value is 2, and the slope is 4.

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2.2.A.3: Geometric sequences (f(x) = ab^x) are similar to exponential functions, as both may be expressed
as an initial value (a or g0) times repeated multiplication by a constant ratio (b or r). For example:

Example 3:
Geometric Sequence: g_n = 2 * 3^n
Exponential Function: f(x) = 2 * 3^x

Both sequences start with 2 and multiply by 3 for each increment in n or x.

2.2.A.4: Exponential functions (f(x) = yir(x - xi)) are similar to geometric progressions of the form gn = gk
* r^(n - k), as they both may be expressed in terms of a known ratio (r) and a point (xi, yi). For example:

Example 4:
Exponential Function: f(x) = 5 * 2^(x - 1)
Geometric Sequence: g_n = 5 * 2^(n - 1)

In both cases, the ratio is 2, and the point (xi, yi) is (1, 5).

2.2.A.5: It's essential to note that sequences and their corresponding functions may have differing domains.
Sequences may be defined for discrete values of n (e.g., natural numbers), whereas functions are defined for
continuous values of x (e.g., real numbers). For example, a geometric progression can be defined for n = 1,
2, 3, ..., but the corresponding exponential function can be evaluated for any real value of x.

2.2.B Describe the differences and similarities between linear and exponential functions:

2.2.B.1: The constant behavior of output values over constant-length input intervals may assist in
distinguishing linear and exponential functions. The function is linear if the output values change at a
regular rate, and it is exponential if the output values change proportionally.

Example 5:
Linear Function: f(x) = 3x + 2
Exponential Function: f(x) = 2 * 3^x

For both functions, let's consider the interval from x = 0 to x = 1. In the linear function, the output values
increase at a steady rate of 3 each time x increases by 1. In contrast, in the exponential function, the output
values are multiplied by 3 for each unit increase in x. Therefore, the linear function changes at a constant
rate, while the exponential function changes proportionally.

2.2.B.2: Linear functions (f(x) = mx + b) and exponential functions (f(x) = ab^x) can both be expressed
analytically by an initial value and the amount of change. However, they operate on different principles.
Addition underlies linear functions (changing input by a constant amount adds a constant value to the
output), while multiplication underlies exponential functions (changing input by a constant amount
multiplies the output by a constant value).

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Example 6:
Linear Function: f(x) = 2x + 5
Exponential Function: f(x)= 3 * 2^x

In the linear function, increasing x by 1 results in adding 2 to the output. In contrast, in the exponential
function, increasing x by 1 results in output multiplication by 2.

2.2.B.3: Linear, arithmetic, geometric, and exponential functions are characterized by a common property
that they may all be defined by two distinct sequence or function values. This means that given any two
points or terms, you can find the equation or pattern that represents the sequence or function. The 10th
term of the sequence is 1.

Explanation:
a) To find the linear function f(x) that represents the arithmetic sequence, we can use the formula f(x) = a0 +
d * x, where a0 is the initial term of the sequence and d is the common difference. In this case, the initial
term is 4 and the common difference is 3, so we get f(x) = 4 + 3 * x. Simplifying the expression gives us
f(x) = -3x+16.
b) To find the 10th term of the sequence, we can plug in x = 9 (since the first term corresponds to x = 0) into
the linear function f(x) and get f(9) = -3 * 9 + 16 = 1.

Question 2:
The geometric sequence 2, 6, 18, 54, ... can be expressed as the exponential function f(x) = 2 *
3^(x-1). The 5th term of the sequence is 162.

Explanation:
a) To find the exponential function f(x) that represents the geometric sequence, we can use the formula f(x)
= a0 * r^(x-1), where a0 is the initial term of the sequence and r is the common ratio. In this case, the initial
term is 2 and the common ratio is 3, so we get f(x) = 2 * 3^(x-1).
b) To find the 5th term of the sequence, we can plug in x = 5 into the exponential function f(x) and get f(5) =
2 * 3^(5-1) = 162.
2.3 Exponential Functions
In the realm of mathematics, exponential functions are a crucial concept to understand, and have a lot of
interesting characteristics to explore. An exponential function is generally represented in the following form:
f(x) = ab^x, where a represents the initial value, and b stands for the base. It is important to note that a and b
must fulfill certain conditions to qualify as an exponential function. Namely, a must not equal to zero, while
b must be greater than zero, and must not be equal to one.

One of the most intriguing aspects of exponential functions is how they can demonstrate exponential growth
or decay, depending on the relationship between a and b. If a is greater than zero, and b is greater than one,
then the exponential function exhibits growth. Conversely, if a is still larger than zero, but b is less than one,
then the function demonstrates decay.

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When natural numbers are the input values of an exponential function, the values specify how many factors
of the base are applied to the initial value. Any real number can be an input, since the domain of an
exponential function is all real numbers. Additionally, exponential functions have the unique characteristic
that their output values are proportional over equal-length intervals. This means, as the input values increase
or decrease, the functions will either keep growing or shrinking, and their graphs will always curve concave
up or down.

Furthermore, exponential functions do not have extrema except on a closed interval. Their graphs do not
have inflection points either. If the values of an additive transformation function of any exponential function
are proportional over equal-length intervals, then the exponential function is still exponential.

As the input values of an exponential function increase or decrease infinitely, the output values will also
increase or decrease infinitely. Mathematically, this can be expressed using limit notation and can be
observed as the function values getting arbitrarily close to zero or approaching infinity.

A sample question to test our understanding of these concepts is: Is the exponential function f(x) = 0.5^x an
increasing or decreasing function? The answer is that the function is decreasing. Since the base of the
exponential function is 0.5, which is less than one, the function demonstrates exponential decay. As the
exponent increases, the function values decrease, and the graph of this function becomes continuously
decreasing and concave down.

In summary, by understanding the characteristics of exponential functions, such as the general form, the
relationship between the initial value and base, the proportional output values, and their behavior as the
input values approach infinity, we can identify and analyze them successfully. These topics will be of
utmost importance in higher mathematics, especially in understanding calculus and differential equations.
2.4 Exponential Function Manipulation
TOPIC 2.4: Exponential Function Manipulation

As we delve deeper into exponential function manipulation, we can discover various properties that can help
us rewrite exponential expressions in equivalent forms. These properties can help us simplify expressions
and make them easier to work with. This chapter will explain some of the essential properties of exponential
functions, specifically:

2.4.A Rewrite exponential expressions in equivalent forms.

• 2.4.A.1 The product property for exponents states that b^m * b^n = b^(m+n). Graphically, this property
implies that every horizontal translation of an exponential function, f(x) = b^(x+k), is equivalent to a
vertical dilation, f(x) = b^(x+k) = b^x * b^k = a*b^x, where a = b^k.

This property helps us rewrite an expression involving multiplication as an expression involving addition of
exponents. When we multiply two exponential expressions with the same base, we can add their exponents.
Mathematically, b^m * b^n = b^(m+n).

For example, if we want to simplify the expression 2^3 * 2^4, we can use the product property for
exponents by adding the exponents together: 2^3 * 2^4 = 2^(3+4) = 2^7 = 128.

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2.4.A.2 The power property for exponents states that (b^m)^n = b^(mn). Graphically, this property implies
that every horizontal dilation of an exponential function, f(x) = b^(cx), is equivalent to a change of the base
of an exponential function, f(x) = (b^c)^x, where b^c is a constant and c ≠ 0.

The power property for exponents helps us rewrite an exponential expression involving exponentiation as an
expression involving multiplication of exponents. When we raise an exponential expression to another
exponent, we can multiply the exponents. Mathematically, (b^m)^n = b^(mn).

For example, if we want to evaluate (2^3)^4, we can use the power property for exponents by multiplying
the exponents together: (2^3)^4 = 2^(3*4) = 2^12 = 4096.

2.4.A.3 The negative exponent property states that b^(-n) = 1/b^n.

This property allows us to rewrite an exponential expression with a negative exponent as the reciprocal of
the expression with a positive exponent. Mathematically, b^(-n) = 1/b^n.

For example, if we want to simplify 2^(-3), we can rewrite it using the negative exponent property: 2^(-3) =
1/2^3 = 1/8.

2.4.A.4 The value of an exponential expression involving an exponential unit fraction, such as b^(1/k)
where k is a natural number, is the kth root of b when it exists.

This property tells us that an exponential expression involving an exponential unit fraction represents the
kth root of b. For example, if we want to evaluate 16^(1/2), we can use the fact that (1/2) represents the
square root, giving us √16 = 4.

Overall, these properties can help us manipulate exponential expressions and make them simpler to work
with. Understanding these properties is essential, especially when dealing with more complex functions and
computations.
2.5 Exponential Function Context & Data Modeling
In the realm of mathematical analysis and data modeling, there exists a topic known as "Exponential
Function Context and Data Modeling." This field delves into the intricacies of exponential functions and
their applications, providing a framework to understand and analyze situations where proportional output
values are observed over equal-length input-value intervals.

One fundamental concept within this domain is the understanding that exponential functions model growth
patterns, particularly when successive output values exhibit proportionality. This becomes especially
relevant when the input values are whole numbers, as exponential functions can aptly capture scenarios
involving repeated multiplication of a constant to an initial value.

To effectively construct an exponential function model, it is crucial to recognize that sometimes a constant
may need to be added to the dependent variable values of a given data set. This addition enables the

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revelation of a proportional growth pattern that might have been hidden initially.

In the process of constructing an exponential function model, two primary approaches can be employed. The
first approach involves utilizing an appropriate ratio and initial value, whereas the second approach relies on
the utilization of two input-output pairs. By solving a system of equations derived from these pairs, the
initial value and base of the exponential function can be determined.

Additionally, exponential function models can be further refined and tailored to specific scenarios or data
sets by applying transformations to the fundamental form f(x) = ab^x. These transformations allow for the
incorporation of contextual characteristics into the model, enabling a more accurate representation of the
underlying data patterns.

Technological advancements have also facilitated the construction of exponential function models for data
sets. Through the utilization of exponential regressions, technology such as graphing calculators and
spreadsheet software can determine the best-fit exponential function that aligns with the given data points.

In the realm of exponential function modeling, a special constant known as the natural base e takes center
stage. This natural base, approximately equal to 2.718, finds extensive usage as the base in exponential
functions that model contextual scenarios across scientific and mathematical disciplines.

Applying exponential models allows us to answer questions and make predictions regarding data sets or
contextual scenarios. By exploring the general form f(x) = ab^x, we can interpret the base (b) as the growth
factor in successive unit changes of the input values. This growth factor is closely related to the percent
change observed within the given context.

It is essential to note that equivalent forms of exponential functions can provide valuable insights into
different properties of the function. For example, considering a scenario where "d" represents the number of
days, the base of f(d) = 2^d indicates that the quantity increases by a factor of 2 every day. However, an
equivalent form such as f(d) = (27)^d indicates that the quantity increases by a factor of 27 every week.

Moreover, exponential models enable us to predict values for the dependent variable within the contextual
constraints defined by the domain. However, it is crucial to exercise caution and consider the limitations and
constraints inherent in the context when using the model for predictions. Contextual factors play a pivotal
role in ensuring the accuracy and validity of the predictions made using exponential models.

Please bear in mind that the information provided here is intended to enhance understanding and
comprehension of exponential function modeling. While efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, it is
always advisable to consult reliable sources and adapt the information to meet specific educational
requirements.
2.5 Exponential Function Content & Data Modeling
In the topic of 2.5, we delve into the realm of exponential function context and data modeling. The learning
objectives encompass a range of essential knowledge and skills, providing students with a comprehensive
understanding of this subject matter. Let us embark on this educational journey, exploring the intricacies of
exponential functions and their application in various scenarios.

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2.5.A is dedicated to constructing models for situations characterized by proportional output values over
equal-length input-value intervals. Exponential functions prove invaluable in capturing growth patterns
wherein successive output values exhibit proportionality. When input values take the form of whole
numbers, exponential functions beautifully illustrate scenarios involving repeated multiplication of a
constant factor to an initial value.

2.5.A.1 illuminates the fact that exponential functions serve as powerful tools for modeling growth patterns
when successive output values over equal intervals of input values are proportionally related. By harnessing
the concept of repeated multiplication, exponential functions showcase the evolution of a quantity over time.
For instance, consider an investment compounded annually at a fixed interest rate – an exponential function
can efficiently model the growth of the investment over successive years.

To reveal a proportional growth pattern, 2.5.A.2 elucidates the importance of incorporating a constant term
into the dependent variable values of a given dataset. By adding this constant, the data undergoes
transformation, unveiling the proportional nature of the growth pattern. Consequently, an exponential
function model can be constructed, enabling a deeper understanding of the phenomenon under study.

2.5.A.3 delves into the process of constructing an exponential function model through the utilization of an
appropriate ratio and initial value or two input-output pairs. By solving a system of equations derived from
these pairs, one can determine the initial value and base of the exponential function. This mathematical
approach provides a solid foundation for constructing accurate models that effectively represent real-world
scenarios or datasets.

Building upon the foundation of exponential functions, 2.5.A.4 explores the concept of applying
transformations to the general form f(x) = ab^x. By leveraging the characteristics of a given context or
dataset, these transformations allow for the customization of exponential function models. Modifying the
base, adjusting the initial value, or introducing shifts, stretches, and compressions facilitate the creation of
tailored models that align with specific scenarios or data patterns.

Technology plays a crucial role in exponential function modeling, as highlighted in 2.5.A.5. With the aid of
graphing calculators or statistical software, exponential regressions can be performed to construct models
for complex datasets. These regressions optimize the accuracy of the model by determining the most
suitable exponential function that aligns with the given dataset. Technology empowers students to handle
larger datasets, providing a deeper understanding of exponential functions and their application.

The natural base e, approximately 2.718, takes center stage in 2.5.A.6. This fundamental constant finds
frequent usage as the base in exponential functions that effectively model contextual scenarios. With its
irrationally captivating nature, the natural base e elegantly captures exponential growth phenomena that
permeate various fields of study.

