Vector Network Analysis

Basics
Network Analysis is NOT.…

Router
Bridge
Repeater
Hub

Your IEEE 802.37 X.25 ASDN

switched-packet data stream
is running at 547 MBPS
-9
with
a BER of 1.523 X 10 . . .

Page 2
Objectives Page 3

– Review RF basics

– Understand fundamentals on S-parameter

measurements

– Examine architectures and calibrations of VNAs

What Types of Devices are Tested?
High
Duplexers
RFICs
Diplexers
MMICs
Filters
T/R modules
Couplers
Transceivers
Bridges
Splitters, dividers
Receivers
Combiners
Tuners
Isolators
Integration

Converters
Circulators
Attenuators Antennas
VCAs
Adapters
Switches Amplifiers
Opens, shorts, loads
Delay lines Multiplexers
Cables Mixers
Samplers VTFs
Transmission lines
Multipliers Modulators
Resonators
VCAtten’s
Dielectrics Diodes
Low

R, L, C's
Transistors

Passive Device type Active

Page 4
Lightwave Analogy to RF Energy

Incident
Transmitted

Reflected
Lightwave

DUT

RF

Page 5
 The Need for Both Magnitude and Phase
S21
1. Complete characterization
S11 S22
of linear networks
S12 4. Time-domain characterization
2. Complex impedance
needed to design Mag
matching circuits
Time
3. Complex values
5. Vector-error correction
needed for device
Error
modeling
Measured
Actual

6. X-parameter (nonlinear) characterization

Page 6
Agenda Page 7

– What measurements do we make?

– Network analyzer hardware

– Error models and calibration

– Advanced S-parameter measurements

 Transmission Line Basics
_
– Low frequencies +
I
• Wavelengths >> wire length
• Current (I) travels down wires easily for efficient power
transmission
• Measured voltage and current not dependent on position along
wire

– High frequencies
• Wavelength » or << length of transmission medium
• Need transmission lines for efficient power transmission
• Matching to characteristic impedance (Zo) is very important for
low reflection and maximum power transfer
• Measured envelope voltage dependent on position along line

Page 8
Transmission line Zo
– Zo determines relationship between voltage and current waves

– Zo is a function of physical dimensions and r

– Zo is usually a real impedance (e.g. 50 or 75 ohms)

1.5

1.4 attenuation is

normalized values
lowest at 77
1.3 ohms
1.2

1.1
50 ohm standard

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7 power handling

capacity peaks at 30
0.6
ohms
0.5
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100

Characteristic impedance for

coaxial airlines (ohms)

Page 9
 Power Transfer Efficiency
RS
For complex impedances, maximum
power transfer occurs when ZL = ZS*
RL
(conjugate match)
Rs +jX

1.2 -jX
1
(normalized)
Load Power

0.8 RL
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

RL / RS

Maximum power is transferred when RL = RS

Page 10
Transmission Line Terminated with Zo
Zo = characteristic impedance
Zs = Zo of transmission line

Zo

Vinc

Vreflect = 0! (all the incident power

is transferred to and
absorbed in the load)

For reflection, a transmission line terminated in Zo

behaves like an infinitely long transmission line

Page 11
 Transmission Line Terminated with Short, Open

Zs = Zo

V inc

o
Vreflect In-phase (0 ) for open,
o
out-of-phase (180 ) for short

For reflection, a transmission line terminated in a

short or open reflects all power back to source

Page 12
Transmission Line Terminated with 25 Ohms

Zs = Zo

ZL = 25 W

Vinc

Vreflect

Standing wave pattern does not

go to zero as with short or open

Page 13
 High-Frequency Device Characterization
Incident Transmitted
R B
Reflected
A
REFLECTION TRANSMISSION

Reflected A Transmitted B
= =
Incident R Incident R

VSW Group
Return
R Gain / Loss Delay
Loss
S-Parameters Impedance, Insertion
S11, S22 Reflection Admittance S-Parameters Phase
Coefficient S21, S12 Transmission
R+jX,
G, r G+jB Coefficient
T,t

Page 14
 Reflection Parameters
Vreflected ZL - Zo
G r
Reflection
Coefficient
=
Vincident
= F =
ZL + Zo
Return loss = -20 log(r ), r = G
Voltage Standing Wave
Vmax
Vmin
Ratio
Vmax 1+r
VSWR = =
Vmin 1-r
No reflection Full reflection
(ZL = Zo) (ZL = open, short)

