Definition of Irrigation

• The process of artificial application of water to the soil

for the growth of agricultural crop during periods of
inadequate rainfall.
• Is a science of planning and designing, to apply water
artificially to the agricultural land in accordance with the
“crop water requirements” through the “crop period” for
full-fledged nourishment of the crop.
• Main sources of food, shelter and clothes are plants.
• Adequate quantity and quality of water required in the
root zone of the plant.
 Necessity of irrigation
• Insufficient rainfall:
• Uneven distribution of rainfall:
• Improvement of perennial crops yield:
• Development of agriculture in the desert areas:
• Insurance of drought:
 Sources of Irrigation:

1. Rainfall
2. Surface Water
3. Ground Water
 1. Rainfall:
• Rainfall can directly help irrigation by precipitation occurring
over the crop area or indirectly by adding its runoff to the
rivers.
• This runoff is then stored by weir, barrage or dam
downstream or it may replenish as an underground reservoir.
• Direct rainfall is the most helpful for the plant and crop
growth if it occurs in proper amount at proper time .
• But it is unreliable as a source of irrigation water.
• It varies from year to year and it may fall altogether.
• It is irregularly distributed throughout the year as well as
within the same season.
 2. Surface Water:
• Surface water include water diverted from the
stream and stored into dams and barrages and then
applied to the land through canals or pumped from
rivers, lakes and canals .
 3. Ground Water:
• In terai & valleys, we have enormous ground water reservoirs.
In rainy season, due to rain, most of water seeps into the earth
thus raising the water table in ground.
• This water is then taken out with the help of pumps and tube
wells for irrigation purpose. The areas for which there is no
access of canals, there we can get water for irrigation from
underground sources of water.
 Types of irrigation System

1. Gravity Flow or Surface Water Flow Irrigation

2. Reservoir Irrigation
3. Lift Irrigation
 Gravity Flow Irrigation
• Is providing water where water flow is
due to gravity, not under any
mechanical means
• Due to gravity water flows from higher
areas to the lower areas
• Silt in the canal water has a manure
value (fertilizing agent).
• most canal irrigation in our country is
gravity irrigation system
• is cheaper and the quality of water is
very good because of the presence of
silt content
 Reservoir irrigation
• If the runoff is more than the required amount then
headwork and barrages are constructed to store the water
• A head work consists of a weir, canal head regulator, gate
structure (barrage). So, a headwork is a complete system of
structures. Whereas barrage is a part of a headwork, it is
constructed in the path of the river to obstruct water.
• The flow of a river is seasonal flow. So in order to regulate
the flow the reservoirs are constructed in order to
1. Fulfill the irrigation requirements
2. Generate the hydraulic power
3. Regulate the river flow so as to avoid flood
 Lift Irrigation:
• When the main source is at the lower level than the supply level
then we try to supply water by using some mechanical means,
such type of irrigation is known as Lift Irrigation.
• This can be done by the following methods,
(a) Lift from canals
(b)Open Wells
(c) Tube wells
 Lift From canals (Rivers):
• Pumps are used to lift the water from canals or rivers
at lower level to the area at higher level for irrigation
purpose.
 Open Wells:
• There are some open holes whose depth intercepts
the water table.
• So the water is taken out from lower level to the
surface for irrigation purpose by adopting different
manual and mechanical methods
 Tube Wells
• It is the lifting of water by pumping from underground
reservoir.
• Extensive surface irrigation results in an increase in the ground
water level due to percolation and seepage which causes water
logging in large areas. Irrigation by this method will reduce the
yield.
• Tube well irrigation offers a remedial measure by providing
sub-surface drainage.
• Tube well irrigation can be obtained more quickly than from
surface water project.
• Large capital costs involve in canal irrigation for the
construction of dam, canal and headwork system but tube well
construction cost is very less.
 Advantages of Irrigation
1. Yield of Crops:
2. Protection from famine:
3. Improvement in cash crops:
4. Prosperity of farmers:
5. Source of revenue:
6. Hydroelectric Power generation:
7. Water Supply:
8. Inland Navigation
9. Afforestation
 Demerits of Irrigation

1. Rising of water table:

2. Formation of marshy land:
3. Formation of Dampness:
4. Loss of valuable lands:
 History of Irrigation Development in Nepal

1. Primary phase or the period prior to planned

development, i.e., Before 1956;
2. Infrastructure development phase (1957-1970);
3. Intensive development phase (1971-1985); and
4. Integrated development phase (1986-date).
 Primary Phase (Before 1956)
• Irrigation facilities constructed in the Kathmandu valley during
Lichhvi period and Malla period such as Raj Kulos of which the traces
are still found are the oldest ones under primary phase.
• King Ram Shah of Gorkha had special contribution in irrigation
management aspect by empowering local people in irrigation related
dispute resolution.
• During the Rana regime, Chandra Shumsher, with the assistance of
British engineers, had developed Chandra Canal system in 1928.
• The other irrigation facilities during primary phase are- Juddha Canal
in Sarlahi district, Jagadishpur Irrigation system in Kapilvastu district,
Pardi Irrigation system in Pokhara, etc.
• In addition to these, the irrigation systems developed with the
involvement of the State within this period covered 6,228 ha
 Infrastructure Development Phase (1957-1970)
• Irrigation facilities developed in 1st, 2nd and 3rd Plan periods fall under
infrastructure development phase.
• Nepal developed different irrigation facilities with the cooperation from
India and USA in this phase.
• Tika Bhairav, Mahadev Khola and Budhanilkantha irrigation systems in
the Kathmandu valley and Vijayapur irrigation system in Pokhara were
developed.
• Likewise, Sirsha, Dudhaura and Tilawe irrigation systems were developed
by the Indian engineers under the financial aid of the USA.
• Khageri (Chitwan), Kamala and Hardinath (Dhanusha), Kodku-Godavari
(Lalitpur), Pahsupati (Kathmandu), Jhanjh (Rautahat) and Tinau
(Rupandehi) are the examples of a few other irrigation systems that can
be cited in infrastructure development phase.
• Apart from these, irrigation systems, which were developed under the
Koshi and Gandak treaties with India, were also constructed during those
three plan periods.
 Intensive Development Phase (1971-1985)
• During 4th, 5th and 6th Plan periods, multilateral donor agencies
like the World Bank and the ADB came forward in aid of Nepal in
irrigation development.
• These agencies focused their assistance to convey irrigation water
to farmers’ fields with the canal network development from the
infrastructure already created and to initiate coordination between
irrigation and agricultural agencies, hence the name- intensive
development phase.
• Development of Kankai and Mahakali-I Irrigation Projects, initiation
of command area development in Narayani Zone Irrigation System,
etc., were carried out with these agencies’ assistance.
• During these plan periods, CARE Nepal had assisted to develop a
number of small irrigation systems covering a total of 10,000 ha.
• Bhairawa-Lumbini Groundwater, Marchawar Lift and Hill Irrigation
Projects were also initiated in this intensive development phase.
 Integrated Development Phase (1986-date)
• From the 7th Plan onward, i.e., since the mid eighties, there has been a
major paradigm shift in irrigation development.
• Construction oriented development has been given less importance and
new dimensions- such as farmers’ participation through organised
associations, rehabilitation of farmers’ canals, management transfer, etc.,
have been given more and more attention.
• Leaving Bagmati, Babai, Mahakali-II and Sikta Irrigation Projects aside, no
other major projects were taken up.
• Rehabilitations of small farmers’ canals were given high priority under
sectoral approach.
• Irrigation Sector Projects were implemented and the ongoing Community
Managed Irrigated Agriculture Support Project is being implemented in
Central and Eastern regions under the assistance of ADB.
• The World Bank version of these projects implemented in the remaining
three western regions are Irrigation Line of Credit Project, Nepal Irrigation
Sector Project and the IWRMP.
 Irrigation Status of Nepal