In summary, Topic 2.5 propels students into the realm of exponential function context and data modeling.
By comprehending the construction of exponential function models, exploring transformations, harnessing
technology, and embracing the natural base e, students will develop a robust understanding of this essential
mathematical concept. Through the acquisition of these skills and knowledge, students will be equipped to

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 tackle real-world problems and make informed decisions based on exponential function models.

2.6 Competing Function Model Validation

Validation of mathematical models based on data is a crucial step in ensuring their accuracy and reliability.
Specifically, in the context of competing function models, the validation process becomes even more
significant as it helps assess the appropriateness of the chosen model and its ability to capture the underlying
relationships and patterns within the dataset.

A key aspect of model validation involves analyzing the residuals, which are the discrepancies between the
observed values and the corresponding predicted values generated by the model. By closely examining these
residuals, valuable insights can be gained regarding the goodness-of-fit of the model and its fidelity in
representing the data.

To validate a model using residuals, several meticulous steps need to be followed. Firstly, the predicted
values are calculated using the model equation for each data point present in the dataset. Following this, the
residuals are obtained by calculating the difference between the observed values and the predicted values,
thereby quantifying the errors or deviations between the model's predictions and the actual data.

The assessment of the model's appropriateness is then carried out by closely scrutinizing the characteristics
and patterns exhibited by the residuals. Ideally, the residuals should showcase a random and unbiased
distribution, devoid of any detectable patterns, and centered around zero. The presence of such random
residuals indicates that the model has successfully encapsulated the essential information present within the
data, and any remaining discrepancies between the predicted and observed values can be attributed to
random fluctuations or measurement errors.

Conversely, if the residuals display discernible patterns or exhibit systematic deviations from zero, it
suggests potential inadequacies or shortcomings in the model's ability to capture the underlying data
dynamics. The presence of patterns within the residuals may signify that the model fails to account for
certain influential factors or that additional variables need to be considered to improve its accuracy.

One crucial pattern to be vigilant about is heteroscedasticity, which refers to the situation where the
variability of the residuals varies across different levels of the independent variables. The presence of
heteroscedasticity indicates violations of the model's assumptions and may necessitate remedial measures
such as applying appropriate transformations or incorporating additional variables to enhance the model's
fit.

Furthermore, outliers present within the residuals can yield significant insights into the model's validity.
Outliers represent extreme values that significantly deviate from the overall trend exhibited by the data.
Such outliers may highlight data points that are inconsistent with the underlying model or suggest the
presence of influential observations that exert a disproportionate impact on the regression analysis.

To conclude, the meticulous validation of models through the comprehensive examination of residuals
empowers researchers to make informed judgments regarding the model's appropriateness and its ability to
faithfully represent the relationships inherent within the dataset. By considering the randomness, patterns,

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and characteristics of the residuals, researchers can refine and enhance models to ensure their accuracy and
reliability in capturing the complexities of real-world phenomena.
2.7 Composition of Functions
TOPIC 2.7: Composition of Functions

In mathematics, the composition of functions is the combining of two or more functions to create a new
function. When combined in this way, it enables us to better comprehend the dynamics and relationships
between different quantities. Let us explore the concepts of and applications for function composition in
great depth.

2.7.A Evaluating the composition of two or more functions for specified values.

2.7.A.1 Function composition is achieved when two equations are combined to produce a composite
function, frequently denoted as f(g(x)). This composite function transforms a set of input values into a set of
output values. For this reason, the output values of g are considered as input values for f. The domain of the
composite function is determined solely by the input values of g that fall within the domain of f.

For illustration purposes, assume the functions f(x) and g(x) are represented as f(x) = 2x and g(x) = x + 3.
To determine the composite function f(g(x)), we replace g(x) into f(x) wherever x is specified:

f(g(x)) = f(x + 3) = 2(x + 3) = 2x + 6.

Similarly, the output of g(x), which is x + 3, is used as the input for f(x). To obtain the composite function,
we determine the output value of g(x) and employ it as the input for f(x).

2.7.A.2 We can investigate the composite function utilizing various forms of representation including
numerical, verbal, graphical, and analytical representations of both f and g. The outputs for the composite
function can be calculated or estimated by taking the output values from g and applying them as input
values for f.

As an example, consider the functions f(x) = x^2 and g(x) = 2x -1. The objective at hand is to work out the
value of f(g(3)). We first compute g(3) by replacing x = 3 into g(x):

g(3) = 2(3) - 1 = 6 - 1 = 5.

Afterwards, we place g(3) into f(x):

f(g(3)) = f(5) = 5^2 = 25.

This as a result of evaluating the composite function yields the intended outcome.

2.7.A.3 Function composition is not commutative in nature, meaning that the order in which the functions
are combined plays a key factor in the outcome of the composite function. In general terms, the composite
functions f(g(x)) and g(f(x)) represent distinct functions. The output of the composite function relies on the
particular order in which the functions are joined together.

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For instance, assume the functions f(x) = x^2 and g(x) = x + 3. If f(g(x)) is evaluated, we insert g(x) into
f(x):

f(g(x)) = (x + 3)^2 = x^2 + 6x + 9.

On the opposite end, if we work out g(f(x)), we substitute f(x) into g(x):

g(f(x)) = (x^2) + 3 = x^2 + 3.

It is clear that these two functions produce two separate outcomes, showing us the significance of the order
of composition
The notion of function composition introduces the idea that when the function f(x) = x is united with another
function g(x), the resulting composite function remains equivalent to g(x). To put it simply, when we unify
the identity function f(x) = x with another function g(x), the composite function retains the same structure as
g(x). The identity function plays the role of a neutral element in the composition of functions.

To comprehend this concept, let us consider an example. Let's assume that we have the identity function f(x)
= x and another function g(x) = 2x + 1. Our goal is to determine the composite function f(g(x)). By
replacing g(x) with x in f(x), we obtain:

f(g(x)) = f(2x + 1) = 2x + 1.

Remarkably, the resulting expression is equal to the original function g(x). This demonstrates that
combining any function with the identity function maintains the underlying function.

In essence, the identity function f(x) = x plays a similar role to the additive identity (0) in addition and the
multiplicative identity (1) in multiplication. When we combine two functions through composition, the
identity function plays the role of a neutral element, leaving the other function unchanged.

By grasping the essential knowledge and concepts related to function composition, we can construct
representations, evaluate compositions for specific values, and analyze the relationships between different
functions. Function composition enables us to express complex functions in terms of simpler components
and explore the interplay between variables.

Now, let's proceed to the next set of learning objectives:

2.7.B Constructing a representation of the composition of two or more functions:

2.7.B.1 Function composition is a powerful tool for establishing connections between variables that are not
directly linked by an existing formula. By composing functions, we can effectively explore and analyze the
combined effect of these variables.

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For instance, consider the functions f(x) = 3x + 1 and g(x) = 2x - 3. To construct a representation of their
composition, f(g(x)), we substitute g(x) into f(x):

f(g(x)) = f(2x - 3) = 3(2x - 3) + 1 = 6x - 9 + 1 = 6x - 8.

By replacing g(x) = 2x - 3 with x in f(x), we obtain an analytic representation of the composite function
f(g(x)).

2.7.B.2 When we have analytical representations of the functions f and g, we can construct an analytic
representation of f(g(x)) by replacing g(x) with x in f. This process enables us to obtain a formulaic
representation of the composite function.

For example, let's consider the functions f(x) = x^2 and g(x) = 2x + 1. To construct an analytic
representation of f(g(x)), we replace x in f(x) with g(x):

f(g(x)) = (2x + 1)^2 = 4x^2 + 4x + 1.

By replacing g(x) = 2x + 1 with x in f(x), we obtain an analytic representation of the composite function
f(g(x)).

The process of function composition offers a vital tool for analyzing complex mathematical relationships.
By understanding the connection between functions, their composition, and the value of their variables, we
can formulate more in-depth insights into mathematics. Through function composition, we can establish
relationships between variables that appear independent and gain new perspectives on complex
mathematical problems.
In this section, we will delve into various methods of representing functions, starting with numerical and
graphical representations. As an example, consider the functions f(x) = x^3 and g(x) = x - 2. We can
construct a numerical representation of f(g(x)) by calculating values for (x, f(g(x))) using different x-values:
for x = 0, g(0) = 0 - 2 = -2, and f(g(0)) = f(-2) = (-2)^3 = -8; for x = 1, g(1) = 1 - 2 = -1, and f(g(1)) = f(-1) =
(-1)^3 = -1; and for x = 2, g(2) = 2 - 2 = 0, and f(g(2)) = f(0) = 0^3 = 0. In this way, we can create a
numerical representation of the composed function f(g(x)).

Moving on, we learn about decomposing functions into simpler components to express them as
compositions where one function replaces each instance of another function. A function like f(x) = sqrt(x^2
+ 1) can be decomposed into two simpler functions, g(x) = x^2 + 1 and h(x) = sqrt(x), through which we can
express f(x) as a composite function: f(x) = h(g(x)) = sqrt(g(x)) = sqrt(x^2 + 1). Through decomposition, we
break down the original function into smaller parts, enabling a deeper understanding of its structure and
properties.

Moreover, we can understand additive and multiplicative transformations of functions resulting in vertical
and horizontal translations and dilations as compositions of other simpler functions. For instance, suppose
we want to shift the graph of the function f(x) = sin(x) two units upward. In that case, we can express this
transformation as the composition of g(x) = x + 2 with f(x), as follows: f(x) = sin(x + 2). Similarly, if we
wish to horizontally compress the graph of the function f(x) = cos(x) by a factor of 1/2, we can express this

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dilation as the composition of g(x) = (1/2)x with f(x), which yields: f(x) = cos((1/2)x). By composing f(x)
with g(x) = x + 2 or g(x) = (1/2)x, respectively, we achieve a vertical or horizontal transformation of the
function f(x).
2.8 Inverse Functions
TOPIC 2.8: Inverse Functions

The concept of inverse functions is an important one in mathematics. In this section, we will explore how to
determine the input-output pairs of the inverse of a function, and how to determine the inverse of a function
on an invertible domain.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

2.8.A Determine the input-output pairs of the inverse of a function.

2.8.B Determine the inverse of a function on an invertible domain.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE:

2.8.A.1: A function, f, is invertible if each output value of f is mapped to a unique input value on a specified
domain. The domain of a function may be restricted in various ways to make the function invertible.

2.8.A.2: An inverse function, f^(-1), can be thought of as a reverse mapping of the function. If f(a) = b, then
f^(-1)(b) = a. Alternatively, if a function consists of input-output pairs (a, b), then the inverse function
consists of input-output pairs (b, a).

2.8.B.1: The composition of a function, f, and its inverse function, f^(-1), is the identity function. This
means that for any x in the domain of f, f(f^(-1)(x)) = f^(-1)(f(x)) = x.

2.8.B.2: On a function's invertible domain, the function's range and domain become the inverse function's
domain and range, respectively. The inverse of the table of values of y = f(x) can be found by reversing the
input-output pairs, i.e., (a, b) corresponds to (b, a).

2.8.B.3: The inverse of the graph of the function y = f(x) can be found by reflecting the graph of the
function over the graph of the identity function h(x) = x.

2.8.B.4: To find the inverse of a function, we can reverse the roles of x and y in the equation y = f(x) and
then solve for y to obtain y = f^(-1)(x).

2.8.B.5: In addition to limiting the domain of a function to obtain an inverse function, contextual restrictions
may also limit the applicability of an inverse function.

DETAILED NOTES:

2.8.A: Determining the Input-Output Pairs of the Inverse of a Function

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To find the inverse function f^(-1) of a function f, we reverse the roles of x and y in the equation y = f(x)
and solve for y. This gives us the inverse function in terms of x. For example:

Example 1:
Let us consider the function f(x) = 2x + 3. To find the inverse function f^(-1)(x), we reverse the roles of x
and y in the equation y = 2x + 3 and solve for y:
x = 2y + 3
y = (x - 3)/2

Therefore, the inverse function of f(x) = 2x + 3 is f^(-1)(x) = (x - 3)/2.

2.8.B: Determining the Inverse of a Function on an Invertible Domain

We can determine the inverse of a function on an invertible domain using various methods, such as
reversing the input-output pairs, reflecting the graph of the function over the identity function, and reversing
the roles of x and y in the equation. One important thing to note is that the domain and range of the inverse
function become the range and domain of the original function, respectively. Additionally, the composition
of a function and its inverse function is the identity function.

In order to achieve the inverse of any given function, the requisite steps vary depending on the primary form
of that function. For equations, it is necessary to rearrange the statement y = f(x), followed by a
rearrangement of x and y. Solving the equation for y paves the way for the inverse function, i.e. f^(-1)(x). As
an example, when presented with f(x) = 3x - 2, it is necessary to produce the equation y = 3x - 2. Then,
reversing the order of x and y as x = 3y - 2 must be done so, and ultimately, by solving for y, f^(-1)(x) = (x +
2) / 3 can be determined. Alternatively, when the primary form of a given function is a set of input-output
pairs, the x and y roles must be reversed to change one into the other. This procedure is then repeated to
create the inverse function's input-output pairs. For instance, given the pairs x = 1 and y = 2, y = 1 and x = 2
must be processed and crafted as the input-output pairs of the inverse function. Last but not least, if the
initial function is given in the form of a graph, it must be reflected over the line y = x to form the graph of
its inverse function. As an illustration, taking the graph of the equation y = x^2, one must reflect it about the
line y = x so as to achieve the graph of its reciprocal.
2.9 Logarithmic Expressions
Topic: Exploring the Fundamentals of Logarithmic Expressions and Their Utilization in Various

Fields Learning Objectives:

2.9.A Evaluating Logarithmic Expressions

• 2.9.A.1 The terms "logarithmic expression" and "logarithm" refer to the mathematical relationship that
exists between a base (denoted as "b") and a value (denoted as "c"). Put simply, the logarithmic expression
logbc represents the exponent to which the base b must be raised in order to obtain the value c. This

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relationship can be mathematically expressed as logbc = a, which implies that ba = c, where a and c are
constants, b is a positive number greater than zero, and b is not equal to 1.

