Automotive Waste Heat Conversion to Electric Power using Skutterudite, TAGS, PbTe and BiTe

J. LaGrandeur1, D. Crane1, S. Hung2, B. Mazar3, and A. Eder3

1
BSST LLC, 5462 Irwindale Avenue, Irwindale, CA 91706
2
Visteon Corporation, One Village Center Drive, Van Buren Township, MI 48111
3
BMW Technology Office, 555 Hamilton Avenue, Suite 300, Palo Alto, CA 94301

Abstract Figure 1: Exhaust gas waste heat recovery system block

diagram.
BSST began development of a high efficiency
Thermoelectric Waste Energy Recovery System for passenger
vehicle applications in November 2004 under a contract [1]
awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy Freedom Car
Office. The system reduces fuel consumption by replacing a
significant portion of the required electric power normally
produced by the alternator with electric power produced from
exhaust gas waste heat conversion to electricity in a
Thermoelectric Generator Module (TGM). BSST Team
members include BMW, Visteon and Marlow Industries.
In Phase 1, the team created a system architecture,
developed a system model to predict performance and
established system and subsystem design requirements. The
Phase 1 effort resulted in a predicted fuel efficiency increase
of 10%.
Phase 2 is scheduled to be completed in December, 2006
in which key subsystem components will be built and tested A model, which includes all essential components of a
and the system model updated to provide a new performance vehicle (e.g. fuel consumption model, exhaust system, coolant
prediction. circuit and an alternator) as well as subsystems of the
This paper presents the current status of the system Thermoelectric Waste Heat Recovery System, including the
architecture, modeling and key technologies. PHX and TGM, were developed. The vehicle model platform
selected is GT-Cool (Gamma Technologies), which represents
System Architecture
the vehicle with parameterized standard components in a 1-D
Engine exhaust gasses pass through a shell and tube heat
network. The PHX and TGM subsystems were modeled
exchanger (Primary Heat Exchanger, or PHx) downstream
separately in a Matlab/Simulink environment and coupled to
from the catalytic converter where thermal energy is extracted
the Gamma Technologies model. PCS functions are greatly
and transferred to a gaseous working fluid (preliminarily
simplified in the current model.
designated as 75% He, 25% Xe). Wide variations in exhaust
The automotive vehicle chosen for the project is a state-
gas mass flow, which result in a correspondingly wide
of-the-art BMW 530i with an in-line six cylinder gasoline
variations in thermal flux, are managed by means of a pump
engine (max. power 190 kW) and an automatic transmission.
which circulates the working fluid between the PHx and
The base model without the thermoelectric subsystems
TGM’s hot side. The use of this secondary loop enables
was validated with steady state operating points and standard
optimal usage of the thermoelectric material in the TGM as
drive cycles, including FTP75 and the NEDC. An example of
well as providing a dense, minimally sized hermetic enclosure
a comparison of the measurement data to the simulation
for the TE material. The cold side of the TGM can be
results for the NEDC driving cycle follows.
provided by either the powertrain cooling or an isolated
supplemental heat exchanger. TGM electrical power is linked
Figure 2: Temperature sequence of the coolant.
to the vehicle electrical bus via a load matching DC/DC 120 200
converter in the Power Conditioning System (PCS). Fuel Simulation

efficiency is increased by offloading the vehicle alternator by 100

use of power generated in the TGM. The team is using 150

segmented elements comprised of Skutterudites, TAGS, PbTe

T emperature [degC]

80

and BiTe.
Speed [km/h]

Measurement

60 100
Introduction and Validation of the Base Model Speed

The integration of a complex system into a vehicle 40

benefits significantly from the utilization of a computer aided 50

simulation. The quantification of the efficiency and the 20

optimization of the entire system are the main tasks of such a

simulation. 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
0

T ime [s]

1-4244-0811-3/06/$20.00 ©2006 IEEE 343 2006 International Conference on Thermoelectrics

Figure 3: Temperature profile of the exhaust gas. In Figure 5, the result of the simulation tool for a NEDC
600 200 driving cycle is shown.