0 r 1
 dB RL 0 dB
1 VSWR 

Page 15
 Smith Chart Review Polar plane o
90
+jX
1.0
.8
.6
.4

0 +R   + 180 o .2 o
0
-

0 

-jX
-90 o
Rectilinear impedance plane
Constant X

Z L = Zo Constant R

G= 0
Smith Chart maps
Z L = 0 (short) ZL = (open)
rectilinear impedance G =1
G= 1
O
±180
O
0
plane onto polar plane

Smith chart

Page 16
 Transmission Parameters
V Incident V Transmitted
DUT

V Transmitted
Transmission Coefficient = T = = t
V Incident
VTrans
Insertion Loss (dB) = -20 Log = -20 Log(t)
V Inc

V Trans
Gain (dB) = 20 Log = 20 Log(t)
V Inc

Page 17
Linear Versus Nonlinear Behavior
A * Sin 360o * f (t - to)
A

— Linear behavior:
to
Time  Input and output frequencies are the
same (no additional frequencies
Sin 360o * f * t
A
phase shift =
created)
to * 360o * f  Output frequency only undergoes
Time
f
1
Frequency magnitude and phase change
Input DUT Output

— Nonlinear behavior:
f
1
Frequency  Output frequency may
Time
undergo frequency shift (e.g.
with mixers)
 Additional frequencies created
(harmonics, intermodulation)
f Frequency
1

Page 18
 Criteria for Distortionless Transmission
Linear Networks

Linear phase over

Constant amplitude over bandwidth of
bandwidth of interest interest
Magnitude

Frequency

Phase

Frequency

Page 19
Magnitude Variation with Frequency

F(t) = sin wt + 1/3 sin 3wt + 1/5 sin 5wt

Time
Time

Linear Network
Magnitude

Frequency Frequency Frequency

Page 20
Phase Variation with Frequency
F(t) = sin wt + 1 /3 sin 3wt + 1 /5 sin 5wt

Linear Network
Time Time

Magnitude

Frequency
0°
Frequency Frequency
-180°
-360 °

Page 21
 Deviation from Linear Phase

Use electrical delay to remove

linear portion of phase response
Linear electrical length
Deviation from linear
RF filter response added
phase
Phase 45 /Div

(Electrical delay function)

Phase 1 /Div
o

o
+ =

Frequency Frequency Frequency

Low resolution High resolution

Page 22
 Why Use S-Parameters?
‒ Relatively easy to obtain at high frequencies
‒ Measure voltage traveling waves with a vector network analyzer
‒ Don't need shorts/opens (can cause active devices to oscillate or self-destruct)
‒ Relate to familiar measurements (gain, loss, reflection coefficient ...)
‒ Can cascade S-parameters of multiple devices to predict system performance
‒ Can compute H-, Y-, or Z-parameters from S-parameters if desired
‒ Can easily import and use S-parameter files in electronic-simulation tools

Incident S 21 Transmitted
a1
S11 b2
Reflected DUT
S22
Port 1 Port 2 Reflected
b1
a2
Transmitted S12 Incident

b1 = S11 a1 + S12 a 2
b 2 = S21 a1 + S22 a 2

Page 23
 Measuring S-Parameters
S b2
Incident 21 Transmitted
a1
Z0
S 11
Forward Reflected DUT Load
b1 a2 = 0

Reflected b1 Reflected b2
S 11 = = a S 22 = = a
Incident 1 a2 = 0 Incident 2 a1 = 0
Transmitted b Transmitted b
2 S 12 = 1
S 21 = = a = a
Incident 1 a2 = 0 Incident 2 a1 = 0

a1 = 0 b2
Z0 S 22
DUT
Load Reflected Reverse
a2
b1 Transmitted S 12 Incident

Page 24
 Equating S-Parameters With Common
Measurement Terms
S11 = forward reflection coefficient (input match)
S22 = reverse reflection coefficient (output match)
S21 = forward transmission coefficient (gain or loss)
S12 = reverse transmission coefficient (isolation)

Remember, S-parameters are inherently

complex, linear quantities -- however, we often
express them in a log-magnitude format

Page 25
Agenda Page 26

– What measurements do we make?