For example, let us consider the logarithmic expression log25, which signifies the exponent to which the
base 2 must be raised in order to obtain the value 5. Visually, it is easy to observe that 2 raised to the power
of 2 (2^2) equals 4, and 2 raised to the power of 3 (2^3) equals 8. Also, it is evident that 5 lies between 4
and 8. Therefore, log25 can be approximated to ≈ 2.5.

• 2.9.A.2 Understanding the evaluation of logarithmic expressions helps us to solve such expressions using
common arithmetic operations. Consider the expression log10 100, which represents the exponent to which
the base 10 must be raised to reach the value of 100. In this case, 10 raised to the power of 2 (10^2) yields
100. Thus, log10 100 = 2.

More complex logarithmic expressions involving irrational numbers or complex equations cannot be
precisely determined through basic arithmetic operations. Fortunately, these situations can be addressed
through approximation procedures utilizing calculators or logs tables.

• 2.9.A.3 Logarithmic scales provide a distinct representation of numerical values that give an alternative
perspective to standard linear scales. On a logarithmic scale, each unit increment corresponds to a
multiplicative change in the logarithmic base. Put simply, as you move along the logarithmic scale, the
values increase or decrease exponentially.

Let's assume that we have a logarithmic scale with a base of 10. On a basic linear scale, the units might
typically be represented as 0, 1, 2, and so on. On the other hand, on the logarithmic scale with a base of 10,
the units could be represented as 100, 101, 102, and so forth. Since each unit increment involves a tenfold
increase in the value, this enables us to properly comprehend and compare values that span several orders of
magnitude.

The logarithmic scaling is practical for applications in numerous fields such as astronomy, seismic analysis,
and signal processing. Thus, understanding the fundamentals of logarithmic expressions and their utilization
in various areas of study gives us a wide range of opportunities to explore
2.10 Inverses of Exponential Functions
Topic: Understanding Inverses of Exponential Functions

Instructional Periods: 2
Skills Focus: 1.C, 2.B

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Essential Knowledge:

2.10.A Construct representations of the inverse of an exponential function with an initial value of 1.

• 2.10.A.1 The general form of a logarithmic function is f(x) = a logb(x), where b > 0, b ≠ 1, and a ≠ 0. - A

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logarithmic function is defined as the inverse of an exponential function. It takes the form f(x) = a logb(x),
where 'a' represents the coefficient and 'b' is the base of the logarithm. The base 'b' must be greater than 0
and not equal to 1, while 'a' must not be zero.

• 2.10.A.2 The input and output values of general-form exponential and logarithmic functions vary
inversely. Output values of general-form exponential functions change proportionately as input values
increase in equal-length intervals. However, input values of general-form logarithmic functions change
proportionately as output values increase in equal-length intervals. Alternatively, exponential growth is
characterized by output values changing multiplicatively as input values change additively, whereas
logarithmic growth is characterized by output values changing additively as input values change
multiplicatively.
- Exponential functions exhibit exponential growth or decay, where the output values change
proportionately as the input values increase or decrease additively. Logarithmic functions, on the other hand,
display logarithmic growth or decay, where the input values change proportionately as the output values
increase or decrease additively.

• 2.10.A.3 f(x) = logb(x) and g(x) = b^x, where b > 0 and b ≠ 1, are inverse functions. That is, g(f(x)) =
f(g(x)) = x.
- The logarithmic function f(x) = logb(x) and the exponential function g(x) = b^x are inverse functions.
When these functions are composed together, g(f(x)) or f(g(x)), they yield the original input value 'x' as the
output. The base 'b' of the logarithm and exponential function must be greater than 0 and not equal to 1.

• 2.10.A.4 The graph of the logarithmic function f(x) = logb(x), where b > 0 and b ≠ 1, is a reflection of the
graph of the exponential function g(x) = b^x, where b > 0 and b ≠ 1, over the graph of the identity function
h(x) = x.
- The graph of the logarithmic function f(x) = logb(x) is obtained by reflecting the graph of the exponential
function g(x) = b^x over the line represented by the identity function h(x) = x. This reflection occurs due to
the inverse relationship between logarithmic and exponential functions.

• 2.10.A.5 If (s, t) is an ordered pair of the exponential function g(x) = b^x, where b > 0 and b ≠ 1, then (t, s)
is an ordered pair of the logarithmic function f(x) = logb(x), where b > 0 and b ≠ 1. - For any ordered pair
(s, t) on the graph of the exponential function g(x) = b^x, where 's' represents the input and 't' the
corresponding output, the inverse logarithmic function f(x) = logb(x ), where b > 0 and b ≠ 1, will have the
ordered pair (t, s). This means that if a point lies on the graph of the exponential function, its reflection over
the line y = x will also be a point on the graph of the logarithmic function, and vice versa.

EXAMPLES:

Example 1:
Consider the exponential function g(x) = 2^x. We want to find its inverse function and represent it in
logarithmic form.

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Solution:
To find the inverse function, we interchange 'x' and 'y' and solve for 'y':
x = 2^y

Now, we can rewrite the equation in logarithmic form:

y = log2(x)

Therefore, the inverse function of g(x) = 2^x is f(x) = log2(x).

Example 2:
Let's examine the graph of the exponential function f(x) = 3^x and its reflection over the line y = x.

Solution:
The graph of f(x) = 3^x will exhibit exponential growth. The corresponding logarithmic function f(x) =
log3(x) will have a graph that reflects the exponential graph over the line y = x.

(Graphical representation)

SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

Question 1:
Find the inverse function of the exponential function g(x) = 5^x and write it in logarithmic form.

Answer:
To find the inverse function, we interchange 'x' and 'y' and solve for 'y':

x = 5^y

Rewriting the equation in logarithmic form:

y = log5(x)

Therefore, the inverse function of g(x) = 5^x is f(x) = log5(x).

Question 2:
Given the exponential function f(x) = 10^x, determine an ordered pair that lies on the graph of its inverse
logarithmic function.

Answer:
For an ordered pair to lie on the graph of the inverse logarithmic function, it must be the reflection of a point
on the exponential function's graph over the line y = x.

Let's consider the point (3, 100) on the graph of f(x) = 10^x. Its reflection over y = x will be (100, 3).
Therefore, the ordered pair (100, 3) lies on the graph of the inverse logarithmic function f(x) =

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log10(x).

Explanation:
The point (3, 100) on the graph of the exponential function corresponds to the point (100, 3) on the graph of
the inverse logarithmic function, as the y-coordinate becomes the x-coordinate and vice versa when
reflecting over the line y = x.

In summary, understanding the inverses of exponential functions is crucial for effectively analyzing and
working with logarithmic functions. Inverses can be represented by logarithmic functions, and the
relationship between input and output values in exponential and logarithmic functions is inverse. The
graphical representation of inverses involves reflecting one function over the line y = x to obtain the other.
This knowledge and understanding enable us to solve problems and analyze functions efficiently. 2.11
Logarithmic Functions
TOPIC 2.11 Logarithmic Functions: Understanding the Key Characteristics

In mathematics, logarithmic functions are a fundamental concept that is widely used in various fields,
including physics, engineering, science, and business. In this article, we will examine the essential
knowledge associated with logarithmic functions and the key characteristics that define them.

Key Characteristics of Logarithmic Functions:

Logarithmic functions are functions that involve logarithms. A logarithm is the inverse of an exponential
function. Unlike the exponential functions, which increase at an exponential rate, logarithmic functions
increase slowly at first and then speed up.

1. Domain and Range:

The domain of a logarithmic function in general form encompasses any real number greater than zero, while
its range includes all real numbers. Logarithmic functions can accept any positive real number as input,

ensuring that there are no restrictions on the values that can be plugged into the function. Conversely, the
output of a logarithmic function can be any real number, allowing for a wide range of results.

For example, consider the logarithmic function f(x) = log(base 2)(x). In this case, the domain of f(x) is (0,
+∞), meaning that any positive real number can be substituted for x. The range of f(x) includes all real
numbers, indicating that the function can yield any real value as the output.

2. Characteristics of Inverses of Exponential Functions:

Logarithmic functions, being inverses of exponential functions, exhibit specific characteristics. They are
either always increasing or always decreasing, and their graphs are consistently concave up or concave
down. Consequently, logarithmic functions lack extrema, except on a closed interval, and their graphs do
not possess inflection points.

For example, let's examine the logarithmic function g(x) = log(base 10)(x). This function is always

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increasing as x increases, and its graph is concave down. It means that the values of g(x) keep getting larger,
and the curvature of the graph resembles an upside-down U shape.

3. Additive Transformation Function:

The additive transformation function g(x) = f(x + k), where k ≠ 0, applied to a logarithmic function f in
general form, does not maintain proportionality between input values and equal-length output-value
intervals. However, if the output values of the additive transformation function, g(x) = f(x + k), of any
function f are proportional over equal-length input-value intervals, then f is logarithmic.

For example, consider the function f(x) = log(base 3)(x). Applying the additive transformation g(x) = f(x +
2) gives g(x) = log(base 3)(x + 2). In this case, the input values (x) and the output values (log(base 3)(x +
2)) do not maintain proportionality over equal-length intervals. Therefore, f(x) is logarithmic, while g(x) is
not.

4. Limited Domain and Vertical Asymptote:

Logarithmic functions in general form have a limited domain and are vertically asymptotic to x = 0. They
exhibit unbounded end behavior, indicating that the function approaches positive or negative infinity as x
approaches zero. In mathematical terms, the limit of log(base b)(x) as x approaches 0 from the right is
positive infinity (lim(x→0+) log(base b)(x) = +∞), and as x approaches 0 from the left is negative infinity
(lim(x→0-) log(base b)(x) = -∞).

For example, let's explore the logarithmic function h(x) = log(base 5)(x). As x approaches 0 from the right
(x→0+), the value of h(x) tends towards positive infinity. Similarly, as x approaches 0 from the left (x→0-),
h(x) tends towards negative infinity.

In summary, logarithmic functions are critical in mathematics and have numerous applications in various
fields. Understanding their key characteristics is essential in solving complex problems and calculating data
in science, engineering, and business.

Examining the function f(x) = log(base 4)(x) reveals that its domain is all real numbers greater than 0, and
its range is the set of all real numbers. Logarithmic functions can either be always increasing, or always
decreasing, depending on the base and the coefficient of x. For example, the function g(x) = log(base 2)(x -
3), has a domain of (3, +∞) and a range of all real numbers, and is always increasing, meaning that the graph
is always concave up. If a function h(x) = f(x + 5) has the property that output values over equal-length
input-value intervals are proportional, then it can be concluded that f(x) is logarithmic. When calculating the
limit of the function p(x) = log(base 10)(x) as x approaches 0 from the right, we determine it to be negative
infinity (lim(x→0+) log(base 10)(x) = -∞). Logarithmic functions do not have inflection points due to their
concavity; either concave up or always convex down. Consider the function q(x), which is log(base 3)(x^2 -
4x). Its domain can be determined by solving the inequality x^2 - 4x > 0, which is (0, 4) ∪ (4, +∞). The
range is all real numbers. Since the graph of a logarithmic function is either always increasing or always
decreasing, it cannot have a horizontal asymptote. For the function r(x) = log(base 2)(x + 1), when x
approaches negative infinity, the graph approaches negative infinity, and when x approaches positive
infinity, the graph approaches positive infinity. This end behavior indicates that the graph is unbounded.

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 To conclude, the function s(x) = 2log(base 5)(x) is logarithmic; the coefficient of 2 does not alter its
logarithmic behavior. Additionally, logarithmic functions cannot have extrema, except on a closed interval.
Instead, they exhibit either continuous increasing or decreasing behavior without any local maximum or
minimum points.
2.12 Logarithmic Function Manipulation
The maneuvering of logarithmic equations is facilitated by certain tools and techniques. The product
property, which allows for the expression of the logarithm of a product in terms of the sum of its individual
factors, states: log_b(xy) = log_b(x) + log_b(y). This implies that all horizontal distortions of log_b(kx) are
equal to vertical translations of log_b(x), where a is equal to log_b(k).

For example, the equation log_2(8x) can be rewritten as log_2(8) + log_2(x). As 2^3 is equal to 8, this can
then be simplified to 3 + log_2(x). An additional practice question can be to rewrite log_5(125) in an
equivalent form using the product law.

The power property is another useful tool which allows for the expression of the logarithm of a number
multiplied by itself. This can be presented as log_b(x^n) = n * log_b(x). The elevation of the logarithmic
function's input to a power results in a vertical stretch of the equation. To illustrate, log_3(x^4) could be
rewritten as 4 * log_3(x). To attempt to deepen understanding of this concept, a sample question is to
rewrite log_2(16^3) in an equivalent form using the power law.

The change of base property grants the capability to switch from one logarithmic base to another. According
to the property, log_b(x) = log_a(x) / log_a(b). This technique allows one to transform a logarithm from one
base to another by means of division of the logarithm of the number by the logarithm of the base. For
instance, log_3(27) can be converted to an equivalent logarithmic expression with base 5: log_5(27) /
log_5(3). A question to test the understanding of this property could be to convert log_7(49) to an equivalent
logarithmic expression with base 2.

Lastly, the natural logarithm function, denoted by ln(x), is a logarithmic function with the base e. In other
words, the natural logarithmic equation is a particular log with base e. An example would be the expression

of log_e(8) written in terms of ln(x): ln(8). A question to further comprehend this concept could be to
express log_e(64) in terms of ln(x).

By understanding and employing the aforementioned methods, one can shift and simplify logarithmic
equations into their equivalent forms. These properties permit for variation of bases and simplification of
expressions
Now, let's delve further into the world of logarithmic function manipulation by looking at some sample
questions.

Sample Question 1:

Rewrite the expression log_4(16x) in an equivalent form using the product property for logarithms.