500 Figure 5: Modeling results for the electrical power output.

150
Simulation
T emperature [degC]

400
600

Speed [km/h]
300 100

Measurement Speed

Power Output [W]

200 400
50

100

200
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
T ime [s]

Figure 4: Mass flow rate of the exhaust gas. 0

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
60 300
T ime [s]

40
Simulation
250 Preliminary system model results show TGM electrical
power output of up to 600W. The influence of the thermal
20 200
recuperated energy as well as optimization of the system to
M ass Flow Rate [g/s]

Speed [km/h]
increase TGM output power on the total vehicle performance
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
150
will be published in further proceedings.
Measurement
-20
Speed
100 Primary Heat Exchanger
The Primary Heat Exchanger (PHX) is the component
-40 50 used to extract thermal energy from the exhaust gas stream.

-60 0
PHX Vehicle-/System-level Considerations
T ime [s] Vehicle-/system-level considerations for the PHX fall into
The simulation results correspond well with the two areas: packaging (location of the PHX in the vehicle) and
measurement results. The variations in the temperature quality of extracted thermal energy.
profile have a minor influence on the power output of the Figure 6 is a diagram of a BMW 530i exhaust system,
TGM and are acceptable. This tool will provide accurate which includes dual forward pipes that connect to twin
input parameters for the PHX/TGM subsystems from a catalytic converters, a mid-vehicle muffler, and an aft muffler.
vehicle perspective. The exhaust system was examined in conjunction with the
present underbody to identify the candidate regions for
Functionality and Results of the Model location of the PHX that appear outlined in
The PHX and TGM subsystem models require the mass Figure 6.
flow rates and inlet temperatures of the coolant (TGM cold-
side) and of the exhaust gas (TGM hot-side). The system Figure 6: BMW 530i exhaust system diagram.
model calculates the resulting electrical power output which
Catalytic converter connections
reduces the load on the alternator and consequently lowers the
fuel consumption of the vehicle. Mid-vehicle Aft
Additionally, the heat flux from the exhaust gas Muffler Muffler
transferred to the engine coolant via the TGM can be used to
more rapidly preheat the engine. By accelerating the engine
warm-up period, fuel consumption can be reduced as a result
of decreased friction losses [2]. The vehicle modeled in this Candidate locations for Primary
program, however, includes an electrical water-pump, which Heat Exchanger
already provides an improved warm-up behavior compared to Front of vehicle
a mechanical water-pump.
Due to the complexity of the interaction between this While access to higher exhaust gas temperatures favors
system and the thermoelectric subsystems, the influence of the location of the PHX at the forward candidate location, where
heat flux from the exhaust gas to the coolant via the temperatures can often exceed 800°C, selected TE material
thermoelectric subsystems will not be modeled until a limitations restrict the allowable hot side working fluid
subsequent phase. temperatures to less than 750°C. As a result, the current
In the GT Cool simulation it was assumed that the PHX is choice for PHX location is just upstream of the mid-vehicle
located in the underfloor, approximately one-half meter muffler, although this may be revisited in subsequent work.
downstream of the underhood catalytic converter. PHX Design
 Design of the PHX involved trade-offs between thermal choke. The changes for this program include incorporation of
exchange efficiency and the resulting effect on exhaust gas seals compatible with 20bar proof pressures and modified
flow. Flow path restriction for optimization of exchange impeller aerodynamics for higher flow capability.
efficiency can result in exhaust back-pressures that can Figure 8: PADT’s Hot Anode Recirculating Blower (HARB),
compromise vehicle-level fuel economy. An initial design of a modified version of which will serve as the initial primary
the PHX is shown in coolant pump.
Figure 7.
Figure 7: Primary Heat Exchanger (PHX).
Exhaust Outlet
Section