Of 1,766,000 hectares of irrigable land in Nepal served

by surface irrigation system (DoI, 2017), only 70% of
the command area is actually irrigated and only 38%
of this irrigated land has year-round service (CIP,
2012).
 Water resource potential of Nepal
• Nepal has abundant water resources, with annual discharge
of total 150 billion m3, and capable of irrigating 6-8 MT/ha.
• Hydropower potential is 83000 MW.
• Out of this, 45610 MW have been identified as economically
feasible (WECS 2011)
• Less than 8% of the country’s water potential is used for
irrigation (WECS, 2011)
• Avg. annual precipitation - 1530 mm
• Total surface water - 220 billion m3
Farm Water Management

2. Soil Water Plant Relationship

 Introduction
• Soil–plant–water relationships are related to the properties of
soil and plants that affect the movement and use of water.
• Soil provides the space for water, which is used by plants
through their roots.
• Water contains a large amount of dissolved nutrients, which
are essential for plant growth.
• If the rainfall is not adequate for plant growth, additional
water should be supplied through irrigation.
• The entry of water into the soil and its retention, movement
and availability to plant roots should be known for the
efficient management of irrigated agriculture.
 Soil-water-plant Relationship

• It can be divided & treated as:

o Soil-water relation
o Soil-plant relation
o Plant-water relations
 Soil
• Is a three-dimensional body occupying the upper part
of the earth’s crust
• Having properties differing from the underlying rock
material as a result of interactions between climate,
living organism, parent material
• The medium that supports the growth of most plants
 Role of Soil
1. Medium for plant growth:
2.Regulator of water supplies:
3. Recycler of raw materials:
4. Habitat for soil organisms:
5. Engineering medium:
 Physical Characteristics of Soil
• Effective soil depth
• Water holding capacity
• Porosity
• Topography
• Texture
• Soil Structure
• Soil Consistence
1) Wet soil - non sticky, sticky, non plastic, plastic
2) Moist soil - loose, friable, firm
3) Dry soil - loose, soft, and hard.
• Soil Permeability and Hydraulic Conductivity
 Soil Permeability and Hydraulic Conductivity
• Permeability - is the ease with which liquids, gases and
roots pass through the soil.
• Hydraulic conductivity is the permeability of the soil for
water. i.e. the ease with which the soil pores permit
water movement. It controls the soil water movement.
• The major factors affecting hydraulic conductivity are
texture and structure of soils. E.g.,
– Sandy soils have higher saturated conductivity than
finer textured soils.
– Soils with stable granular structure conduct water
rapidly than those with unstable structural units, since
they will not break down when get wetted.
– Fine textured soils, during dry weather (because of their
cracks) allow water rapidly then the cracks swell shut
and drastically reduce water movement.
 Quality of Irrigation Water
1. Salinity (soluble salt content):-
2. Amount of Exchangeable sodium:-
3. Soil Reaction (PH):
 1. Salinity (soluble salt content):-
• When the quantity of salts in irrigated land is too
high, the salts accumulate in the crop root zone.
• These salts create difficulty to crops in extracting
enough water from the salty solution.
• Thus, for the land to be of high value for irrigation,
the soluble salt content should be low as much as
possible.
 2. Amount of Exchangeable sodium:-
• When the amount of exchangeable sodium is high in
the soil, the soil will have large amount of Na+ in the
form of colloid.
• This results in tremendous reduction of the
permeability of the soil.
• This in turn makes it difficult to the crop to get
sufficient water and causes crusting of seedbeds.
• Such a soil is called Black alkali soil.
• Hence, the amount of exchangeable sodium should
be low in agricultural lands.
 3. Soil Reaction (PH):
• is a measure of its acidity or alkalinity.
• is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ion in a
soil.
• Excessively low or high pH values are not good for
proper growth and adequate yield production as they
bring about acidity or alkalinity in the soil.
 Soil- water relations
• Means that physical properties of soil in relation to water
• The rate of entry of water in to the soil and its retention,
movement and availability to plant roots are all physical
phenomena.
• Hence, it is important to know the physical properties of
soil in relation to water.
 Classes of Soil Water Availability
• Gravitational water; Capillary water; Hygroscopic water
• may also be classified as unavailable, available and
gravitational or superfluous.
• Refers to the availability of soil water to plants.
• Gravitational water drains quickly from the root zone under
normal drainage conditions.
• Unavailable water is held too tightly by capillary forces and is
generally not accessible to plant roots.
• Available water is the difference between gravitational and
unavailable water.
• Water drains from the soil under the constant pull of gravity.
• Sandy soils drain rapidly, while clay soils drain very slowly.
Hence, one day after irrigating a sandy soil has drained most
of the gravitational water, where as clay may require four or
more days for gravitational water to drain.
 Soil Moisture Constants
• Saturation Capacity: -
• Field capacity: - At field capacity, Soil Moisture Tension (SMT) is
between 1/10 – 1/3 atm.
• Field capacity can be determined by ponding water on a soil
surface in an area of about 2 to 5 m2 and allowing it to drain for
one to three days preventing surface evaporation. Then soil
samples are taken from different depths and the moisture content
is determined as usual, which gives the field capacity.
• Permanent Wilting Point: - The soil moisture tension at PWP
ranges from 7 to 32 atm, depending on the soil texture, kinds of
crops and salt content in the soil solution.
• Since the change in moisture content is insignificant for changes in
SMT from 7-32 atm. Hence, 15 atm is taken as SMT at PWP.
• At PWP the plant starts wilting, and if no water is given to the
plant, then it will die.
Soil Moisture Characteristics curve
Oven dry Unavailable to plants
Hygroscopic
Clay soil water
Ultimate wilting point
Wilting
range Available for survival
Permanent wilting Wilting coefficient
Capillary
Silt loam water
Available for growth
Sandy loam
Field capacity
saturation Limited part available
Gravity
Gravitational or free water water
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Soil Moisture content % (percent by Dry weight)
 Soil moisture regimes
1. Total available water (TAW)
• The soil moisture between field capacity and permanent wilting point is
called available water.
• This is the water available for plant use. Fine-grained soils generally have
a wider range of available moisture than course textured soil.
2. Management allowed deficit (MAD)/ Readily Available Moisture (RAM)
• The degree to which the volume of water in the soil is allowed to deplete
before the next irrigation is applied. That is portion of the available
moisture, which is easily extracted by the plant roots. It is commonly 60 –
80 % of the available water.
• MAD = f.(TAW), f depends on type of crop, and Crop growing stage.
3. Soil moisture deficit (SMD)
• The depletion of soil moisture below field capacity at the time that
particular soil moisture content is measured i.e. the amount of water
required to bring the soil moisture back to the field capacity. Deficit = FC–
soil moisture at that instant.
 Soil Moisture Regimes
1. Total available water, TAW
2. Management allowed deficit, MAD or Readily
Available Moisture, RAM
3. Soil moisture deficit, SMD
Soil moisture
Soil zone or Root zone