– Network analyzer hardware

– Error models and calibration

– Advanced S-parameter measurements

Generalized Network Analyzer Block Diagram
(Forward Measurements Shown)
Incident Transmitted

DUT
Reflected
SOURCE

SIGNAL
SEPARATION

INCIDENT REFLECTED TRANSMITTED

(R) (A) (B)

RECEIVER / DETECTOR

PROCESSOR / DISPLAY

Page 27
 Source Incident

DUT
Transmitted

Reflected
SOURCE

SIGNAL
SEPARATION

REFLECTED TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT (R) (A) (B)

RECEIVER / DETECTOR

‒ Supplies stimulus for system PROCESSOR / DISPLAY

‒ Can sweep frequency or power

‒ Traditionally NAs had one signal source
‒ Modern NAs have the option for a second internal
source and/or the ability to control external source.
‒ Can control an external source as a local oscillator
(LO) signal for mixers and converters
‒ Useful for mixer measurements like conversion
loss, group delay

Page 28
 Signal Separation
Incident Transmitted

DUT

Reflected
SOURCE

• Measure incident signal for reference

SIGNAL
SEPARATION

REFLECTED TRANSMITTED

• Separate incident and reflected signals

INCIDENT (R) (A) (B)

RECEIVER / DETECTOR

PROCESSOR / DISPLAY

splitter
bridge

Detector
directional
coupler Test Port

Page 29
 Directivity
Directivity is a measure of how well a directional coupler or
bridge can separate signals moving in opposite directions

(undesired leakage (desired reflected

signal) signal)
leakage
I C desired
result
Test port
L
Directional Coupler
Directivity = Isolation (I) - Fwd Coupling (C) - Main Arm Loss (L)

Page 30
Directional Bridge
— 50-ohm load at test port balances
the bridge -- detector reads zero
— Non-50-ohm load imbalances
bridge
50 W 50 W — Measuring magnitude and phase of
imbalance gives complex
impedance
Detector — "Directivity" is difference between
maximum and minimum balance
— Advantage: less loss at low
50 W frequencies
Test Port
— Disadvantages: more loss in main
arm at high frequencies and less
power-handling capability

Page 31
 Interaction of Directivity with the DUT
(Without Error Correction)
0
Data max
DUT RL = 40 dB

Directivity Add in-phase

Return Loss

30 Device

60
Frequency
Directivity
Data min

Device
Device

Data = vector sum

Directivity

Add out-of-phase
(cancellation)

Page 32
Detector Types:
Narrowband Detection - Tuned Receiver
RF
ADC / DSP

IF Filter
— Best sensitivity / dynamic range
LO — Provides harmonic / spurious signal rejection
— Improve dynamic range by increasing power,
decreasing IF bandwidth, or averaging
— Trade off noise floor and measurement speed

10 MHz 26.5 GHz

Page 35
 Incident Transmitted

Tuned Receiver Front Ends:

DUT

Reflected

Mixers Versus Samplers

SOURCE

SIGNAL
SEPARATION

REFLECTED TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT (R) (A) (B)

RECEIVER / DETECTOR

PROCESSOR / DISPLAY

Sampler-based front end

ADC / DSP
S ADC / DSP

Mixer-based front end

Harmonic f
It is cheaper and easier to make frequency "comb"
broadband front ends using generator
samplers instead of mixers, but
dynamic range is considerably less

Page 37
 Dynamic Range and Accuracy
Error Due to Interfering Signal
100

10 -

+
phase error
Error (dB, deg)

1 Dynamic range is
very important for
magn error
0.1 measurement
accuracy!
0.01

0.001
0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45 -50 -55 -60 -65 -70

Interfering signal or noise (dB)

Page 38
 T/R Versus S-Parameter Test Sets
Transmission/Reflection Test Set S-Parameter Test Set
Source Source

Transfer switch

R1
R

A B A B

R2

Port 1 Port 2 Port 1 Port 2

Fwd DUT Fwd Fwd

Fwd DUT Rev
Rev
 RF comes out port 1; port 2 is receiver  RF comes out port 1 or port 2
 Forward measurements only  Forward and reverse measurements
 Response, one-port cal available  Two-port calibration possible

Page 39
 Modern VNA Block Diagram (2-Port PNA-X)
+28V J11 J10 J9 J8 J7 rear panel J2 J1

+ LO
-
Source 2
OUT OUT Noise receivers
1 2 To receivers
Source 1 Pulse
OUT OUT modulator 10 MHz - 3–
1 2 3 GHz 13.5/