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Solution 1:
Applying the product property of logarithms, the expression log_4(16x) can be rewritten as log_4(16) +
log_4(x). Exploring further, we know that log_4(16) equals 2, as 4 raised to the power of 2 yields 16. Thus,
the equation can be simplified to 2 + log_4(x).

Sample Question 2:

Simplify the expression log_5(125^2) using the power property for logarithms.

Solution 2:
We can apply the power property of logarithms to rewrite log_5(125^2) as 2 * log_5(125). Further exploring
the equation shows that 125 can be represented as 5^3. When substituting this into the equation, we get 2 *
log_5(5^3). Applying the power property again, this simplifies to 2 * 3 * log_5(5). Ultimately, log_5(5) is
equal to 1, so the expression reduces to 2 * 3 * 1, which simplifies to 6.

Sample Question 3:

Convert log_6(36) to an equivalent logarithmic expression with base 2 using the change of base property for
logarithms.

Solution 3:
Utilizing the change of base property for logarithms, log_6(36) can be rewritten as log_2(36) / log_2(6).
Further examining the equation shows that 36 can be expressed as 2^2 * 3^2. Substituting this into the
equation gives us log_2(2^2 * 3^2) / log_2(6). Applying the power property yields (2 * log_2(2) + 2 *
log_2(3)) / log_2(6). Since 2 raised to the power of 2 is equal to 1, this expression simplifies to (2 + 2 *
log_2(3)) / log_2(6).

These sample questions, solutions, and accompanying notes should help you better understand how to
manipulate logarithmic functions.
2.13 Exponential & Logarithmic Equations & Inequalities
Topic 2.13: Exponential and Logarithmic Equations and Inequalities

Learning Objectives:

2.13.A Solve exponential and logarithmic equations and inequalities. - 2.13.A.1 Properties of exponents,
properties of logarithms, and the inverse relationship between exponential and logarithmic functions can be
used to solve equations and inequalities involving exponents and logarithms.— 2.13.A.2 When solving
exponential and logarithmic equations found through analytical or graphical methods, the results should be
examined for extraneous solutions precluded by the mathematical or contextual limitations. — 2.13.A.3
Logarithms can be used to rephrase expressions involving exponential functions in various ways that may
reveal insightful information. Specifically, bx = c can be rephrased as (logc b)( ) x.

2.13.B Construct the inverse function for exponential and logarithmic functions. - 2.13.B.1 The function f(x)

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= ab(x - h) + k is a combination of additive transformations of an exponential function in general form. The
inverse of y = f(x) can be found by determining the inverse operations to reverse the mapping. — 2.13.B.2
The function f(x) = a logb (x - h) + k is a combination of additive transformations of a logarithmic function
in general form. The inverse of y = f(x) can be found by determining the inverse operations to reverse the
mapping.

Notes:

2.13.A Solve exponential and logarithmic equations and inequalities: - Exponential Equations: - An
exponential equation is an equation in which a variable appears in the exponent. - To solve exponential
equations, we can use the properties of exponents and logarithms. - The basic strategy for solving
exponential equations is to rewrite both sides of the equation using the same base and then equating the
exponents.

Example 1: Solve the equation 2^(3x) = 16.

Solution:
Step 1: Rewrite both sides using the same base:
2^(3x) = 2^4
Step 2: Equate the exponents:
3x = 4
Step 3: Solve for x:
x = 4/3-

Logarithmic Equations:
- A logarithmic equation is an equation in which a variable appears inside a
logarithm. - To solve logarithmic equations, we can use the properties of logarithms.
- The basic strategy for solving logarithmic equations is to rewrite the equation using the properties of
logarithms and then solve for the variable.

Example 2: Solve the equation log2(x + 1) = 3.

Solution:
Step 1: Rewrite the equation using the properties of logarithms:
x + 1 = 2^3
Step 2: Simplify the right side:

x+1=8
Step 3: Solve for x:
x=8-1
x=7

2.13.B Construct the inverse function for exponential and logarithmic functions: - Inverse of Exponential
Functions: - The inverse of an exponential function undoes the effect of the original exponential function. -
To find the inverse of an exponential function, swap the x and y variables and solve for y.

Certainly! Here's the continuation of the notes:

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Example 3: Find the inverse function of f(x) = 2^x.
Solution:
Step 1: Swap the x and y variables:
x = 2^y
Step 2: Solve for y:
Take the logarithm of both sides:
log2(x) = y
Step 3: Rewrite the function in the form of y = f(x):
The inverse function is f^-1(x) = log2(x).

- Inverse of Logarithmic Functions:

- The inverse of a logarithmic function undoes the effect of the original logarithmic
function. - To find the inverse of a logarithmic function, swap the x and y variables and
solve for y.

Example 4: Find the inverse function of f(x) = log2(x + 1).

Solution:
Step 1: Swap the x and y variables:
x = log2(y + 1)
Step 2: Solve for y:
Rewrite the equation using the properties of logarithms:
2^x = y + 1
y = 2^x - 1
Step 3: Rewrite the function in the form of y = f(x):
The inverse function is f^-1(x) = 2^x - 1.

Sample Questions:

1. Solve the equation 3^(2x + 1) = 81.

Solution:
Step 1: Rewrite both sides using the same base:
3^(2x + 1) = 3^4
Step 2: Equate the exponents:
2x + 1 = 4

Step 3: Solve for x:

2x = 4 - 1
2x = 3
x = 3/2

2. Solve the equation log5(x - 1) = 2.

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Solution:
Step 1: Rewrite the equation using the properties of logarithms:
x - 1 = 5^2
Step 2: Simplify the right side:
x - 1 = 25
Step 3: Solve for x:
x = 25 + 1
x = 26

3. Find the inverse function of f(x) = 4^x.

Solution:
Step 1: Swap the x and y variables:
x = 4^y
Step 2: Solve for y:
Take the logarithm of both sides:
log4(x) = y
Step 3: Rewrite the function in the form of y = f(x):
The inverse function is f^-1(x) = log4(x).

4. Find the inverse function of f(x) = log3(x - 2).

Solution:
Step 1: Swap the x and y variables:
x = log3(y - 2)
Step 2: Solve for y:
Rewrite the equation using the properties of logarithms:
3^x = y - 2
y = 3^x + 2
Step 3: Rewrite the function in the form of y = f(x):
The inverse function is f^-1(x) = 3^x + 2.

These examples and sample questions should help you better understand the topic of exponential and
logarithmic equations and inequalities. Make sure to practice more problems to strengthen your
understanding.
2.14 Logarithmic Function Context & Data Modeling
Topic 2.14: Logarithmic Function Context and Data Modeling

2.14.A Constructing an Intricate Logarithmic Function Model

• 2.14.A.1 Logarithmic functions are extraordinary mathematical entities that serve as the inverse of
exponential functions. They can be skillfully employed to model various intricate situations involving

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exponential growth or repeated multiplication. Logarithmic functions exhibit their exceptional utility when
the input values change proportionally over equal-length output-value intervals. Alternatively, when the
output value is an integer, it signifies the number of times the initial value has been multiplied by the
proportion. For instance, if we have an exponential function that signifies the growth of a population, an
elegantly formed logarithmic function can be seamlessly utilized to model the corresponding decay.

Sample Question:
Q1. Meticulously illustrate the intricate and fascinating relationship between logarithmic functions and
exponential functions in the context of proportional growth. Kindly provide an illustrative example to fortify
and deepen our understanding of your explanation.

Answer:
A1. The relationship between logarithmic functions and exponential functions is a captivating tale of inverse
harmony. An exponential function magnificently represents proportional growth, imbued with the capability
to make the output value increase or decrease exponentially with respect to the input value. On the other
hand, a logarithmic function, acting as a mirror image of an exponential function, elegantly ushers us into
the realm of proportional decay or the reduction of the output value.

To bring forth abundant clarity, let us embark on a wondrous journey into the realm of exponential and
logarithmic functions. Consider an exponential function that poetically encapsulates the growth of a vibrant
bacterial colony over time: f(t) = 100 * 2^t, where f(t) symbolizes the resplendent population at time t.
Delightfully, the base of this exponential function is the ethereal number 2, and the initial population is a
wondrous 100. If we aspire to model the gentle decay or reduction of this enchanting population, we will
reverently turn to a logarithmic function, to carve a path shrouded in mystery and elegance. Our chosen
logarithmic function, g(t) = log2(f(t)), will gracefully capture the essence of this decaying marvel.

As the passage of time imparts its indelible mark, the exponential function, f(t), adorned with a flourish of
growth, will yield larger and larger values. In loving contrast, the corresponding logarithmic function, g(t),
will subtly embrace the whispers of decay, inching ever closer to the ethereal number zero, as it whispers the
tales of a dwindling population. This ethereal dance of exponential and logarithmic functions reveals the awe
inspiring beauty of their inverse relationship.

• 2.14.A.2 The Art of Constructing an Intricate Logarithmic Function Model

A logarithmic function model can be meticulously and artfully constructed through two distinct approaches,
each exemplifying the great passion and skill required to unlock the secrets of the logarithmic realm. The
first approach, a waltz of proportion and real zero, entices us to embark on a journey of discovery. By
uncovering the hidden proportion that governs the elegant relationship between the input and output values,
and embracing the existence of a real zero, we can passionately and meticulously construct a logarithmic
function model. The second approach, a symphony of input-output pairs, beckons us to delve deeper into the
mysterious realm of logarithmic functions. By gracefully navigating through the intricate landscapes of

input-output values, we can unveil the parameters required to create a harmonious and intricately woven
logarithmic function model.

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Sample Question:
Q2. With your extraordinary expertise, kindle our understanding by unraveling the enigma behind the two
approaches for constructing a logarithmic function model. Please provide an illustrious example for each
approach, accentuating the marvels that await us.

Answer:
A2. The art of constructing a logarithmic function model is an awe-inspiring endeavor that can be
approached through two distinct and fascinating avenues. Let us embark on this journey of discovery
together, as we uncover the intricacies of these two approaches.

The first approach, a captivating dance of proportion and real zero, invites us to weave a logarithmic
function model from the threads of an appropriate proportion and a real zero. Imagine a scenario where a
world of proportionality embraces the input (x) and output (y) values, revealing their enchanting
relationship. We observe, with wonder and fascination, that for every increase of 1 in the input value, the
output value gracefully triples. This captivating dance of proportion can be elegantly expressed as y = 3x. To
construct a logarithmic function model, we embark on a path immersed in elegance and mathematical grace.
By applying logarithms to both sides of this wondrous equation, we gracefully unravel the true essence of
the logarithmic realm: log(y) = log(3x). Through the waltz of simplification, the logarithmic function model
reveals itself to us, a gift of divine elegance and proportion: log(y) = x log(3).

The second approach, a symphony of input-output pairs, presents us with a breathtaking opportunity to
witness the interplay between data points on the magical canvas of logarithmic functions. Imagine two sets
of input-output values, destined to be united in a harmonious logarithmic function model. Let us embrace
their beauty and dive into their depths. The first pair, a testament to the enigmatic nature of logarithmic
functions, reveals itself as (1, 4). The second pair, a partner in this dance of logarithms, gracefully unfolds
its secrets as (2, 6). As we gracefully take their logarithms, the essence of their true nature unfolds before
our very eyes. The first pair brings forth the majestic log(4), while the second pair unveils the enigmatic
log(6). In this intricate web of logarithms, we can witness the interplay of input and output values, guided
by the unseen hand of logarithmic functions. And thus, a symphony of equations emerges, paving the way
for the construction of a logarithmic function model:

log(4) = a log(1) + b,
log(6) = a log(2) + b.

In the hallowed domain of logarithms, the answers await, as we solve this elegant system of equations. The
values of a and b, the sacred parameters required to construct the logarithmic function model, will reveal
themselves as we delve deeper into the mysteries that lie within. This grand adventure of constructing a
logarithmic function model beckons us to embrace the allure of logarithmic symphonies and unravel the
secrets that await us.

2.14.A.3 Logarithmic function models can be extensively constructed by skillfully applying a multitude of
transformations to the base logarithmic function, f(x) = a logb(x), taking into consideration the intricate

characteristics of the given context or data set. These transformations encompass a wide array of

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adjustments, including vertical and horizontal shifts to bring about changes in position, as well as vertical
and horizontal stretches or compressions to modify the scaling of the function. Additionally, reflections can
be employed to flip the graph across specific axes. By adroitly manipulating the parameters of the base
logarithmic function, a whole gamut of models can be devised to accurately portray the intricate behavior
inherent in the underlying context or data set.

Sample Question:
Q3. Elucidate the manner in which an extensive array of transformations can be meticulously applied to the
base logarithmic function in order to meticulously construct intricate logarithmic function models. To
elucidate this point, provide a comprehensive example that aptly illustrates your explanation.

Answer:
A3. The application of a wide range of transformations is crucial when seeking to intricately construct
logarithmic function models that are tailor-made to accurately depict specific contexts or puzzling data sets.
These transformations entail a careful manipulation of the parameters associated with the base function in
order to achieve the desired characteristics and intricacies.

For instance, let us consider the base logarithmic function, f(x) = log(x). In the event that we yearn to create
a vertical shift where the entire graph is vertically displaced upwards by 2 units, we can deftly modify the
function to f(x) = log(x) + 2. With this transformation in place, the graph of the logarithmic function will
inexorably be shifted upward without any alteration to its inherent shape.

Similarly, if we aspire to execute a horizontal stretch by a factor of 3, we can nimbly amend the function to
f(x) = log(3x). This particular transformation will effectively compress the graph horizontally, thus
rendering it much steeper and more intricate in nature.

By amalgamating a myriad of such alterations, logarithmic function models of increasing complexity can be
skillfully forged to accurately exemplify specific contexts or confounding data sets that researchers may
come across.