Intermediate zone

Capillary zone

Ground water zone

Impervious strata
 Land Evaluation
• The suitability of land for different uses is assessed
such as agriculture and the process is known as land
evaluation.
• Land evaluation for agricultural purpose provides
information for deciding ‘which crops to grow where’
and other related crops.
• Hence, before a land is put for certain land uses, its
suitability for that particular land use should be
evaluated.
 Crop Water Requirements
• The quantity of water required by a crop in a given period of
time for normal growth under field conditions.
• It includes evaporation and other unavoidable wastes.
• Usually water requirement for crop is expressed in water
depth per unit area.
• Mathematically,
 Factors affecting crop water requirements
1. Water table: If the water table is nearer to the ground surface, the water
requirement will be less & vice versa.
2. Climate: In hot climate the evaporation loss is more and hence the water
requirement will be more & vice versa.
3. Ground Slope: If the slope of the ground is steep the water requirement
will be more due to less absorption time for the soil.
4. Intensity of Irrigation: It is directly related to water requirement, the more
the intensity, greater will be the water required for a particular crop.
5. Type of Soil: In sandy soil water percolates easily so water required is
more. While in clayey soils water requirement is less.
6. Method of Application of water: In sprinkler method less water is required
as it just moist the soil like rainwater whereas in flood more water is
required.
7. Method of Ploughing: In deep ploughing less water is required and vice
versa.
 Consumptive Use of Water

• It is the quantity of water used by the vegetation growth

of a given area.
• Mathematically,

• It is expressed in terms of depth of water.

Factors Affecting the Consumptive Use of Water
1. Evaporation which depends on humidity.
2. Mean monthly temperature.
3. Growing season of crops and cropping pattern.
4. Monthly precipitation in area.
5. Wind velocity in locality.
6. Soil and topography.
7. Irrigation practices and method of irrigation.
8. Sunlight hours.
 Methods of Estimation of Consumptive Use
1. Direct Methods/Field Methods
(i) Vapour Transfer Method/Soil Moisture Studies
(ii) Field Plot Method
(iii) Tanks and Lysimeter
(iv) Integration Method/Summation Method
(v) Inflow Outflow Method
2. Empirical Methods
(i) Blaney-Criddle Method
(ii) Penman Equation
 (i) Vapour Transfer Method:
• In this method, soil moisture measurements are taken before
and after each irrigation.
• The quantity of water extracted per day from soil is computed
for each period.
• A curve is drawn by plotting the rate of use against time; and
from this curve, the seasonal use can be estimated.
• This method is suitable in those areas where soil is fairly
uniform and ground water is deep enough so that it does not
affect the fluctuations in the soil moisture within the root zone
of the soil.
• It is expressed in terms of volume i.e. Acre-feet or Hectare-
meter
 (ii) Field Plot Method:
• We select a representative plot of area and the accuracy
depends upon the representativeness of plot (cropping
intensity, exposure, etc).
• It replicates the conditions of an actual sample field (field
plot). Less seepage should be there.

• The drawback in this method is that lateral movement of

water takes place although more representative to field
condition.
• Also some correction has to be applied for deep percolation
as it cannot be ascertained in the field.
 (iii) Tanks and Lysimeter
• A watertight tank of cylindrical shape having diameter 2m and depth
about 3m is placed vertically on the ground.
• The tank is filled with sample of soil.
• The bottom of the tank consists of a sand layer and a pan for
collecting the surplus water.
• The plants grown in the Lysimeter should be the same as in the
surrounding field.
• The consumptive use of water is estimated by measuring the amount
of water required for the satisfactory growth of the plants within the
tanks.
• Consumptive use of water is given by,
Where,

• Lysimeter studies are time consuming and expensive.