Tube-&-Shell Heat
Exchanger Section

Coolant Brushless-DC
Inlet Motor
Exhaust Inlet
Section
Recirculating
Blower

Coolant
Outlet
Thermoelectric Generator Module
Device Concepts and Design
The inlet to the PHX is at lower left and includes two In Phase I, the model for the TGM was developed and
ports compatible with the dual pipes extending rearward from preliminary design concepts were established. In Phase II, a
the catalytic converters. The PHX outlet section is at upper 750-watt TGM will be built and tested. State of the art TE
right, with a single, large port that feeds the mid-vehicle material technology is used in the TGM design along with
muffler. proprietary BSST heat transfer techniques, in combination
In order to minimize direct backpressure and to maintain with thermally isolated heat exchangers and high power
exhaust gas velocity for exhaust gas scavenging, the exhaust density concepts previously described [3, 4].
path in the tube-&-shell section is long and narrow, as Figure 9: Current TE material (p-type and n-type) [5].
opposed to being short and wide. Preliminary analyses show
that, even with the use of smooth bore tubes, the PHX should
be able to provide hot side working fluid at the target
temperature ranges while presenting no more than a 100mbar
incremental increase in exhaust backpressure across all
operating conditions. Spiral tubes (to enhance exhaust gas
contact with the interior surfaces of the tubes in the tube-&-
shell heat exchanger) are an available option, should there
arise a need for greater heat exchange efficiency. The device is constructed of a series of segmented
Primary Hot Side Fluid Pump elements comprised of up to three different materials.
A pump is used to circulate He/Xe working fluid between Figure 9 shows the choice TE materials available for use
the PHX and the TGM that must be capable of handling gas in devices today. Generally, one chooses both p- and n-type
pressures of up to 17bar and temperatures of up to 200°C (the material systems with the best figure of merit (ZT) for each
pump is located downstream from the TGM’s hot side- temperature. Segmented elements have been employed in the
exhaust where temperatures are significantly lower than the TGM design to achieve the highest average ZT over the entire
inlet). While one may readily find gas pumps or blowers that operating temperature range.
satisfy these conditions separately, it is less common to find a For both p- and n-type elements, the material with the
solution that satisfies both simultaneously. highest ZT at low temperatures (< ~150°C) is Bi2Te3. TAGS
The primary coolant pump will be a modified version of is the optimal p-type material for intermediate temperatures
the Hot Anode Recirculating Blower (HARB) that Phoenix (150 °– 500°C).
Analysis & Design Technologies (PADT) recently developed Figure 9 shows that Zn4Sb3 is another option for
with support from the US DOE. A picture of the first- approximately the same temperature range. TAGS was
generation HARB appears in Figure 8. The lower left end of chosen by us since it has a longer history of use. In n-type
the unit is a recirculating blower, and the upper right end is material, PbTe has the highest ZT for this same temperature
the permanent-magnet, brushless-DC motor that provides range. For the higher temperatures associated with the
pump mechanical power. Joining the motor to the blower is a automotive waste heat recovery application (500°C – 700°C),
novel shaft/housing arrangement that incorporates a thermal
skutterudite (p-type CeFe4Sb12 and n-type CoSb3) has the Figure 11: Alternative TE couple configuration.
highest ZT. These six materials are used in the TGM design. heat heat
The TGM design incorporates methods to manage TE
compatibility both within each individual element and
between individual elements in the direction of fluid flow.
TE compatibility, described in detail by Snyder [6], refers to current
the impact of compatibility mismatch on optimum power
output when efficiency for different element segments occurs p-CeFe3RuSb12 n-CoSb3
at significantly different current densities. To manage these
p-TAGS n-PbTe
effects, each material segment and layer have different
n-Bi2Te3
thicknesses. p-Bi2Te3 heat
In a traditional TE module, each TE element has the same
thickness and electrical current passes from one couple to
another, similar to the schematic shown in Modeling and Analysis
Figure 10. This configuration does not lend itself readily In Phase I of the project, a MATLAB-based, numerical,
to a generator comprised of TE elements of different steady-state model was created, building on previous work of
thickness and area. It is also a more difficult configuration to TE numerical simulation [7]. It is comprised of
control if elements are of the same thickness but have simultaneously solved, non-linear, energy balance equations
different thermal expansion coefficients in the y-plane. This that simulate the high power density TE assemblies discussed