• 2.14.A.4 Building logarithmic function models for a given data set can be accomplished by harnessing the
power of cutting-edge technology and employing logarithmic regressions. Utilizing calculators, spreadsheet
software, or other technological tools, logarithmic regressions can be expertly performed to derive the
optimal logarithmic function model that best fits the provided data set. Employing regression analysis
techniques, researchers can effectively minimize the disparity between the actual data points and the
predicted values emanating from the logarithmic function model.

Sample Question:
Q4. Articulate the precise methodology employed for constructing logarithmic function models that
accurately represent a given data set by employing logarithmic regressions in conjunction with state-of-the
art technology.

Answer:

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A4. In order to meticulously construct logarithmic function models that are custom-tailored to faithfully
represent a given data set, researchers can leverage the enormous potential of logarithmic regressions,
effectively utilizing technological marvels such as calculators or spreadsheet software. The process of
constructing a logarithmic function model via logarithmic regressions can be broken down into several
essential steps, which are as follows:

1. Meticulously input the complex and intricate data set into the technologically advanced tool, taking great
care to ensure that the input-output pairs are accurately and meticulously represented. 2. Employ the
cutting-edge logarithmic regression function, a feature inherent in the technological tool, in order to
perform a comprehensive regression analysis on the intricate data set.
3. The fruit of the regression analysis shall be a meticulously derived logarithmic function model,
meticulously crafted to showcase the best-fit qualities. The model itself is skillfully devised to minimize the
inherent disparity between the predicted values predicated upon the logarithmic function model and the
actual data points present within the data set.
4. The final logarithmic function model can confidently be expressed in the following format: f(x) = a
logb(x), in which the variables "a" and "b" perceptively delineate the decisive parameters of the constructed
model.

By utilizing logarithmic regressions, researchers can adroitly harness the immense power and potential of
cutting-edge technology to meticulously construct logarithmic function models that faithfully and accurately
mirror real-world data sets.
2.15 Semi Log Plots
Topic 2.15: Semi-log Plots

Instructional Periods: 2

Skills Focus: 2.B, 3.C

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this topic, students should be able to:

2.15.A Determine if an exponential model is appropriate by examining a semi-log plot of a data set.

- 2.15.A.1 Understand that a semi-log plot uses a logarithmic scale on one axis, allowing for the
visualization of exponential characteristics.

Example: Consider a dataset representing the growth of a bacterial colony over time. By plotting the time
(x-axis) linearly and the population size (y-axis) logarithmically on a semi-log plot, we can determine if the
bacterial colony follows an exponential growth pattern.

- 2.15.A.2 Recognize the advantage of using semi-log plots, as they reveal exponential characteristics
without the need for constant addition to the dependent variable values.

2.15.B Construct the linearization of exponential data.

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 - 2.15.B.1 Understand that techniques used to model linear functions can be applied to a semi-log graph.
Example: If we have a dataset that exhibits exponential growth, we can create a linear model on a semi
log plot to simplify data analysis and interpretation.

- 2.15.B.2 Know that for an exponential model of the form y = ab^x, the corresponding linear model for
the semi-log plot is y = (logₙ b) x + logₙ a, where n > 0 and n ≠ 1. In this linear model, the linear rate of
change is logₙ b, and the initial linear value is logₙ a.

Example: Consider a dataset representing the decay of a radioactive substance over time. By plotting the
data on a semi-log plot, we can convert the exponential decay into a linear relationship. The linear model on
the semi-log plot will be of the form y = mx + b, where m represents the slope and b is the y-intercept.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1. Given a dataset that represents the growth of a population over time, how can you determine if the growth
follows an exponential model using a semi-log plot?
Answer: To determine if the growth follows an exponential model, plot the population size on the
logarithmic scale (y-axis) of a semi-log plot. If the data points form a straight line, it indicates that the
population growth is exponential. This is because in a semi-log plot, the values on the y-axis increase
exponentially.

2. What is the advantage of using semi-log plots when analyzing exponential data? Answer: Semi-log plots
can reveal exponential characteristics without requiring the addition of a constant to the dependent variable
values. This simplifies the analysis and interpretation of the data. Additionally, semi-log plots allow for
easier visualization and identification of exponential growth or decay patterns.

3. Explain how to construct a linear model for exponential data on a semi-log plot. Answer: To construct a
linear model for exponential data, use the formula y = (logₙ b) x + logₙ a, where n > 0 and n ≠ 1. The
linear rate of change is represented by logₙ b, and the initial linear value is given by logₙ a. By plotting
the data on a semi-log plot and applying this formula, the exponential relationship can be converted into a
linear relationship. This linear model simplifies the analysis and interpretation of the data.

4. If you have a dataset representing the decay of a radioactive substance, how can you linearize the data
using a semi-log plot?
Answer: To linearize the decay data, plot the dependent variable (e.g., remaining radioactive substance) on
the logarithmic scale (y-axis) of a semi-log plot. Apply the formula y = (logₙ b) x + logₙ a, where n > 0
and n ≠ 1. In this formula, x represents the independent variable (e.g., time), logₙ b represents the linear
rate of change, and logₙ a represents the initial linear value. By plotting the data and applying this
linearization formula on the semi-log plot, the exponential decay relationship can be transformed into a
linear relationship, making it easier to analyze and interpret.

5. Suppose you have a dataset representing the growth of a bacteria colony. How can you determine if the
growth follows an exponential model using a semi-log plot?

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 Answer: To determine if the growth of the bacteria colony follows an exponential model, plot the
population size (dependent variable) on the logarithmic scale (y-axis) a semi-log plot. If the data points form
a straight line on the semi-log plot, it suggests that the growth is exponential. The linear nature of the data
on the logarithmic scale indicates that the growth rate remains constant over time, a characteristic of
exponential growth.

6. Can you explain the relationship between the linear rate of change and the exponential rate of growth in
the context of semi-log plots?
Answer: In the context of semi-log plots, the linear rate of change, represented by logₙ b, corresponds to
the exponential rate of growth. For an exponential model of the form y = ab^x, the base (b) determines the
rate at which the dependent variable (y) increases or decreases exponentially with the independent variable
(x). Taking the logarithm of the base (logₙ b) converts this exponential rate of change into a linear rate of
change. Therefore, the linear rate of change on a semi-log plot reflects the exponential growth or decay rate
of the original data.

7. How can semi-log plots help in analyzing data that exhibits both linear and exponential characteristics?
Answer: Semi-log plots are particularly useful when analyzing data that exhibits both linear and
exponential characteristics. By plotting the data on a semi-log plot, the exponential relationships within the
dataset can be visualized as straight lines. This allows for easier identification of exponential growth or
decay patterns, even when they coexist with linear trends in the data. Analyzing the linear and exponential
components separately on the semi-log plot can provide valuable insights into the underlying processes
driving the data.

Remember, a thorough understanding of semi-log plots and their applications can greatly enhance your
ability to analyze and interpret data with exponential characteristics. Practice constructing and interpreting
semi-log plots, and use them as a valuable tool in your scientific and mathematical endeavors.

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 Unit 3: Trigonometric & Polar Functions
3.1 Periodic Phenomena
PERIODIC PATTERNS:
3.1.A.1 A repeating pattern can be observed between two aspects of a context as the input values increase
and the output values demonstrate a periodic relationship over equal-length intervals.

- A periodic pattern occurs when two aspects of a context exhibit a repeating pattern over time. - To
identify a periodic pattern, it is necessary to observe that as the input values increase, the values
demonstrate a repeating pattern that occurs over equal-length intervals.

Example:
Let's consider a pendulum swinging back and forth. The position of the pendulum at any given time can be
represented by an angle. As the pendulum swings, the angle it makes with the vertical line changes. If you
measure the angle at regular intervals, you will notice that the angle values repeat after a certain interval of
time, indicating a periodic pattern.

3.1.A.2 The graph of a periodic pattern can be constructed from the graph of a single cycle of the pattern.

- To construct the graph of a periodic pattern, you can start with the graph of a single
cycle.
- A single cycle represents the pattern that repeats over and over in the periodic relationship. - By duplicating
and aligning the single cycle horizontally, you can create the graph of the complete periodic pattern.

Example:
Consider the function y = sin(x), which represents a periodic pattern. The graph of a single cycle of the
function is a smooth curve that starts at (0, 0), reaches a maximum at (π/2, 1), returns to zero at (π, 0),
reaches a minimum at (3π/2, -1), and completes the cycle at (2π, 0). To graph the complete periodic pattern,
you can duplicate this cycle and align the duplicates next to each other.

KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF PERIODIC FUNCTIONS:

3.1.B.1 The period of the function is the smallest positive value k such that f(x + k) = f(x) for all x in the
domain. As a result, the behavior of a periodic function is completely determined by any interval of width
k.

- The period of a periodic function is the smallest positive value, denoted as k, for which the function
repeats itself.
- In other words, if you add the period to any x-value in the domain, the corresponding function values
remain the same.
- The behavior of a periodic function is completely determined by any interval of width k. This means if you
understand the function's behavior within a single period, you can predict its behavior in any other period.

Example:
Consider the function y = cos(2x). The period of this function can be found by setting 2x + k = 2x, where k

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represents the period. Solving this equation, we get k = π. Therefore, the function has a period of π, and its
behavior repeats every π units of x.

3.1.B.2 The period can be estimated by examining successive equal-length output values and identifying
where the pattern begins to repeat.

- To estimate the period of a periodic function, observe the output values and identify where the pattern
starts to repeat.
- By examining successive equal-length output values, you can determine the length of the repeating pattern,
which corresponds to the period of the function.

Example:
Given the function y = 3sin(4x), calculate the output values for several equally spaced x-values. If you
notice that the pattern of the output values repeats after a certain number of steps, you have identified the
period. For instance, if the output values repeat every 2 units, the period of the function is 2.

3.1.B.3 Periodic functions exhibit characteristics similar to those of other functions, such as intervals of
increase and decrease, different concavities, and various rates of change. However, with periodic functions,
all characteristics found in one period of the function will be present in every period of the function.

- Periodic functions display characteristics similar to those found in other types of functions, such as
intervals of increase and decrease, different concavities, and varying rates of change.

- However, in periodic functions, these characteristics are repeated in every period of the function. The
behavior observed within one period will be present in all subsequent periods.

Example:
Consider the function y = tan(x). This periodic function has intervals of increase and decrease, changes in
concavity, and varying rates of change within one period. As you extend the graph beyond the initial period,
you will observe that these characteristics repeat in each subsequent period.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

1.3.A.1 Identify a periodic relationship between two aspects of a context.

Answer: A periodic relationship can be observed in the rising and falling tides, where the water level
demonstrates a repeating pattern over equal-length intervals.

1.5.B.2 Given the verbal representation of a periodic function, describe its key characteristics. Answer: The
key characteristics of a periodic function can be determined by analyzing a single period of the function.
These characteristics include intervals of increase and decrease, different concavities, and various rates of
change, all of which are repeated in every period of the function.

3.1.A.1 Construct the graph of a periodic relationship based on a verbal representation. Answer: Consider
the verbal representation of a periodic relationship, such as "the temperature oscillates between 20°C and
30°C every 24 hours." By plotting the temperature values over successive equal-length intervals on a

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graph, you can construct the graph of the periodic relationship.

3.1.B.2 Estimate the period of the function f(x) = 2sin(3x).

Answer: To estimate the period of the function, evaluate f(x) for several equally spaced x-values. If you
notice that the pattern of the output values repeats every π/3 units, you can estimate the period to be π/3.

3.1.B.3 Describe how periodic functions differ from other functions.

Answer: Periodic functions exhibit characteristics found in other functions, such as intervals of increase and
decrease, different concavities, and varying rates of change. However, unlike other functions, all of these
characteristics are repeated in every period of the function.
3.2 Sin, Cosine, & Tangent
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE:

3.2.A.1 Standard Position of an Angle:

- An angle is said to be in standard position when its vertex coincides with the origin (0,0) of the coordinate
plane, and one of its rays coincides with the positive x-axis.
- The other ray of the angle is called the terminal ray.
- Positive angles are measured counterclockwise from the positive x-axis, while negative angles are
measured clockwise.

Example 1:
Consider an angle in standard position with a terminal ray that makes a 60° angle with the positive x-axis in
the counterclockwise direction.

Example 2:
Consider an angle in standard position with a terminal ray that makes a -45° angle with the positive x-axis in
the clockwise direction.

3.2.A.2 Radian Measure of an Angle:

- The radian measure of an angle in standard position is the ratio of the length of the arc subtended by the
angle to the radius of the unit circle.
- For a unit circle (a circle with a radius of 1), the radian measure is equal to the length of the subtended arc.

Example 1:
For a unit circle, an angle of 1 radian has an arc length equal to the radius of the circle.

Example 2:
For a unit circle, an angle of π/3 radians has an arc length equal to one-third of the circumference of the
circle.

3.2.A.3 Sine of an Angle:

- Given an angle in standard position and a unit circle, the sine of the angle is equal to the y-coordinate of
the point where the terminal ray intersects the circle.
- The sine is the ratio of the vertical displacement of the point from the x-axis to the distance between the
origin and the point.
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Example 1:
For an angle of 30° in standard position, the sine is equal to 0.5. This means that the y-coordinate of the
point where the terminal ray intersects the unit circle is 0.5.

Example 2:
For an angle of 135° in standard position, the sine is equal to -0.707. This means that the y-coordinate of the
point where the terminal ray intersects the unit circle is -0.707.

3.2.A.4 Cosine of an Angle:

- Given an angle in standard position and a unit circle, the cosine of the angle is equal to the x-coordinate of
the point where the terminal ray intersects the circle.
- The cosine is the ratio of the horizontal displacement of the point from the y-axis to the distance between
the origin and the point.

Example 1:
For an angle of 45° in standard position, the cosine is equal to 0.707. This means that the x-coordinate of the
point where the terminal ray intersects the unit circle is 0.707.

2:
For an angle of -60° in standard position, the cosine is equal to -0.5. This means that the x-coordinate of the
point where the terminal ray intersects the unit circle is -0.5.