R1 Pulse
26.5
GHz
modulator

Pulse generators R2
A 1
2
B
3
4

Source 2 Source 2
Test port 1 Output 1 Output 2 Test port 2

Impedance tuner for noise

DUT
figure measurements
S-parameter receivers

RF jumpers noise receivers Mechanical switch

Page 41
 Processor / Display
Incident Transmitted

DUT

Reflected
SOURCE

SIGNAL
SEPARATION

REFLECTED TRANSMITTED
INCIDENT (R) (A) (B)

RECEIVER / DETECTOR

PROCESSOR / DISPLAY

‒ Markers
‒ Limit lines
‒ Pass/fail indicators
‒ Linear/log formats
‒ Grid/polar/Smith charts
‒ Time-domain transform
‒ Trace math

Page 42
Agenda Page 43

– What measurements do we make?

– Network analyzer hardware

– Error models and calibration

– Advanced S-parameter measurements

The Need For Calibration
– Why do we have to calibrate?
• It is impossible to make perfect hardware

• It would be extremely difficult and expensive to make hardware

good enough to entirely eliminate the need for error correction

– How do we get accuracy?

• With vector-error-corrected calibration
• Not the same as the yearly instrument calibration

– What does calibration do for us?

• Removes the largest contributor to measurement

Systematic error
uncertainty: systematic errors
• Provides best picture of true performance of DUT

Page 44
Measurement Error Modeling
– Systematic errors
• Due to imperfections in the analyzer and test setup
• Assumed to be time invariant (predictable)
• Generally, are largest sources or error

– Random errors
• Vary with time in random fashion (unpredictable)
• Main contributors: instrument noise, switch and
connector repeatability Errors:

SYSTEMATIC
– Drift errors Measured Unknown
Data
RANDOM Device
• Due to system performance changing
DRIFT
• after a calibration has been done
• Primarily caused by temperature variation

Page 45
 Systematic Measurement Errors
R A B
Directivity Crosstalk

DUT

Frequency response
Reflection tracking (A/R) Source Load
Transmission tracking (B/R) Mismatch Mismatch

Six forward and six reverse error terms

yields 12 error terms for two-port devices

Page 46
What is Vector-Error Correction?
Errors

Measured
Actual
– Vector-error correction
• Is a process for characterizing systematic error
• Measures known electrical standards
• Removes effects of error terms from subsequent measurements

– Electrical Standards
• Can be mechanical or electronic
• Are often an open, short, load, and thru,
but can be arbitrary impedances as well

Page 48
Using Known Standards to Correct
for Systematic Errors
– 1-port calibration (reflection measurements)
• Only three systematic error terms measured
• Directivity, source match, and reflection tracking

– Full two-port calibration (reflection and transmission measurements)

• Twelve systematic error terms measured
• Usually requires 12 measurements on four known standards
(SOLT)

– Standards defined in cal kit definition file

• Network analyzer contains standard cal kit definitions
• CAL KIT DEFINITION MUST MATCH ACTUAL CAL KIT USED!
• User-built standards must be characterized and entered into user
cal-kit

Page 49
 Reflection: One-Port Model
Error Adapter
RF in Ideal
RF in 1
ED = Directivity

S11A ERT = Reflection tracking

ED ES S11A
ES = Source Match
S11M S11M
S11M = Measured
ERT
S11A = Actual
To solve for error terms, we
measure 3 standards to generate S11A
3 equations and 3 unknowns S11M = ED + ERT
1 - ES S11A

– Assumes good termination at port two if testing two-port devices

– If using port two of NA and DUT reverse isolation is low (e.g., filter passband):
• Assumption of good termination is not valid
• Two-port error correction yields better results

Page 50
Before and After A One-Port Calibration

Data after 1-port calibration

Data before 1-port calibration

Page 51
 Reverse model
Two-Port Error Correction Port 1 Port 2
E RT'

Forward model a1
S21
A b2
E L' S11 S22 ED'
A A E S' a2
Port 1 EX Port 2 b1

E TT' S12 A
S21A ETT b2
a1 ES EX'
ED S11A S22 a2
A
b1 EL

S  ED S  ED ' S  E X S12 m  E X '