particularly becomes a problem in power generation above. The principles used in this model were used in a
applications where operating temperatures can be high, previous TE model developed by BSST [8]. Validated for
exacerbating thermal coefficient of expansion mismatches. heating and cooling applications, this previous TE model was
Figure 10: Traditional TE couple configuration. shown to be accurate to within 7% for four different outputs.
heat
The average error for each of these simulated values was less
than 3%.
The TE segmented material information was incorporated
n-CoSb3
into the model using algorithms and equations described in
p-CeFe3RuSb12
Syder [6]. The model can be used to automatically solve for
current
n-PbTe the optimal TE segmentation for a given set of hot and cold
p-TAGS
side temperatures. The thicknesses of the material segments
current n-Bi2Te3 and the material layers themselves are allowed to vary to
p-Bi2Te3 determine optimal performance for a given electrical load
resistance. The model can also solve for off-nominal
solutions by fixing the material layer thicknesses.
heat heat Using the model, critical design variables were identified
and varied to analyze the trade-offs necessary to improve
efficiency. Advanced multi-parameter, gradient-based
Figure 11 shows an alternative configuration that more optimization studies were used to better understand the
readily accommodates elements of different thickness, area, interactions between various design variables, parameters,
and thermal expansion coefficient. Alternating between p- and constraints and to develop an optimal TGM design.
and n-type legs, each TE element is fixed between connectors. Initial modeling was begun in Phase I, incorporating the
The TE connectors provide an electrical path from one TE above described design concepts, and continues in Phase II.
element to another, as well as a thermal path from the fluid- Building and testing fractional prototype devices is being
carrying channels to the TE elements. Electrical current runs performed to fully validate the model in advance of building
parallel to the heat source and sink surfaces in this Phase 2’s full size TGM.
configuration, allowing the integration of the TE material
with multiple geometric degrees of freedom. Each element of Fractional Device Build and Testing
the TE device can be optimized semi-independently to match A prototype device was built of six Bi2Te3 elements
the hot working fluid (HeXe) temperature as it gives up its sandwiched between seven copper connectors as shown in
thermal energy to the TGM as it passes through the device’s Figure 12. Bi2Te3 elements were used because the tests
heat exchanger. Each p- and n-type element can have a were conducted at lower temperatures with materials that
different cross sectional area and/or thickness, to better have well defined properties. These tests were conducted to
manage TE compatibility conflicts and to achieve the highest better isolate problem areas in the integration of TE material
ZT possible within a particular temperature range. into a device.
Figure 12: Six Bi2Te3 element device showing thermocouple drops across connector interfaces should be similar for these
holes. Four TE connectors touch the cold side, while three elements.
TE connectors touch the hot side.
Figure 14 shows experimental results for initial testing of
high temperature segmented elements. Two n-type elements
were tested with dimensions and materials used listed in the
figure. The same prototype fixture and device configuration
to those described above were used on this test as well.
Temperatures of the cold side, hot-side heater settings and the
measured TE surface temperatures are also listed in the figure.
Curves are different due to the difference in element and layer
thickness, as well as the slightly different temperature drops.
It can be seen from the figure that the amount of power
recovered increases with increasing hot side temperature.
Optimal current also increases slightly with increasing
The copper connectors are placed on an liquid heat
temperature. Element 1 produces maximum power at 8
exchanger constructed from an aluminum tube. Many of the
amperes at a hot side temperature of 172°C and at 11.3
same type of liquid heat exchangers are intended to be used
amperes at 366°C. Further testing and analysis is necessary
for the full-scale TGM device. The tube is anodized to
on these and other similar p- and n-type segmented elements
provide electrical isolation from the copper connectors. A
to determine the same level of predictability as the tests on the
layer of thermal grease covers the anodized layer to help
Bi2Te3.
minimize thermal resistance. Two 100W cartridge heaters
provide the heat source for the device. An anodized Figure 14: Power generation curves for two n-type
aluminum housing encloses the heat source. Thermal grease segmented elements at different temperature differences.
is used as the thermal interface material between the heater temps = (1) 200C, (2) 250C, (3) 300C, (4) 350C, (5) 400C