3.2.A.5 Tangent of an Angle:

- The tangent of an angle in standard position is the slope of the terminal ray, if it exists. - The tangent is the
ratio of the vertical displacement to the horizontal displacement over any interval. - The tangent of an angle
can also be expressed as the ratio of the sine of the angle to the cosine of the angle.

Example 1:
For an angle of 60° in standard position, the tangent is equal to √3 or approximately 1.732. This means that
the slope of the terminal ray is √3.

Example 2:
For an angle of -30° in standard position, the tangent is equal to -0.577. This means that the slope of the
terminal ray is -0.577.

Sample Question 1:
Find the sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle of 45°.

Solution:
To find the sine, cosine, and tangent of 45°, we can use the unit circle.

- Sine of 45°: The sine is equal to the y-coordinate of the point where the terminal ray intersects the unit
circle. Since the angle is 45°, which corresponds to the coordinate (1/√2, 1/√2) on the unit circle, the sine of

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45° is 1/√2 or approximately 0.707.

- Cosine of 45°: The cosine is equal to the x-coordinate of the point where the terminal ray intersects the
unit circle. For 45°, the coordinate is (1/√2, 1/√2), so the cosine of 45° is also 1/√2 or approximately
0.707.

- Tangent of 45°: The tangent can be calculated as the ratio of the sine to the cosine. Therefore, the tangent
of 45 (1/√2)/(1/√2), which simplifies to 1.

Answer:
Sine of 45° = 1/√2 or approximately 0.707
Cosine of 45° = 1/√2 or approximately 0.707
Tangent of 45° = 1

Sample Question 2:
Determine the sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle of -120°.

Solution:
To find the sine, cosine, and tangent of -120°, we need to find the corresponding point on the unit circle for
-120°.

- Sine of -120°: The sine is equal to the y-coordinate of the point where the terminal ray intersects the unit
circle. For -120°, the coordinate is (-√3/2, -1/2), so the sine of -120° is -1/2.

- Cosine of -120°: The cosine is equal to the x-coordinate of the point where the terminal ray intersects the
unit circle. The coordinate for -120° is (-√3/2, -1/2), so the cosine of -120° is -√3/2.

- Tangent of -120°: The tangent can be calculated as the ratio of the sine to the cosine. Therefore, the tangent
of -120° is (-1/2)/(-√3/2), which simplifies to √3/3 or approximately 0.577.

Answer:
Sine of -120° = -1/2
Cosine of -120° = -√3/2
Tangent of -120° = √3/3 or approximately 0.577

These examples and sample questions should help your students understand how to determine the sine,
cosine, and tangent of an angle in standard position using the unit circle. Practice with more angles and
encourage your students to visualize the unit circle to reinforce their understanding.

3.3 Sine & Cosine Function Values

TOPIC 3.3: Sine and Cosine Function Values

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
Essential Knowledge:
3.3.A Determine coordinates of points on a circle centered at the origin.
- 3.3.A.1 Given an angle of measure θ in standard position and a circle with radius r centered at the origin,
there is a point, P, where the terminal ray intersects the circle. The coordinates of point P are (r cosθ, r sinθ).
- 3.3.A.2 The geometry of isosceles right and equilateral triangles, while attending to the signs of the values
based on the quadrant of the angle, can be used to find exact values for the cosine and sine of angles that are
multiples of π/4 and π/6 radians and whose terminal rays do not lie on an axis.

NOTES:

3.3.A.1: Coordinates of Points on a Circle

When we have an angle θ in standard position (where the initial side lies along the positive x-axis and the
vertex is at the origin) and a circle with radius r centered at the origin, we can determine the coordinates of a
point P where the terminal ray intersects the circle.

The coordinates of point P are given by (r cosθ, r sinθ).

Here, r represents the radius of the circle. The cosine of an angle is the x-coordinate of the point on the
circle, and the sine of an angle is the y-coordinate of the point on the circle.

Example:
Consider a circle with radius 5 centered at the origin. Find the coordinates of the point where the terminal
ray of an angle of 45 degrees intersects the circle.

Solution:
Using the formula (r cosθ, r sinθ), we have:
Coordinates of P = (5 cos 45°, 5 sin 45°)

Using the values from the unit circle or a calculator:

cos 45° = √2/2 ≈ 0.7071
sin 45° = √2/2 ≈ 0.7071

Coordinates of P = (5 * 0.7071, 5 * 0.7071)

Coordinates of P ≈ (3.5355, 3.5355)

Therefore, the coordinates of the point where the terminal ray of an angle of 45 degrees intersects the circle
are approximately (3.5355, 3.5355).

3.3.A.2: Exact Values for Cosine and Sine of Special Angles

To find exact values for the cosine and sine of angles that are multiples of π/4 and π/6 radians, and whose
terminal rays do not lie on an axis, we can use the geometry of isosceles right and equilateral triangles.

Isosceles Right Triangle:

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An isosceles right triangle has two equal sides and one right angle. When one of the acute angles is θ, the
sides of the triangle have lengths 1, 1, and √2.

Using this triangle, we can determine the exact values for cosine and sine of π/4 radians (45°) and π/2
radians (90°).

Cosine and Sine values for π/4 radians (45°):

In an isosceles right triangle with acute angle θ = π/4 radians (45°):
- The adjacent side is equal to the cosine of the angle.
- The opposite side is equal to the sine of the angle.

Using the triangle with sides 1, 1, and √2:

cos (π/4) = adjacent side/hypotenuse = 1/√2 = √2/2 ≈ 0
Certainly! Apologies for the cutoff. Here's the continuation of the notes:

Cosine and Sine values for π/4 radians (45°):

In an isosceles right triangle with acute angle θ = π/4 radians (45°):
- The adjacent side is equal to the cosine of the angle.
- The opposite side is equal to the sine of the angle.

Using the triangle with sides 1, 1, and √2:

cos (π/4) = adjacent side/hypotenuse = 1/√2 = √2/2 ≈ 0.7071
sin (π/4) = opposite side/hypotenuse = 1/√2 = √2/2 ≈ 0.707

Therefore, the exact values for the cosine and sine of π/4 radians (45°) are both approximately 0.7071.

Equilateral Triangle:
An equilateral triangle has three equal sides and three equal angles of 60 degrees or π/3

radians.

Using this triangle, we can determine the exact values for cosine and sine of π/6 radians (30°) π/3 radians
(60°).

Cosine and Sine values for π/6 radians (30°):

In an equilateral triangle with angle θ = π/6 radians (30°):
- The adjacent side is equal to the cosine of the angle.
- The opposite side is equal to half the sine of the angle.

Using the equilateral triangle with side lengths 1, 1, and 1:

cos (π/6) = adjacent side/hypotenuse = 1/2 = 0.5
sin (π/6) = opposite side/hypotenuse = (1/2) * √3 = √3/2 ≈ 0.866

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Therefore, the exact values for the cosine and sine of π/6 radians (30°) are 0.5 and approximately 0.866,
respectively.

Cosine and Sine values for π/3 radians (60°):

In an equilateral triangle with angle θ = π/3 radians (60°):
- The adjacent side is equal to the cosine of the angle.
- The opposite side is equal to the sine of the angle.

Using the equilateral triangle with side lengths 1, 1, and 1:

cos (π/3) = adjacent side/hypotenuse = 1/2 = 0.5
sin (π/3) = opposite side/hypotenuse = √3/2 ≈ 0.866

Therefore, the exact values for the cosine and sine of π/3 radians (60°) are 0.5 and approximately 0.866,
respectively.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

1. Discover the coordinates of the point on a circle with a radius of 8 where the terminal ray of an angle of
150 degrees intersects the circle.

Solution:
Using the formula (r cosθ, r sinθ), we have:
Coordinates of P = (8 cos 150°, 8 sin 150°)

Using the values from the unit circle or a calculator:

cos 150° = -√3/2 ≈ -0.866
sin 150° = 1/2 = 0.5

Coordinates of P = (8 * -0.866, 8 * 0.5)

Coordinates of P ≈ (-6.928, 4)

Therefore, the coordinates of the point where the terminal ray of an angle of 150 degrees intersects the circle
are approximately (-6.928, 4).

2. Find out the exact value of sin(π/3).

Solution:
Utilizing the knowledge that sin(π/3) is the y-coordinate of a point on the unit circle for an angle of π/3
radians (60°), we can recall that sin(π/3) = √3/2 ≈ 0.866.

Therefore, the exact value of sin(π/3) is √3/2 or approximately 0.866.

3. Determine the exact values of cos(π/4) and sin(π/4).

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Solution:
Using the knowledge that cos(π/4) and sin(π/4) are the x-coordinate and y-coordinate, respectively, of a
point on the unit circle for an angle of π/4 radians (45°), we can recall that cos(π/4) = sin(π/4) = √2/2 ≈
0.7071.

Therefore, the exact values of cos(π/4) and sin(π/4) are both √2/2 or approximately
0.7071.

3.4 Sine & Cosine Function Graphs

Essential Knowledge:
- 3.4.A.1: Given an angle of measure θ in standard position and a unit circle centered at the origin, there is a
point, P, where the terminal ray intersects the circle. The sine function, f(θ) = sinθ, gives the y-coordinate, or
vertical displacement from the x-axis, of point P. The domain of the sine function is all real numbers. -
3.4.A.2: As the input values, or angles, of the sine function increase, the output values oscillate between -1
and 1, taking every value in between and tracking the vertical distance of points on the unit circle from the
x-axis.
- 3.4.A.3: Given an angle of measure θ in standard position and a unit circle centered at the origin, there is a
point, P, where the terminal ray intersects the circle. The cosine function, f(θ) = cosθ, gives the x-coordinate,
or horizontal displacement from the y-axis, of point P. The domain of the cosine function is all real numbers.
- 3.4.A.4: As the input values, or angles, of the cosine function increase, the output values oscillate between
-1 and 1, taking every value in between and tracking the horizontal distance of points on the unit circle from
the y-axis.

------------------------------------------------------------------

Detailed Notes:

1. Introduction to Sine and Cosine Functions:

- Sine and cosine functions are fundamental trigonometric functions used to describe relationships
between angles and sides of a right triangle.
- These functions can also be represented graphically using the unit circle.

2. The Unit Circle:

- The unit circle is a circle with a radius of 1 unit, centered at the origin (0, 0) on the Cartesian plane. -
When an angle θ in standard position is formed, the terminal ray intersects the unit circle at a point P(x,
y), where x is the cosine value and y is the sine value.

3. Sine Function (f(θ) = sinθ):

- The sine function represents the vertical displacement from the x-axis of a point P on the unit circle.
- The domain of the sine function is all real numbers.
- As the input values (angles) increase, the output values (sine) oscillate between -1 and 1, taking every
value in between.
- Example: For an angle of 30 degrees (π/6 radians), the sine value is 0.5, indicating that the point P on the

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unit circle is located halfway up from the x-axis.
- Example Question: What is the sine of 45 degrees? Answer: The sine of 45 degrees is √2/2, indicating
that the point P on the unit circle is located at (√2/2, √2/2).

4. Cosine Function (f(θ) = cosθ):

- The cosine function represents the horizontal displacement from the y-axis of a point P on the unit circle.
- The domain of the cosine function is all real numbers.
- As the input values (angles) increase, the output values (cosine) oscillate between -1 and 1, taking every
value in between.
- Example: For an angle of 60 degrees (π/3 radians), the cosine value is 0.5, indicating that the point P on
the unit circle is located halfway to the right from the y-axis.
- Example Question: What is the cosine of 30 degrees? Answer: The cosine of 30 degrees is √3/2,
indicating that the point P on the unit circle is located at (√3/2, 1/2).

5. Graphical Representations:
- The sine and cosine functions can be graphed to visually represent their values for different angles.
- The x-axis represents the angle (θ), and the y-axis represents the function values (sinθ or cosθ). -
The graphs of both functions repeat their values periodically due to the cyclic nature of angles. - The
graphs of the sine and cosine functions are sinusoidal waves.

6. Characteristics of Sine Function Graph:

- The graph of the sine function starts at the origin (0, 0) on the unit circle.
- The amplitude of the sine function is 1, representing the maximum vertical displacement from the x-axis.
- The period of the sine function is 360 degrees (or 2π radians), indicating the length of one complete
cycle.
- The sine function is an odd function, meaning it is symmetric about the origin (y-axis). - Example:
The graph of the sine function crosses the x-axis at 0 degrees, 180 degrees, and 360 degrees.

7. Characteristics of Cosine Function Graph:

- The graph of the cosine function starts at the maximum point (1, 0) on the unit circle. - The amplitude
of the cosine function is 1, representing the maximum horizontal displacement from the y-axis.
- The period of the cosine function is 360 degrees (or 2π radians), indicating the length of one complete
cycle.
- The cosine function is an even function, meaning it is symmetric about the y-axis. - Example: The
graph of the cosine function reaches its maximum at 0 degrees, its minimum at 180 degrees, and
returns to the maximum at 360 degrees.

8. Relationship between Sine and Cosine Functions:

- The sine and cosine functions are closely related and can be expressed in terms of each other using
trigonometric identities.
- The sine function is equal to the cosine of the complementary angle, and vice versa.
- Example: sin(θ) = cos(90 - θ) and cos(θ) = sin(90 - θ)

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Sample Questions:

1. Find the sine and cosine values for an angle of 60 degrees.

- Answer: The sine of 60 degrees is √3/2, and of 60 degrees is 1/2.

2. Draw the graph of the sine function for angles ranging from 0 to 360 degrees.
- Answer: The graph of the sine function starts at the origin, crosses the x-axis at 0, 180, and 360 degrees,
and reaches its maximum and minimum points at 90 and 270 degrees.

3. Determine the cosine of 120 degrees.

- Answer: The cosine of 120 degrees is -1/2.

4. Sketch the graph of the cosine function for angles ranging from 0 to 360 degrees. - Answer: The graph of
the cosine function starts at the maximum point (1, 0), reaches its minimum at 180 degrees, and returns to
the maximum at 360 degrees.