 (iv) Integration Method:
• It is necessary to know the division of total area, i.e. under
irrigated crops, natural native vegetation area, water surface
area and bare land area.
• In this method, annual consumptive use for the whole area is
found in terms of volume. It is expressed in Acre feet or
Hectare meter.
• Mathematically,

• Where,
 (v) Inflow Outflow Method:
• In this method annual consumptive use is found for large areas.
If in the valley, consumptive use is given by,

Where,

• All the above volumes are measured in acre-feet or hectare-

meter.
 Penman Equation
• Was developed by Howard Penman in 1948, and predict
evaporation (E) from an open water surface.
• Requires daily mean temperature, wind speed, air pressure,
and solar radiation.
• Numerous variations of the Penman equation are used to
estimate evaporation from water, and land.
• Specifically the Penman–Monteith equation refines weather
based potential evapotranspiration (PET) estimates of
vegetated land areas.
 Penman Equation to Estimate PET
 Hn  Ea g
PET  Kc *
g
• PET = Daily Potential Evapotranspiration rate (mm/day)
• Kc = Crop Coefficient
• ∆ = slope of the saturation vapor pressure vs. temperature
curve at the mean air temperature, mmHg/°C
• Hn = net radiation of mm evaporable water per day
• Ea = parameter including wind velocity and saturation
deficit = 0.35(1+u2/160)(ew-ea)
• g = psychrometer constant = 0.49 mm Hg/°C
 ΔQ n  γ E a
Penman Equation: E0 
Δγ
• E0 = evaporation from an open water surface, mm/day
• Δ = slope of the saturation vapor pressure Vs temperature curve
(dea/dT) at the mean air temperature Ta, mmHg/°C [see figure]
• Ta = mean air temperature in K
• ea = saturation vapour pressure of the evaporating surface (es) in mm
Hg at mean air temperature Ta. [ see figure. Here, by assuming zero
temperature gradient between surface and air temperature, es=ea]
• Qn = net radiation (mm of water)
= QA (1-r)(0.18+0.55 n/N)-σTa4(0.55-0.092√ed)*(0.10+0.90 n/N)
• QA =Angot’s value of mean monthly extra-terrestial radiation, mm of
water/day
• r = reflection coefficient of evaporating surface, 0.6 for open water
surface
• n/N = ratio between actual and possible hours of bright sunshine
[see table]
• σ = Stafen-Boltzman constant [see table]
• e d = saturation vapour pressure of the atmosphere, in mm Hg, at
dew point temperature = ea* RHmean/100
• Ea = an aerodynamic component in which es is considered equal
to ea
= 0.35 (ea-ed)(1+0.0098u2)
• u2 = wind speed in miles /day at 2 metres height = u1(log 6.6/log
h)
• In which, u1 is wind speed in miles per day at any other height ‘h’
in feet.
• ɤ = psychrometer constant = 0.49 mm Hg/°C
 Limitation of Penman method
• Needs many meteorological parameters which are only
possible for well-established meteorological station.
• The long equation makes the computation of heat
balance and aerodynamic components tedious.
 Modified Penman Equation
• The original Penman equation predicts evaporation losses from an open
water surface (Eo) and experimentally determined crop coefficients
(ranging from 0.6 in winter months to 0.8 in summer months) relates Eo to
grass evapotranspiration for the climate in England.
• Consists of two terms: the radiation term and the aerodynamic (wind and
humidity) term
• The relative importance of the terms varies with climatic conditions
• The original Penman equation using a crop coefficient of 0.8 predicts ETo
closely in humid and semi-arid regions worldwide.
• Under windy conditions and in arid regions the aerodynamic term is more
important and errors can result in predicting ETo when using 0.8 Eo
• Doorenbos and Pruit (1975, 1977) proposed a modified Penman method,
for estimating fairly accurate reference crop ETo and gave tables and
graphs to facilitate the necessary computations.
ETo = c[W.Rn+(1-W). f(u).(ea-ed)
Radiation Term Aerodynamic Term
 ETo = c[W.Rn+(1-W). f(u).(ea-ed)
In which,
• ETo = the reference crop evaporatranspiration in mm/day
• ea=saturation vapour pressure in mbar at the mean air temperature in oC
[see table]
• ed=mean actual vapour pressure of the air in mbar = ea*Rhmean/100
• f(u)= a wind related function [see table]
• (1-W) = a temperature and elevation related weighting factor for the
effect of wind and humidity on ETo [see table]
• W = a temperature and elevation related weighting factor for the effect of
radiation on ETo [see table]
• Rn= net radiation ( same as Qn = Rns-Rnl)
• Rns = the net incoming shortwave solar radiation [see table]
• Rnl= the net long wave radiation [see table]
• c = adjustment factor to compensate for the effect of day and night
weather conditions [see table]
 Blaney-Criddle Method
• U= ∑u= ∑(k*f), cm
In which,
• U = seasonal consumptive use of water by the crop for a given
period, cm
• u= monthly consumptive use of water by the crop, cm
• k= empirical consumptive use crop coefficient for the month,
• f = monthly consumptive use factor, it is determined by formula as;
= p(0.045T+0.813)
T= mean of daily maximum and minimum temperature in 0C over the
month
p= monthly daylight hours expressed in % of day light hours of a year
[see table]
Farm Water Management

Field water losses

Lectures Slide by Er. D R Bagale

 IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY:
The ratio of the amount of water available (output) to the amount
of water supplied (input) is known as Irrigation Efficiency. It is
expressed in percentage.

The following are the various types of irrigation efficiencies,

(a) Water Conveyance Efficiency
(b) Water Application Efficiency
(c) Water Use Efficiency
(d) Water Distribution Efficiency

Lectures Slide by Er. D R Bagale

 Water Conveyance Efficiency
• It is the ratio of the amount of water applied to the
land, to the amount of water supplied from the
reservoir.
• It is obtained by the expression,

Where,

Lectures Slide by Er. D R Bagale

 Water Application Efficiency
• It is the ratio of the water stored in root zone of plants
to the water applied to the land.
• It is obtained by the expression,

• Where,

Lectures Slide by Er. D R Bagale

 Water Storage Efficiency

water stored in the root zone during irrigation

ηs  *100 %
Water needed in the root zone prior to irrigation

Lectures Slide by Er. D R Bagale

 Water Use Efficiency
• It is the ratio of the amount of water beneficially used
(including leaching) to the amount of water applied.
• It is obtained by the expression,

Where,

Lectures Slide by Er. D R Bagale

 Water Distribution Efficiency

 d
η d  1  
 D
where,
D  mean depth of water stored during irrigation
d  Average of the absolute values of the deviation from mean