aluminum housing and the TE connectors. A prototype test cold side bath = 0C
Blue - 0.96mm PbTe + 0.44mm Bi2Te3

fixture was constructed to test the device described. Red - 1.07mm PbTe + 0.56mm Bi2Te3

500

Figure 13 is a graph showing power generation curves for 450

the six individual Bi2Te3 elements. Using the measured data 400
(1) Th = 172C, Tc = 17.7C

along with standard TE equations to derive current- 350 (1) Th = 172C, Tc = 14.2C
(2) Th = 226C, Tc = 21.8C
power (mW)

300
independent temperature offsets and temperature-independent (2) Th = 226C, Tc = 17.0C
(3) Th = 274C, Tc = 24.5C
250
electrical interfacial resistivities, the power generation curves 200
(3) Th = 274C, Tc = 19.4C
(4) Th = 320C, Tc = 27.9C

that were experimentally determined were duplicated 150

(4) Th = 320C, Tc = 22.2C
(5) Th = 366C, Tc = 31.4C

numerically. The dotted lines in

(5) Th = 366C, Tc = 25.0
100
Figure 13 represent the calculated power curves compared 50

to the measured power curves represented by the solid lines. 0

0 5 10 15 20 25
It can be seen from the figure that this method of estimation current (A)
can be very accurate for all six elements.
Using a combination of segmented elements, a fractional
Figure 13: Graph showing power generation curves for device will be constructed that produces 20W of power.
individual Bi2Te3 elements. Once tested and analyzed, a full-scale TGM will be
(1) - Th = 128.5C, Tc = 38.5C, ρ=5.1µΩcm2
(2) - Th = 130.8C, Tc = 46.9C, ρ=2.0µΩcm
2
constructed from multiple fractional devices that will produce
(3) - Th = 133.0C, Tc = 51.1C, ρ=0.4µΩcm
(4) - Th = 134.7C, Tc = 52.0C, ρ=2.0µΩcm
2

2
a nominal power output of 750W.
2
(5) - Th = 135.1C, Tc = 54.3C, ρ=2.8µΩcm
(6) - Th = 133.4C, Tc = 44.7C, ρ=6.3µΩcm2 Power Conditioning Subsystem
300 The Power Conditioning Subsystem (PCS) serves two
250 connector 1-2
functions: drawing of maximal electrical power from the
connector 2-3
connector 3-4
TGM across a 0V-25V range, and conversion of TGM
200 connector 4-5
electrical output to supply the vehicle electrical power bus at
power (mW)

connector 5-6

bus voltage across a 12.3V-16.5V range. Virginia

connector 6-7
150 connector 1-2 (calc)
connector 2-3 (calc)
100 connector 3-4 (calc)
connector 4-5 (calc)
Polytechnic Institute & State University (Virginia Tech) is
50
connector 5-6 (calc)
connector 6-7 (calc)
developing a high-efficiency PCS for the program. Figure 6A
is a diagram that shows the topological relationship of the
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 PCS relative to the TGM and vehicle electrical bus.
current (A)