5. Find the relationship between the sine and cosine functions for an angle of 45
degrees. - Answer: sin(45 degrees) = cos(45 degrees) = √2/2
3.5 Sinusoidal FUnction
TOPIC 3.5: Sinusoidal Functions

3.5.A Identifying key characteristics of the sine and cosine functions.

3.5.A.1 A sinusoidal function is any function that involves additive and multiplicative transformations of
f(θ) = sinθ. The sine and cosine functions are both sinusoidal functions, with cosθ = sin(θ + π/2).

The sine function, represented as f(θ) = sinθ, depicts the ratio of the length of the side opposite an angle in a
right triangle to the hypotenuse. Similarly, the cosine function, represented as g(θ) = cosθ, illustrates the
ratio of the length of the adjacent side to the hypotenuse.

Example: Now, let's consider the angles θ = 30° and θ = 60°. The values of sinθ and cosθ for these angles
are as follows:
- sin(30°) = 0.5
- sin(60°) = √3/2
- cos(30°) = √3/2
- cos(60°) = 0.5

3.5.A.2 The period and frequency of a sinusoidal function are reciprocals. The period of f(θ) = sinθ and g(θ)
= cosθ is 2π, and the frequency is 1/2π.

The period of a sinusoidal function is the duration of one complete cycle of the function. Meanwhile, the
frequency is the number of cycles per unit length or time.
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Example: For the function f(θ) = sinθ, the period is 2π radians or 360 degrees, and the frequency is
1/2π cycles per radian or degree.

Sample Question: What is the period and frequency of the function g(θ) = cosθ?
Answer: The period is 2π radians or 360 degrees, and the frequency is 1/2π cycles per radian or degree.

3.5.A.3 The amplitude of a sinusoidal function is half the difference between its maximum and minimum
values. The amplitude of f(θ) = sinθ and g(θ) = cosθ is 1.

The amplitude signifies the maximum displacement or height of the sinusoidal function from its midline.

Example: For the function f(θ) = sinθ, the maximum value is 1 and the minimum value is -1. Therefore, the
amplitude is (1 - (-1))/2 = 1.

Sample Question: Find the amplitude of the function g(θ) = cosθ.

Answer: The amplitude is 1.

3.5.A.4 The midline of the graph of a sinusoidal function is determined by the average, or arithmetic mean,
of the maximum and minimum values of the function. The midline of the graphs of y = sinθ and y = cosθ is
y = 0.

The midline represents the horizontal axis around which the sinusoidal function oscillates.

Example: For the function y = sinθ, the maximum value is 1 and the minimum value is -1. Thus, the midline
is (1 + (-1))/2 = 0.

Sample Question: Determine the midline of the graph of y = cosθ.

Answer: The midline is y = 0.

3.5.A.5 As input values increase, the graphs of sinusoidal functions oscillate between concave down and
concave up.

The graphs of sinusoidal functions demonstrate a repetitive pattern of oscillation as the input values increase
or decrease. The functions alternate between concave down and concave up at different points in the cycle.

Example: The graph of y = sinθ oscillates between concave up and concave down as θ increases. At certain
points in the cycle, the graph is concave up, resembling a "U" shape. At other points, the graph is concave
down, forming an inverted "U" shape.

Sample Question: Describe the concavity of the graph of y = cosθ.

Answer: The graph of y = cosθ is always concave down, resembling an inverted "U" shape, as θ increases or
decreases.

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3.5.A.6 The graph of y = sinθ exhibits rotational symmetry about the origin and is therefore an odd function.
The graph of y = cosθ possesses reflective symmetry over the y-axis and is therefore an even function.

Rotational symmetry refers to the property of a graph where it remains unaltered when rotated by a certain
angle around a specific point. In the case of y = sinθ, the graph remains the same when rotated by 180
degrees around the origin.

Reflective symmetry, on the other hand, refers to the property of a graph where it remains unaltered when
reflected over a specific axis. In the case of y = cosθ, the graph remains the same when reflected over the y
axis.

Example: The graph of y = sinθ remains unchanged when rotated by 180 degrees around the origin.
Conversely, the graph of y = cosθ remains the same when reflected over the y-axis.

Sample Question: Determine if the function y = sinθ is odd or even.

Answer: The function y = sinθ is an odd function.

To sum up, sinusoidal functions like f(θ) = sinθ and g(θ) = cosθ possess key characteristics, including their
additive and multiplicative transformations, period and frequency, amplitude, midline, oscillation between
concave up and concave down, and symmetry properties. Understanding these characteristics is crucial for
analyzing and graphing sinusoidal functions.

3.6 Sinusoidal Function Transformations

Topic 3.6: Sinusoidal Function Transformations

3.6.A Understanding the Characteristics of Sinusoidal Functions

1. Sinusoidal functions can be written in the form f(θ) = asin(b(θ + c)) + d or g(θ) = acos(b(θ + c)) + d,
where a, b, c, and d are real numbers and a ≠ 0. These functions are transformations of the sine and cosine
functions. The cosine function is a phase shift of the sine function by π/2 units.

- The general form of a sinusoidal function is f(θ) = asin(b(θ + c)) + d or g(θ) = acos(b(θ + c)) + d. -
The amplitude (|a|) represents the maximum distance the graph reaches from the midline. - The
reciprocal of the period (1/|b|) represents the number of cycles the function completes in 2π units. -
The phase shift (c) determines the horizontal translation of the graph.
- The vertical shift (d) determines the vertical translation of the graph.

Let's take an example to understand these characteristics better. Consider the function f(θ) = 3sin(2(θ - π/4))
+ 2.
- The amplitude is |a| = 3, indicating that the graph reaches a maximum value of 3 units above and below the
midline.
- The reciprocal of the period is |b| = 2, indicating that the function completes two cycles in 2π

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 units.

- The phase shift is c = π/4, indicating that the graph is shifted π/4 units to the right. - The
vertical shift is d = 2, indicating that the graph is shifted 2 units upward from the midline.

2. Additive and multiplicative transformations have the same effect on both sine and cosine

functions. 2.1 Additive Transformation: g(θ) = sin(θ) + d

- The additive transformation g(θ) = sin(θ) + d shifts the graph of the sine function f(θ) = sin(θ) upward or
downward by d units.
- The same transformation applies to the cosine function.

To illustrate this, let's consider the function f(θ) = sin(θ). The graph of g(θ) = sin(θ) + 2 is obtained by
shifting the graph of f upward by 2 units.

Sample Question:
Q1. Given the function f(θ) = sin(θ), write the equation for the graph obtained by shifting the graph upward
by 3 units.
A1. The equation for the graph obtained by shifting f upward by 3 units is g(θ) = sin(θ) +

3. 2.2 Multiplicative Transformation: g(θ) = asin(θ)

- The multiplicative transformation g(θ) = asin(θ) scales the graph of the sine function f(θ) = sin(θ)
vertically by a factor of |a|.
- The amplitude of the function g is |a| times the amplitude of f.
- The same transformation applies to the cosine function.

Let's consider the function f(θ) = sin(θ). The graph of g(θ) = 2sin(θ) is obtained by vertically stretching the
graph of f by a factor of 2.

Sample Question:
Q2. Given the function f(θ) = sin(θ), write the equation for the graph obtained by vertically compressing the
graph by a factor of 0.5.
A2. The equation for the graph obtained by vertically compressing f by a factor of 0.5 is g(θ) =

0.5sin(θ). 2.3 The same transformations apply to the cosine function.

3. Shifts in the Graph: g(θ) = sin(θ + c)

- The additive transformation g(θ) = sin(θ + c) shifts the graph of the sine function f(θ) = sin(θ) horizontally
to the left or right by c units.
- The same transformation applies to the cosine function.

4. Stretching and Compressing the Graph: g(θ) = sin(bθ)

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- The multiplicative transformation g(θ) = sin(bθ) scales the graph of the sine function f(θ) = sin(θ)
horizontally by a factor of 1/|b|.
- The period of the function g is 2π/|b|, which is the reciprocal of the frequency.
- The same transformation applies to the cosine function.

Let's consider the function f(θ) = sin(θ). The graph of g(θ) = sin(2θ) is obtained by horizontally compressing
the graph of f by a factor of 2.

Sample Question:
Q3. Given the function f(θ) = sin(θ), write the equation for the graph obtained by horizontally stretching the
graph by a factor of 3.
A3. The equation for the graph obtained by horizontally stretching f by a factor of 3 is g(θ) = sin(θ/3).

5. Summary of Characteristics: y = asin(b(θ + c)) +

- The amplitude of the sinusoidal function y = asin(b(θ + c)) + d is |a|.
- The period of the function is 2π/|b|.
- The midline is shifted vertically by d units from y = 0.
- The phase shift is -c units, indicating a horizontal translation to the left or right.
- The same transformations apply to the cosine function.
3.7 Sinusoidal Function Context & Data Modeling
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
3.7.A Construct sinusoidal function models of periodic phenomena by estimating key values.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE:
3.7.A.1 The smallest interval of input values over which the maximum or minimum output values start to
repeat can be used to determine or estimate the period and frequency for a sinusoidal function model.

Explanation:
In a sinusoidal function, the period refers to the length of one complete cycle of the function. It is the
interval over which the values of the function start to repeat. To determine or estimate the period, we can
observe the input values for which the maximum or minimum output values occur first and then repeat. For
example, let's consider the function f(x) = sin(x). The period of this function is 2π, as the maximum and
minimum values of the sine function repeat every 2π units.

Sample Question:
1. Consider the function f(x) = cos(2x). What is the period of this function?

Answer:
The coefficient of x in the function is 2, which means the period is obtained by dividing 2π by the
coefficient. In this case, the period is 2π/2 = π.

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3.7.A.2 The maximum and minimum output values can be used to determine or estimate the amplitude and
vertical shift for a sinusoidal function model.

Explanation:

The amplitude of a sinusoidal function refers to half the difference between the maximum and minimum
output values. It represents the maximum displacement of the function from its central position. The vertical
shift represents any upward or downward shift of the entire function. By analyzing the maximum and
minimum values of the function, we can determine or estimate the amplitude and vertical shift.

Sample Question:
2. Consider the function g(x) = 3sin(x) + 2. What is the amplitude and vertical shift of this function?

Answer:
The amplitude is half the difference between the maximum and minimum values of sine function, which is
3/2. The vertical shift is given by the constant term in the function, which is 2.

3.7.A.3 An actual pair of input-output values can be compared to pairs of input-output values produced by a
sinusoidal function model to determine or estimate a phase shift for the model.

Explanation:
The phase shift of a sinusoidal function represents the horizontal shift of its graph compared to the standard
form of the function y = A*sin(B(x - C)) + D. To determine or estimate the phase shift, we can compare an
actual pair of input-output values from the given data with the corresponding pairs of input-output values
produced by the sinusoidal function model.

Sample Question:
3. The graph of a sinusoidal function crosses the x-axis at x = π/4. What is the phase shift of the function?

Answer:
The phase shift can be determined by comparing the given x-coordinate with the standard form of the
function. In the standard form, the phase shift is represented by the value of C. So, in this case, the phase
shift is π/4.

3.7.A.4 Technology can be used to find an appropriate sinusoidal function model for a data set.

Explanation:
Technology, such as graphing calculators or mathematical software, can be utilized to fit a sinusoidal
function model to a given data set. By plotting the data points and using curve-fitting techniques, the
technology can provide the equation of a sinusoidal function that best represents the data.

Sample Question:
4. Given a set of data points, use technology to find an appropriate sinusoidal function model that fits the
data: (1, 3), (2, 5), (3, 7), (4, 5).

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Answer:
Using graphing software, plot the data points and use curve-fitting tools to find the best sinusoidal function
model. For example, the software may provide the equation f(x) = 2sin(x) + 4 that fits the given data.

3.7.A.5 Sinusoidal functions that model a dataset are frequently only useful over their contextual domain
and can be used to predict values of the dependent variable from a value of the independent variable.

Explanation:
When using a sinusoidal function to model a dataset, it is important to consider the contextual domain over
which the function is valid. Sinusoidal functions are periodic, and their predictions for dependent variables
beyond the contextual domain may not be accurate. However, within the contextual domain, sinusoidal
functions can be utilized to predict values of the dependent variable based on a given value of the
independent variable.

Sample Question:
5. A sinusoidal function models the temperature of a location over a 24-hour period. Can this function
accurately predict the temperature after 72 hours?

Answer:
No, a sinusoidal function with a 24-hour period is only valid within the 24-hour interval. Predictions beyond
the 24-hour period may not be accurate, as the function assumes that the pattern within one day repeats
itself. Therefore, the function may not accurately predict the temperature after 72 hours.

3.8 The Tangent Function

3.8.A Construct representations of the tangent function using the unit circle.

3.8.A.1 Given an angle of measure θ in standard position and a unit circle centered at the origin, there is a
point, P , where the terminal ray intersects the circle. The tangent function, f(θ) = tanθ, gives the slope of
the terminal ray.

To construct representations of the tangent function, we use the unit circle and draw a horizontal line from
the point P where the terminal ray intersects the circle to the y-axis. The point where the line intersects the
y-axis represents the value of the tangent function for that particular angle.

For example, if we have an angle of 30 degrees in standard position, we draw a unit circle and place the
terminal ray at 30 degrees. The point P where the terminal ray intersects the circle has coordinates (cos(30),
sin(30)) = (√3/2, 1/2). We then draw a horizontal line from P to the y-axis, which intersects the y-axis at
√3/3. This value is the tangent of 30 degrees, so we write f(30) = tan(30) = √3/3.

3.8.A.2 Because the slope of the terminal ray is the ratio of the change in the y-values to the change in the x
values between any two points on the ray, the tangent function is also the ratio of the sine function to the
cosine function. Therefore, tanθ = sinθ, where cosθ≠0.

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This means that we can also find the value of the tangent function by dividing the value of the sine function
by the value of the cosine function for that particular angle.