Lectures Slide by Er. D R Bagale

 Base period, duty and delta
1. Duty of water: is the relation between the area of the land
irrigated and the quantity of water required.
• Duty (D) is defined as the area of the land, which can be irrigated if
one cumec (m3/sec) of water was applied to the land continuously
for the entire base period of the crop and it is expressed in
hectares/cumecs.
2. Base period (B): is the period between the first watering and the
last watering.
• The base period is slightly different from the crop period, which is
the period between the time of sowing and the time of harvesting
the crop.
 Base period, duty and delta
3. Delta (∆): is the total depth of water required by a crop during
the entire base period. If the entire quantity of applied water
were spread uniformly on the land surface, the depth of water
would have been equal to delta.
• Thus the delta (in m) of any crop can be determined by dividing
the total quantity of water (in ha-m) required by the crop, by the
area of the land (in ha).
• Delta (∆) = Total quantity of water (ha-m)
• Total area of land (ha)
 Relation Between Duty, Base Period And Delta
Considering the area of land of D-hectares and if Duty is expressed in
ha/cumecs the total quantity of water used in the base period of B
days is equal to that obtained by a continuous flow of 1 cumec for B
days.
Quantity of water= 1*B*24*60*60*, m3 -------------------------- (a)
If Delta (∆) is the total depth of water in meters supplied to the land of
D- hectares, the quantity of water is also given by:
Quantity of water = (D *104)* ∆ m3 ------------------------------ (b)
Equating the volumes of water given in eqns (a) and (b)
1*B*24*60*60* = (D*10 4)* ∆

8.64 B
D Where D = in ha/cumec
 ∆ = in m
B = in days
 Factors affecting Duty
Duty of water depends up on different factors. In general, the
smaller the losses, the greater are duty because one cumec of
water will be able to irrigate larger area.
• Type of soil
• Type of crop and base period
• Structure of soil
• Slop of ground
• Climatic condition
• Method of application of water
• Salt content of soil
Counteracting all the factors that decrease the duty by decreasing
various losses, may improve duty of water.
 Number of Watering:
• The total depth of water required by a crop is not applied at one
time but it is supplied over the base period by stages depending
upon requirement,
• these numbers of stages are known as “Number of Watering”
• Paleo:
• The initial watering which is done on the land to provide
moisture to the soil just before sowing any crop is known as
paleo or paleva.

Lectures Slide by Er. D R Bagale

 Kor Watering & Kor Period:
Kor Watering:
• The first watering which is done when the crop has
grown to about three centimetres is called Kor
Watering.

Kor Period:
• The portion of the base period in which Kor watering is
needed is called “Kor Period”

Lectures Slide by Er. D R Bagale

 Cumec Day:
• The quantity of water flowing continuously for one
day at the rate of one cumec is known as cumec day.

Lectures Slide by Er. D R Bagale

 Command area of irrigation system
– GCA, CCA and NCA
Gross Command Area (G.C.A):
The whole area enclosed between an imaginary boundary lines which can be included
in an irrigation project for supplying water to agricultural land by the network of
canals is known as Gross command Area (G.C.A). It includes both the culturable
and unculturable areas.
Mathematically,

Unculturable Command Area (Un-C.C.A):

The area where the agriculture cannot be done and crops cannot be grown is known
as unculturable area. The marshy lands, lakes, ponds, forests, villages etc are
considered as unculturable.
Culturable Command Area (C.C.A):
The total area within an irrigation project where the cultivation can be done and crops
can be grown.
Mathematically,

Lectures Slide by Er. D R Bagale

 Intensity of Irrigation:
• It is defined as the ratio of cultivated land for a particular crop
to the total C.C.A. It is expressed as % of C.C.A.
• For example, if the total C.C.A is 1000 hectares where wheat is
cultivated in 250 hectares
• Then,

Area to Be Irrigated:
It is the product of C.C.A and the intensity of irrigation.
Mathematically,

Lectures Slide by Er. D R Bagale

 Time Factor:
• The ratio of the number of days the canal has actually been
kept open to the number of days the canal was designed to
remain open during the base period is known as time factor.
• Mathematically,

• For example, a canal was designed to kept open for 15 days, but
it was practically kept open for 10 days for supplying water to
the culturable area, then the time factor is 10/15 = 0.667

Lectures Slide by Er. D R Bagale

 Capacity Factor:
• It is the ratio of the average discharge to the maximum
discharge (design discharge).
• Mathematically,

• For example, a canal was designed or the maximum discharge

of 50 cumecs, but the average discharge is 40 cumecs, then
the capacity factor is 40/50 = 0.8

Lectures Slide by Er. D R Bagale

Farm Water Management

5. Irrigation Scheduling

Lectures Slide By:- Er. D R Bagale

 Irrigation Scheduling
• Is the process of determining the time to irrigate and how
much water is to be applied (depth) in each irrigation.
• Proper scheduling is essential for the efficient use of water and
other inputs in crop production
• Irrigation schedules are planned to either fully or partially
provide the estimated water requirement of the crop.
• is one of the factors that influence the agronomic and
economic viability of small farms.
• Irrigation scheduling at farm level results in a delivery
schedule, i.e. a plan or, in the best cases, a real-time decision
on when, how long and with which flow rate, expressed in
absolute value or as a sharing proportion, water should be
delivered at the farm gate
Lectures Slide By:- Er. D R Bagale
 Indicators for Irrigation Scheduling
• Visual Plant symptoms
• Plant water content and water potential
• Plant temperature
• Soil-water regime
• Irrigation schedule based on prediction of ET
• Irrigation schedule based on pan evaporation

Lectures Slide By:- Er. D R Bagale

 General Guidelines on Planning Irrigation
Schedules
1. Adjusting irrigation depth for non-peak periods
2. Adjusting irrigation schedule to rainfall
occurring during the growing season

Lectures Slide By:- Er. D R Bagale

Increasing Water Use Efficiency by Crop Planning

• Plant species adaptation

• Planting pattern
• Planting date
• Weed control
• Disease and insect pests

Lectures Slide By:- Er. D R Bagale

 Qualitative features of deliveries

• Reliability
• Equity
• Flexibility

Lectures Slide By:- Er. D R Bagale

 Reliability
• Reliability of deliveries is a prerequisite for the
application of any irrigation scheduling
• The requirements for reliability are:
– A design of the conveyance and delivery system that must be
not only technically sound from the hydraulic, constructional
and operational points of view, but also consistent with both
the service required and the local conditions.
– A good-quality construction for both the works and the
equipment, all in accordance with the specifications and
drawing resulting from the above design.
– Proper operation and maintenance (O&M) of the system,
which implies good organization and dedication from the
managing level to the field O&M level, as well as enough
budgetary resources to cover maintenance costs.
Lectures Slide By:- Er. D R Bagale
 Equity
• Equity, i.e., deliveries in proportion to the cropped
areas served, is the leading principle of delivery
scheduling in most projects, especially run-of-the-river
schemes and where water is scarce.
• Such systems can be implemented and operated with
very simple non-adjustable structures and equipment
and no communication facilities.
• Operational and managing requirements are thus
reduced to a minimum.