Lessons learned from these tests on Bi2Te3 elements will

be carried over to the tests and device design for the higher
temperature materials. Interfacial resistances and temperature
Figure 15: Relationship of the Power Conditioning powertrain cooling must be considered by automotive systems
Subsystem (PCS) relative to the Thermoelectric Generator engineers.
Module (TGM) and the vehicle electrical power bus. Acknowledgments
12.3V-16.5V
The team would like to thank John Fairbanks at the US
0V-25V DOE Freedom Car Office for his support and leadership.
RTGM
Power Vehicle We would like to thank Rainer Richter of BMW for
+
Conditioning Electrical providing engine performance data, modeling and staff
VTGM Subsystem Bus support to this effort.
PADT thanks the U. S. Department of Energy’s National
Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) for their support in
the Phase 1 development of the Hot Anode Recirculating
The TGM acts as a Thevenin source comprised of a Blower.
temperature-dependent voltage source, VTGM, and source We would also like to acknowledge the Morgantown,
resistance, RTGM. The vehicle electrical bus appears as a West Virginia National Energy Technology Laboratory and
piece-wise constant impedance in parallel with two sources: Project Management provided by Aaron Yocum.
the alternator, and the vehicle battery.
References
It is planned to integrate the PCS with the vehicle battery;
1. Contract No. DE-FC26-04NT42279.
this helps minimize conduction losses between the PCS and
2. Storkenmaier et al., "Multifunctional Encapsulations of
battery.
the Powertrain," SAE 2006-01-1234. 2006.
A straight-forward strategy for bus interaction will be
3. Bell, L. E., "Alternate Thermoelectric Thermodynamic
implemented:
Cycles with Improved Power Generation Efficiencies,"
In conditions where the TGM/PCS cannot supply all the
22nd International Conference on Thermoelectrics,
electrical power needed by the vehicle (e.g., cold start), the
Hérault, France. 2003.
alternator will provide electrical bus voltage regulation, under
4. Bell, L. E., "High Power Density Thermoelectric
the supervision of the vehicle electrical bus controller (usually
Systems," 23rd International Conference on
the Powertrain Control Module, or PCM), and the PCS will
Thermoelectrics, Adelaide, AU. 2004.
act as a current source to the vehicle electrical bus. In this
5. Caillat, T. et al., "Development of High Efficiency
mode of operation, the PCS electrical output voltage floats to
Segmented Thermoelectric Unicouples," 20th
that established by the alternator.
International Conference on Thermoelectrics, Beijing,
In conditions where the TGM is able to supply all the
China. 2001, pp. 282-285.
electrical power needed by the vehicle, the PCS changes
6. Snyder, G. J., "Thermoelectric Power Generation:
control modes to act as the electrical bus voltage regulator. It
Efficiency and Compatibility," in Thermoelectrics
regulates the electrical bus voltage in a fashion that is optimal
Handbook Macro To Nano, Rowe, D. M., Editor. CRC
with respect to the battery at an output voltage that is slightly
Press (Boca Raton, FL, 2006), pp. 9-1 - 9-26.
higher than the alternator output voltage regulation target.
7. Crane, D. T., Optimizing Thermoelectric Waste Heat
Under this condition, the vehicle electrical bus controller
Recovery from an Automotive Cooling System, PhD
automatically and naturally shuts off the alternator as an
Dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, 2003.
electrical power source, thus allowing the PCS to act as the
8. Crane, D. T., "Modeling High-Power Density
sole electrical power source for the vehicle.
Thermoelectric Assemblies Which Use Thermal
Conclusions and Further Work Isolation," 23rd International Conference on
The influence of PHx backpressure, not accounted for in Thermoelectrics, Adelaide, AU. 2004.
the current model, must be included in the simulation.
Although the influence of additional backpressure may be
neglected in a low-load operational range, such as that
encountered in the NEDC or FTP75, it is necessary to
understand this effect in the modeling environment for higher
load operation such as in highway drive cycles. The complex
interation between the vehicle’s electric water pump and
preheat concept via the TGM must also be analyzed.
While replicating 20-watt fractional generators to compile
a full sized TGM (~ 750 watts) is relatively straight-forward,
the design and construction of hot side heat exchangers and a
hermetic enclosure to protect the material during high
temperature exposure will occupy designers for a significant
portion of the last half of 2006.
Lastly, as the goal to insert the system into a vehicle draws
nearer, integration strategies for the power electronics and