For example, if we have an angle of 45 degrees in standard position, we draw a unit circle and place the
terminal ray at 45 degrees. The point P where the terminal ray intersects the circle has coordinates (cos(45),

sin(45)) = (√2/2, √2/2). The value of the sine function for 45 degrees is √2/2 and the value of the cosine
function is also √2/2. Therefore, f(45) = tan(45) = sin(45)/cos(45) = (√2/2)/(√2/2) = 1.

Sample question:

Given an angle of 60 degrees, construct a representation of the tangent function using the unit

circle. Solution:

We draw a unit circle and place the terminal ray at 60 degrees. The point P where the terminal ray intersects
the circle has coordinates (cos(60), sin(60)) = (1/2, √3/2). We then draw a horizontal line from P to the y
axis, which intersects the y-axis at √3. This value is the tangent of 60 degrees, so we write f(60) = tan(60) =
√3.

3.8.B Describe key characteristics of the tangent function.

3.8.B.1 Because the slope values of the terminal ray repeats every one-half revolution of the circle, the
tangent function has a period of π.

This means that the graph of the tangent function repeats every π radians, or every 180 degrees.

3.8.B.2 The tangent function demonstrates periodic asymptotic behavior at input values θ = π + kπ, for
integer values of k, 2 because cosθ = 0 at those values.

This means that the graph of the tangent function approaches infinity or negative infinity at these input
values, as the denominator of the ratio (cosθ) becomes zero.

3.8.B.3 The tangent function increases and its graph changes from concave down to concave up between
consecutive asymptotes.

This means that the graph of the tangent function becomes steeper as we approach an asymptote and flips
direction at each asymptote.

Sample question:

Describe the key characteristics of the tangent function.

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Solution:

The tangent function has a period of π, meaning that the graph repeats every π radians, or every 180
degrees. The tangent function also demonstrates periodic asymptotic behavior at input values θ = π + kπ,
for integer values of k, 2 because cosθ = 0 at those values, causing the graph to approach infinity or
negative infinity. The tangent function increases and its graph changes from concave down to concave up
between consecutive asymptotes, making the graph steeper as we approach an asymptote and flipping
direction at each asymptote.

3.8.C Describe additive and multiplicative transformations involving the tangent function.

3.8.C.1 The graph of the additive transformation g(θ) = tanθ + d of the tangent function f(θ) = tanθ is a
vertical translation of the graph of f and the line containing its inflection points by d units.

This means that the graph of the tangent function shifts vertically by the value of d.

3.8.C.2 The graph of the additive transformation g(θ) = tan(θ + c) of the tangent function f(θ) = tanθ is a
horizontal translation, or phase shift, of the graph of f by −c units.

This means that the graph of the tangent function shifts horizontally by the value of c.

3.8.C.3 The graph of the multiplicative transformation g(θ) = a tanθ of the tangent function f(θ) = tanθ is a
vertical dilation of the graph of f by a factor of a. If a < 0, the transformation involves a reflection over the
x-axis.

This means that the graph of the tangent function stretches or shrinks vertically by a factor of a. If a is
negative, the transformation also involves a reflection over the x-axis.

3.8.C.4 The graph of the multiplicative transformation g(θ) = tan(bθ) of the tangent function f(θ) = tanθ is a
horizontal dilation of the graph of f and differs in period by a factor of b1. If b < 0, the transformation
involves a reflection over the y-axis.

This means that the graph of the tangent function stretches or shrinks horizontally by a factor of b and the
period of the function changes. If b is negative, the transformation also involves a reflection over the y-axis.

3.8.C.5 The graph of y = f(θ) = a tan(b(θ + c)) + d is a vertical dilation of the graph of y = tanθ by a factor of
a, has a period of 1 π units, is a vertical shift of the line containing the inflection points of the graph of y =
tanθ by d units, and is a phase shift of −c units.

This means that the graph of the tangent function stretches or shrinks vertically by a factor of a and shifts
vertically by the value of d. The period of the function is 1 π units and the graph shifts horizontally by the
value of c.

Sample question:

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Given f(θ) = tanθ, describe the transformation represented by g(θ) = 3tan(2θ - π/4) +

2. Solution:

The multiplicative transformation tan(2θ - π/4) stretches the graph horizontally by a factor of 2 and shifts it
horizontally to the right by π/8. The period of the function becomes 1 π/2 units. The additive transformation
3tan(2θ - π/4) vertically stretches the graph by a factor of 3 and shifts it vertically up by 2. Therefore, the
graph represented by g(θ) = 3tan(2θ - π/4) + 2 is vertically stretched by a factor of 3, horizontally stretched

by a factor of 2, shifts horizontally to the right by π/8, and shifts vertically up by 2. The period of the
function becomes 1 π/2 units.

3.9 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

3.9.A.1 For inverse trigonometric functions, the input and output values are switched from their
corresponding trigonometric functions, so the output value of an inverse trigonometric function is often
interpreted as an angle measure and the input is a value in the range of the corresponding trigonometric
function.

Example:
Let's consider the sine function. The sine function takes an angle measure as input and gives the ratio of the
opposite side to the hypotenuse as output. The inverse sine function takes a ratio of the opposite side to the
hypotenuse as input and gives an angle measure as output.

Question: Find the value of angle θ if sin(θ) = 0.5.

Solution: Using the inverse sine function, we have sin^(-1)(0.5) = θ. In this case, θ is equal to 30 degrees or
π/6 radians.

3.9.A.2 The inverse trigonometric functions are called arcsine, arccosine, and arctangent (also represented
as sin^(-1)x, cos^(-1)x, and tan^(-1)x). Because the corresponding trigonometric functions are periodic, they
are only invertible if they have restricted domains.

Example:
Let's consider the cosine function. The cosine function takes an angle measure as input and gives the ratio of
the adjacent side to the hypotenuse as output. Since the cosine function is periodic with a period of 2π, it is
not invertible over its entire domain. To make it invertible, we need to restrict its domain to a specific
interval.

Question: Find the value of angle θ if cos(θ) = 0.5, with a domain restriction of [0, π]. Solution: Using
the inverse cosine function with the restricted domain, we have cos^(-1)(0.5) = θ. In this case, θ is equal
to 60 degrees or π/3 radians.

3.9.A.3 In order to define their respective inverse functions, the domain of the sine function is restricted to
[- π/2, π/2], the cosine function to [0,π], and the tangent function to (-π/2, π/2).

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Example:
Let's consider the tangent function. The tangent function takes an angle measure as input and gives the ratio
of the opposite side to the adjacent side as output. To make the tangent function invertible, we need to
restrict its domain to a specific interval.

Question: Find the value of angle θ if tan(θ) = 1.5, with a domain restriction of (-π/2, π/2). Solution:
Using the inverse tangent function with the restricted domain, we have tan^(-1)(1.5) = θ. In this case, θ
is equal to approximately 56.31 degrees or 1.03 radians.

Sample Question:

1. Find the value of angle θ if cos(θ) = -0.6, with a domain restriction of [0,π].
Solution: Using the inverse cosine function with the restricted domain, we have cos^(-1)(-0.6) = θ. In this
case, θ is equal to approximately 131.81 degrees or 2.30 radians.

Explanation: The inverse cosine function gives the principal value of the angle between 0 and π which has a
cosine value of -0.6.

Overall, the inverse trigonometric functions allow us to find angle measures given the ratios of sides or vice
versa. It is important to understand the restricted domains and the difference between the trigonometric and
inverse trigonometric functions.

3.10 Trigonometric Equations & Inequalities

3.10.A Solve equations and inequalities involving trigonometric functions.

3.10.A.1 Inverse trigonometric functions are useful in solving equations and inequalities
involving trigonometric functions, but solutions may need to be modified due to domain
restrictions.

When dealing with trigonometric equations, we can use inverse trigonometric functions to help solve for
angles. However, when using inverse trig functions, we must be aware of the limited domain of the inverse
function. For example, the inverse sine function can only give us angles between -π/2 and π/2. If our
equation or inequality includes angles outside of this domain, we must modify our solution.

Example 1: Solve for x in the equation sin x = 0.5

We can use the inverse sine function to solve for x: sin⁻¹(0.5) = 30°. However, we must also consider that sin
is positive in both the first and second quadrants, so our answer must be modified to include the angle in the
second quadrant: x = 180°-30° or x = 150°.

3.10.A.2 Because trigonometric functions are periodic, there are often infinite solutions to
trigonometric equations.

Since trigonometric functions repeat their values every 2π radians, there may be multiple solutions to a

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trigonometric equation. We can use the general solution format to express all of the possible solutions. For
example, for sin x = 1, we know that x must equal π/2 + 2kπ, where k is an integer that specifies which
cycle of the sine function we are looking at.

Example 2: Solve for x in the equation cos x = -0.5

We can use the inverse cosine function to find one solution: cos⁻¹(-0.5) = 120°. However, we also know that
cosine is negative in the second and third quadrants, so there must be two other solutions. We can use the
general solution format: x = 120° + 360°k or x = 240° + 360°k, where k is an integer.

3.10.A.3In trigonometric equations and inequalities arising from a contextual scenario, there is often a
domain restriction that can be implied from the context, which limits the number of solutions.

When working with contextual problems, we may be able to understand the domain of the trigonometric
function based on the context given. For example, if we are working with angles that represent the height of
an object, the domain must be limited to angles between 0 and π/2.

Example 3: A ladder is resting against a wall, forming an angle of 60° with the ground. If the ladder is 20
feet long, how high does it reach on the wall?

We know that the angle formed by the ladder and the ground is 60°, so we can use the sine function to find
the height of the ladder on the wall: sin 60° = opposite/20. Solving for the opposite side, we get a height of
17.3 feet. However, we know that the height must be positive, so we must restrict our domain to 0° < θ <
90°.

Sample questions:

1. Solve for x in the equation cos x = 0.8. Give your answer in degrees.

Answer: x = 36.9° or x = 323.1°

Explanation: The inverse cosine function gives us the solution cos⁻¹(0.8) = 36.9°. However, since cosine is
positive in both the first and fourth quadrants, we must also consider the angle x = 360° - 36.9° = 323.1°.

2. Solve for x in the inequality 2sin x > 1, where 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.

Answer: x ∈ (30°, 150°) U (210°, 330°)

Explanation: We can start by dividing both sides of the inequality by 2: sin x > 0.5. Using the inverse sine
function, we find the solutions sin⁻¹(0.5) = 30° and 150°. However, we must also consider that sine is
positive in both the first and second quadrants, so we can include the angles 30° + 360°k and 150° + 360°k.
Finally, we must remove any angles that do not satisfy the original inequality, resulting in the solution x ∈
(30°, 150°) U (210°, 330°).

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3. A Ferris wheel with a diameter of 240 feet makes one complete revolution in 3 minutes. At what height
above the ground is a rider after 1.5 minutes?

Answer: 120 feet

Explanation: We can start by finding the period of the sine function that represents the height of the rider on
the Ferris wheel: T = 3 minutes. Since the diameter of the Ferris wheel is 240 feet, the amplitude of the sine
function is 120 feet. The starting point of the ride is a height of 120 feet, so we can write a sine function
using these parameters: h(θ) = 120 sin(θπ/180 - π/2). After 1.5 minutes, the angle traversed is θ = 90°, so we
can evaluate the sine function: h(90°) = 120 feet.

3.11 The Secant, Cosecant, and Cotangent Functions

3.11.A.1 The secant function, f(θ) = secθ, is one of the trigonometric functions that is defined as the
reciprocal of the cosine function, where cosθ is not equal to zero. The secant function can also be defined as

the ratio of the hypotenuse to the adjacent side of a right triangle. For instance, if a right triangle has an
angle of θ and an adjacent side of length 2 with a hypotenuse of length 5, then we can determine the value of
secθ as follows:

secθ = hypotenuse / adjacent = 5 / 2

The secant function has vertical asymptotes where cosθ equals zero, which occurs when the argument (the
value inside the trigonometric function) of secθ equals to (2n + 1)π/2, where n is an integer. These vertical
asymptotes divide the real line into intervals on which the function is either positive or negative. The range
of the secant function is (-∞,-1] u [1,∞).

Example Question: Evaluate the value of sec(π/6).

Solution: We know that cos(π/6) is equal to √3/2, so sec(π/6) is equal to 1/cos(π/6), which is equal to 2/√3.

3.11.A.2 The cosecant function, f(θ) = cscθ, is another trigonometric function that is defined as the
reciprocal of the sine function, where sinθ is not equal to zero. The cosecant function can also be defined as
the ratio of the hypotenuse to the opposite side of a right triangle. For example, if a right triangle has an
angle of θ and an opposite side of length 3 with a hypotenuse of length 5, then we can find the value of cscθ
as follows:

cscθ = hypotenuse / opposite = 5 / 3

The cosecant function has vertical asymptotes where sinθ equals zero, which occurs when the argument of
cscθ equals to nπ, where n is an integer. These vertical asymptotes divide the real line into intervals on
which the function is either positive or negative. The range of the cosecant function is (-∞,-1] u [1,∞).

Example Question: Evaluate the value of csc(3π/4).

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Solution: We know that sin(3π/4) is equal to √2/2, so csc(3π/4) is equal to 1/sin(3π/4), which is equal to √2.

3.11.A.4 The cotangent function, f(θ) = cotθ, is the reciprocal of the tangent function, where tanθ is not
equal to zero. The cotangent function can also be defined as the ratio of the adjacent side to the opposite side
of a right triangle. For instance, if a right triangle has an angle of θ and an adjacent side of length 4 and an
opposite side of length 3, then we can determine the value of cotθ as follows:

cotθ = adjacent / opposite = 4 / 3

The cotangent function has vertical asymptotes where tanθ equals zero, which occurs when the argument of
cotθ equals to nπ, where n is an integer. These vertical asymptotes divide the real line into intervals on
which the function is either positive or negative. Furthermore, the cotangent function is also decreasing
between consecutive asymptotes.

Example Question: Evaluate the value of cot(7π/4).

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