Lectures Slide By:- Er. D R Bagale

 Flexibility
• Delivering water with a high degree of flexibility and
reliability depends not only on technical means, but
also requires:
– a decentralization of decisions and responsibilities based
on the breakdown of the delivery system into 'levels of
service' (e.g. main canal level, secondary canals level,
etc.), each one being responsible for providing a well-
defined service to the next lower one;
– the institution of seasonal or yearly water allocations, so
as to avoid or, at least, minimize the water wastage and
inequities that may result from flexible schedules, and
especially from on-demand schedules

Lectures Slide By:- Er. D R Bagale

 How To Improve Operational Flexibility
1. Flexibility through on-farm measures in spite of rigid
deliveries
2. Flexibility of main system operation through a proper
design process
3. Automation
4. Computer-aided manual operation and overall water
management

Lectures Slide By:- Er. D R Bagale

 Irrigation water delivery methods
• Continuous,
• Rotational, and
• Demand based

Lectures Slide By:- Er. D R Bagale

 Continuous
• In the continuous flow system, water flows all the time
in the mains, secondary and tertiary canals.
• Water can be taken by individual farmers at the time of
need.
• This system is possible only when water is abundant
and not limiting.
• By far in all large irrigation systems, rotational method
is practiced where water is delivered to the farmers by
a system of rotation pre-decided in the project.

Lectures Slide By:- Er. D R Bagale

 Rotational
• Rotational system can be for main canals, laterals,
tertiary units or within the tertiary units.
• Rotations within the tertiary units and among the
tertiary units are the most commonly followed in the
major irrigation systems in the Asian region.

Lectures Slide By:- Er. D R Bagale

 Demand Based
• In the demand method water is delivered to
individual farms or crops as per the requirement.
• This is possible in relatively smaller systems.
• In large systems because of the distances and the
large number of farmers, it is practically impossible
to implement this procedure.

Lectures Slide By:- Er. D R Bagale

Lectures Slide By:- Er. D R Bagale
 IRRIGATION INTERVAL OR FREQUENCY

• This is the number of days between two consecutive

irrigations, I, f = d ÷ ETc,
Where,
d is the net depth of irrigation application in
millimeters and
ETc is the daily crop evapotranspiration in millimetres
per day.
• Example: Where d is 19.8 mm, and ETc is 2.5 mm/d,
then I, f = 19.8 ÷ 2.5 = 8 days.

Lectures Slide By:- Er. D R Bagale

Farm Water Management

6.Farm Irrigation Methods

 Uncontrolled
flooding

Border
Surface
Check Basin
Sub-surface Deep

Farm Furrow
Irrigation Corrugation
Methods Rotating
head
Sprinkler
Perforated
pipe
Drip
 Surface Irrigation Methods
• Refers to a broad class of irrigation in which the soil
surface conveys and distributes water over the
irrigated field and at the same time infiltrates into the
underlying profile.

• Is the oldest and still the most widely used method of

water application to agricultural land.
 Advantages of surface irrigation
• It is more acceptable to agriculturalists that appreciate the
effect of water shortage on crop yield since it appears easier
to apply the depth required to fill the root zone
• It can be developed at the farm level with minimal capital
investment
• The major capital expense of the surface irrigation system is
generally associated with land grading
• Energy requirements for surface irrigation systems come
from gravity
• Are less affected by climatic and water quality characteristics.
• Is highly flexible, relatively easily managed method of
irrigation.
 Disadvantages of surface irrigation
• There is one disadvantage of surface irrigation that
confronts every designer and irrigator.

• “very difficult to define the primary design variables,

discharge and time of application, due to the highly
spatial and temporal variability of the soil”.
 Classification of surface Irrigation
Methods
• Flooding
• Basins
• Borders
• Furrows
a) Free flooding
 a) Free flooding
Water is applied from field ditches without any levee to guide
its flow.
Ditches are excavated in the field.
Movement of water is not restricted, it is sometimes called
“wild flooding”.
It is suitable for close growing crops, pastures etc.
It is practiced large where irrigation water is abundant and
inexpensive.
It involves low initial cost of land preparation, extra labor
cost in the application of water.
Application of efficiency is low.
This method may be used on rolling land (topography
irregular) where borders, checks, basins and furrows are not
feasible.
b) Border flooding
 b) Border flooding
The farm is divided into a number of strips (width 10 ~ 20 m and
length 100 ~ 400 m) separated by low levees or borders.
Water is turned from the supply ditch into these strips along which a
flow slowly toward the lower end, wetting the soil as it advances.
When the advancing water front reaches the lower end, the stream
turned off.
The surface is essentially level between levees and lengthwise slope
is somewhat according to natural slope of the land (0.2 ~ 0.4%).
It is suitable to soils having moderately low to moderately high
infiltration rates and to all closely growing crops.
Uniform distribution and high water application efficiencies are
possible.
Large streams can be used efficiently.
It involves high initial cost.
Ridges between borders should be sufficiently high
 b) Border flooding…

General types:
Straight border
Contour border

Advantages:
High efficiency can be achieved
Utilize large water streams safely
Provide uniform wetting and efficient use of water
Requires less labour and time

Disadvantages:
Large supply of water is needed
Requires proper leveling
High initial cost
C) Check flooding
 C) Check flooding
In this method, the entire field is divided into a number of
almost leveled plots surrounded by levees. Water is admitted
from the farmer’s watercourse to these plots turn by turn.
Water is applied into relatively leveled plots surrounded by
small levees called check basin.
In this method, the check (land) is filled with water at a fairly
high rate & allowed to stand until the water infiltrate.
Check flooding is similar to free flooding except that the water
is controlled by surrounding the area with low and flat levees.
Levees are generally constructed along the contours of vertical
interval 5-10 cm.
This method is suitable for both permeable and impermeable
soil.
 C) Check flooding…
Advantages:
Reduces percolation loss in case of more permeable soil as
water can spread quickly.
Sometimes, levees are made sufficiently wide so that some
‘row’ crops can be grown over the levee surface
Unskilled labour can be employed.

Disadvantages:
Nos. of labour required is high.
Loss of cultivable area which is occupied by the levees.
Levees impose restriction in the use of farm machinery.
 d) Basin flooding

Basins are flat areas of land surrounded by low bunds. The

bunds prevent the water from flowing to the adjacent fields.

The basins are filled to desired depth and the water is

retained until it infiltrates into the soil. Water may be
maintained for considerable periods of time
A special type of check flooding.
Adopted specially for orchard trees.
One or more trees are generally placed in the basin and
surface is flooded.
 d) Basin flooding

General Types:
Check basin
Ring basin

Advantages:
Provides efficient use of water
Involves less labour and less water

Disadvantages:
Requires expert levelling and layout
High initial cost
Large quantity of water is needed
e) Furrow irrigation
 e) Furrow irrigation
Furrows are narrow field fitches excavated between the
rows of plants.
Furrows vary from 8-30 cm deep and as much as 400 m
long.
Only one-fifth to one-half of the land surface is wetted
by water, as a result there is less evaporation.
This methods is suitable for row crops like potatoes,
maize, cotton, etc. and those crops that cannot stand
water for long periods, like 12 to 24 hours.
Furrow irrigation is suitable to most soils except sandy
soils that have very high infiltration water and provide
poor lateral distribution water between furrows.
 Design of Furrow
0.6
qm 
s
In which,
q*360*t q m  maximum non - erosive stream, lps
d s  slope of furrow expressed as %
w*L
In which,
d  average depth of water applied, cm
q  stream size, lps
t  duration of irrigation (elapsed time), hours
w furrow spacing, metres
L  furrow length, metres
 e) Furrow irrigation…

Advantages:
Evaporation loss is reduced
High water efficiency
Not expansive to maintain
Relatively easy to install
Labour requirement in land preparation and irrigation are
reduced.

Disadvantages:
Requires skills labour for developing furrows
Silts from furrow should be removed regularly
 Surface Irrigation Processes (hydraulic phases)
• Advance phase: the time interval between the start of irrigation and
arrival of the advancing (wetting) front at the lower end of the field.
• Ponding (wetting storage or continuing) phase: the irrigation time
extending between the end of advance and inflow cut-off.
• The term “Wetting” phase is usually used for furrow and border
where tail water runoff can occur, whereas ponding is the preferred
term for basin irrigation (no tail water runoff)
• Depletion (vertical recession) phase: the time interval between
supply cut-off and the time that water dries up at the inlet boundary.
• Recession (horizontal recession) phase: the time required by the
water to recede from all points in the channel, starting from the end
of the depletion phase.
• The time difference at each measuring station between the clock
time or cumulative time for advance and recession is the
opportunity time, T, infiltration to occur.
Phase of irrigation systems
f) Drip Irrigation
 f) Drip Irrigation
Involves the slow application of water, drop by drop to
the root-zone of a crop.
 Consists of a pumping unit, pipelines with drip type
nozzles or emitters, and a filter unit to remove the
suspended impurities in the water.
 Particularly suited to areas where water quality is
marginal, land is steeply sloping or undulating and of poor
quality, where water or labour are expensive, or where high
value crops require frequent water applications.
The amount of water dripping from the nozzles can be
regulated, as desired, by varying the pressure at the
nozzles, and the size of the orifice of the nozzles.
Water supply may be continuous or intermittent.
 f) Drip Irrigation…
A typical drip irrigation system consists of the following
components:
• Pump unit • Control Head
• Main and sub main lines • Laterals
• Emitters and drippers

#Pipe network
-It consists of main line and no. of laterals line.
-Nos. of small diameter pipes called trickle lines are
provides which takes water from lateral pipes and carry it
to the root of crops.
#Emitters
- They are provided on each trickle line at suitable spacing.
 Design of Drip Irrigation System
Q  Vd * T (η a * t )
In which,
Q  Capacity of drip system, lph
Vd  Daily wate r requirement, litre
T  Irrigation interval days
η a  Water application efficiency(in fraction)
t  Duration of each irrigation in hrs
The discharge required per plant (Q p ) can be estimated
by dividing the capacity of the drip system (Q)
by the number of plants (n) in the area irrigated (i.e., Q p  Q )
n
 f) Drip Irrigation…

Merits/Advantages:
Very economic.
Surface evaporation is reduced.
Suited to arid regions.
Can be used for applying fertilizers.
Increase yield by 50-60%.

Demerits/Disadvantages:
Initial cost is more and
Require high maintenance
 Sprinkler method
• Applying water to the surface of the soil in the form of a spray,
which is similar to natural rainfall.
• Was started at about 1900.
• Before 1920 sprinkling was limited to tree crops, nurseries and
orchards.
• Most of these systems were stationary overhead-perforated pipe
installations or stationary over tree systems with rotating
sprinklers.
• These systems were expensive to install but often fairly
inexpensive to operate.
• Portable sprinkler systems developed with the introduction of
light weight steel pipe and quick couplers in the early 1930’s,
resulted in reduction of equipment cost and increased number of
sprinkler installation.
 Sprinkler method
• Sprinklers have been used on all soil types and on lands
of widely different topography and slopes and for many
crops.
• Water is distributed through a system of pipes usually by
pumping.
• It is then sprayed into the air through sprinklers so that it
breaks up into small water drops, which fall to the
ground.
• The pump supply system, sprinklers and operating
conditions must be designed to enable a uniform
application of water.
 Sprinkler irrigation Vs Surface irrigation
• Sprinkler systems can be designed so that less interference
with cultivation and other farming operations occurs, and
less land is taken out of production than with surface
methods.
• Frequent and small depth of water can readily be applied by
sprinkler systems.
• Higher water application efficiency can normally be
obtained by sprinkler irrigation.
• For areas requiring in frequent irrigation, sprinkler
irrigation can be provided at a lower capital investment per
acre of land irrigated than can surface irrigation.
• Whenever water can be delivered to the field under gravity
irrigation, sprinkler irrigation is particularly attractive.
 Limitations of sprinkler irrigation
• Wind distorts sprinkler pattern and causes uneven
distribution of water
• Ripened soft fruits may be affected by spraying water
• Water must be clean and free of sand, debris and large
amount of dissolved salts
• High initial investment as compared to surface irrigation
• High power requirements
• Fine textured soils with slow infiltration rate cannot be
irrigated efficiently in hot windy areas
• In areas of high temperature and high wind velocity,
considerable evaporation losses of water may take place
 Types of sprinklers and sprinkler
systems
• Based on the arrangement for spraying
irrigation water sprinklers
– Fixed Nozzle
– Perforated sprinkler
– Rotating sprinklers
 Continue…
• Based on the method of developing pressure
– Pump powered system
– Gravity sprinkler system
– Hybrid systems (Pumps + Gravity)
• Based on portability and make-up of units
– Conventional systems
– Mobile sprinkler machines
 Components

• Pressure generating units (Pump unit)

• Water carrier units (Mainlines, sub mainlines, Laterals)
• Water delivery units (Riser pipes and Sprinklers)
• Quality improvement sub units (Screens, Desilting-
basins)
• Ancillary units (Fertilizer and other chemical applicator)
 Sl * S m * I
q Sprinkler Selection and Spacing
360
In which,
q  required discharge of individual sprinkler, lps
Sl  spacing of sprinklers along the laterals, metres
S m  spacing of lateral along the main, metres
I  optimum application rate, cm/hr

A*d
Q  2780
F*H *E
In which,
Q  discharge capacity of the pump, lps
A  area to be irrigated, ha
d  net depth of water application, cm
F  number of days allowed for the completion of one irrigation
H  number of actual operating hours per day
E  water application efficiency, %
 Sub-surface Irrigation
• A method of providing water to plants by raising the water table to
the root zone of the crop or by carrying moisture to the root zone
by perforated underground pipe.
• In sub surface Irrigation , effluent is delivered directly to
the infiltrative surface of the soil using specially
manufactured polyethylene tubing with built-in turbulent
flow emitters.
 Advantage
• Subsurface irrigation is a highly-efficient
watering technique.
• It reduces outdoor water use by 30 to 40
percent
 Design
• It consist a masonry chamber (Distribution box) where
the effluent of septic tank uniformly distributed an underground
network.
• Emitter lines placed on 2 foot centers with a 2 foot emitter
spacing such that each emitter supplies a 4 sq. ft area.
• These lines are placed at depths of 6-10 inches below
the surface.
• Absorption trench 30 to 90cm wide filled with gravel(15cm thick)
layer and well graded aggregate(15cm thick layer).
 Working
• Septic tank effluent is allowed to enter into a masonry
chamber (distribution chamber).
• from where it is uniformly distributed an underground
network of open jointed pipe ,into absorption trench
called dispersion trenches .
• The suspended organic matter present in the effluent
will be absorbed in the absorption trenches.
• The clearer water seeping down to the water-table
may come up to the plant roots thoroughly capillarity,
thus fulfilling their irrigation water
Numericals
 Find the rate of flow for a rectangular channel
7.5 m wide at a depth of 2.25 m. The channel is
having bed slope as 1 in 1000. Take Chezy’s
constant C = 55 and Manning’s coefficient n
=0.023
Example 1: One cumec of water is pumped into a farm
distribution system. 0.8 cumec is delivered to a turn-out, 0.9
kilometer from the well. Compute the conveyance efficiency.

water delivered into the fields from the outlet

ηc =
water entering into the channel at its starting point
0.8
= x 100 = 80%
1.0
Example 2: 10 cumecs of water is delivered to a 32 hectare field, for
4 hours. Soil probing after the irrigation indicates that 0.3 metre of
water has been stored in the root zone. Compute the water
application efficiency.
Solution:
Volume of water supplied by 10 cumecs of water applied for 4
hours = (10 x 4x 60x60) m3 = 144,000 m3
= 14.4 ha-m
Therefore, Input = 14.4 ha-m
Again, 32 hectares land is storing water upto 0.3 m depth
Therefore, Output = 32x0.3 ha-m = 9.6 ha-m
Output
Now, Water application efficiency, ( a ) = x100%
Input
9.6
= x100 = 66.67%
14.4
Example 3: The field capacity of a certain soil is 15% and the
moisture content of the soil before irrigation is 8%. Determine the
depth upto which the soil profile will be wetted with an application
of 60 mm of water. Take the dry unit weight soil as 15.3 kN/m3.
Example 4: A loam soil has field capacity of 22% and wilting coefficient of
10%. The dry weight of soil is 15 kN/m3. If the root zone depth is 70 cm,
determine the storage capacity of the soil. Irrigation water is applied
when moisture content falls to 14%. If the water application efficiency is
75%, determine the water depth required to be applied in the field.
5
6
 A trapezoidal channel is to carry a discharge of
10 m3 /sec. Design the channel with concrete
lining having bed slope 1/3000. Take N= 0.013

Hints:
 Sl * S m * I
q= Sprinkler Selection and Spacing
360
In which,
q = required discharge of individual sprinkler, lps
Sl = spacing of sprinklers along the laterals, metres
S m = spacing of lateral along the main, metres
I = optimum application rate, cm/hr

A*d
Q = 2780
F*H *E
In which,
Q = discharge capacity of the pump, lps
A = area to be irrigated, ha
d = net depth of water application, cm
F = number of days allowed for the completion of one irrigation
H = number of actual operating hours per day
E = water application efficiency, %
• Determine the required capacity of a sprinkler
system to apply water at the rate of 1.25
cm/hr. Two 186 metres long sprinkler lines are
required. Sixteen sprinklers are spaced at 12
metre intervals on each line. The spacing
between lines is 18 metres.
• Determine the system capacity for a sprinkler
irrigation system to irrigate 16 hectares of
maize crop. Design moisture use rate is 5 mm
per day. Moisture replaced in soil at each
irrigation is 6 cm. Irrigation efficiency is 70 per
cent. Irrigation period is 10 days in a 12- day
interval. The system is to be operated for 20
hours per day.
 Drainage Coefficient (D.C.)
• is the design capacity of the drainage system and is typically
expressed as a depth of water removed in 24 hours
A watershed of 1500 hectares is discharging through a
drain at an average ratio of 2.5 m3/s. Calculate the
drainage coefficient.
If the drainage coefficient is 3 cm, what would be the
discharge through the drain?

Lectures Slide By:- Er. D R Bagale

Compute the drain spacing, for an irrigated area, assuming
the depth to the centre of drain is 1.8 m and the minimum
depth to the water table is 1.5 m. Given that hydraulic
conductivity K = 0.5 m/day above an impervious layer at a
depth of 6.7 m. The excess irrigation rate is equivalent to
drainage coefficient of 1.3 mm/day.

Lectures Slide By:- Er. D R Bagale