E RT S 12
A ( 11m )(1  22m E S ' )  E L ( 21m )( )
E RT E RT ' E TT E TT '
S11a 
ED = fwd directivity EL = fwd load match S  E D' S  ED ' S  E X S12m  E X '
(1  11m E S )(1  22m E S ' )  E L ' E L ( 21m )( )
E S = fwd source match ETT = fwd transmission tracking E RT E RT ' E TT ETT '
ERT = fwd reflection tracking EX = fwd isolation
S21m  E X S22 m  E D '
E D' = rev directivity EL' = rev load match ( )(1  ( E S ' E L ))
E TT E RT '
E S' = rev source match ETT' = rev transmission tracking S21a 
S  ED S  ED' S  E X S12 m  E X '
EX' = rev isolation (1  11m E S )(1  22m E S ' )  E L ' E L ( 21m )( )
E RT' = rev reflection tracking E RT E RT ' E TT ETT '

S  EX ' S  ED
- Each actual S-parameter is a function of ( 12m )(1  11m ( E S  E L ' ))
E TT ' E RT
S12a 
all four measured S-parameters S
(1  11m
 ED S
E S )(1  22m
 ED' S
E S ' )  E L ' E L ( 21m
 E X S12m  E X '
)( )
E RT E RT ' E TT E TT '
- Analyzer must make forward and
reverse sweep to update any one S- S 22m  E D '
( )( 1 
S11m  E D
ES )  E L ' (
S 21m  E X S12m  E X '
)( )
E RT ' E RT E TT E TT '
parameter S22a 
S  ED S  ED' S  E X S12m  E X '
(1  11m E S )(1  22m E S ' )  E L ' E L ( 21m )( )
- Luckily, you don't need to know these E RT E RT ' E TT ETT '

equations to use a network analyzers!!!

Page 52
 Crosstalk: Signal Leakage Between Test Ports
During Transmission
– Can be a problem with: DUT

• High-isolation devices (e.g., switch in open position)

• High-dynamic range devices (some filter stopbands)

– Isolation calibration
• Adds noise to error model (measuring near noise floor of system)
• Only perform if really needed (use averaging if necessary)

• If crosstalk is independent of DUT match, use two terminations

• If dependent on DUT match, use two
DUTs with termination on output

LOAD DUT DUT LOA

D

Page 53
 Errors and Calibration Standards
UNCORRECTED RESPONSE 1-PORT FULL 2-PORT
SHORT
SHORT SHORT

DUT OPEN
OPEN OPEN
thru
 Convenient LOAD
LOAD LOAD
 Generally not accurate
DUT
 No errors removed
DUT
 Easy to perform thru
 Use when highest
accuracy is not  For reflection measurements
DUT
required  Need good termination for
 Removes frequency high accuracy with two-port
devices  Highest accuracy
response error
 Removes these errors:  Removes these
Directivity errors:
Source match Directivity
ENHANCED-RESPONSE Source, load match
Reflection tracking
 Combines response and 1-port Reflection tracking
 Corrects source match for transmission Transmission
measurements tracking
Crosstalk

Page 54
 Calibration Summary SHORT
Test Set (cal type)
Reflection T/R S-parameter OPEN
(one-port) (two-port)

 Reflection tracking
LOAD
 Directivity
 Source match
 Load match
Test Set (cal type)

Transmission T/R S-parameter

(response, isolation) (two-port)
error can be corrected
 Transmission Tracking
error cannot be corrected
 Crosstalk
* enhanced response cal corrects * )
for source match during  Source match (
transmission measurements
 Load match

Page 55
Response versus Two-Port Calibration
Measuring filter insertion loss

After two-port calibration

After response calibration

Uncorrected

Page 56
 ECal: Electronic Calibration
– Variety of two- and four-port modules cover 300 kHz to 67 GHz

– Nine connector types available, 50 and 75 ohms USB controlled

– Single-connection calibration
• dramatically reduces calibration time
• makes calibrations easy to perform
• minimizes wear on cables and standards
• eliminates operator errors

– Highly repeatable temperature-compensated

characterized terminations provide excellent accuracy
Microwave modules use a
transmission line shunted
by PIN-diode switches in
various combinations

Page 57
 Thru-Reflect-Line (TRL) Calibration
We know about Short-Open-Load-Thru (SOLT) calibration... What is TRL?
 A two-port calibration technique
 Good for non-coaxial environments (waveguide, fixtures, wafer probing)
 Characterizes same 12 systematic errors as the more common SOLT cal
 Uses practical calibration standards that
are easily fabricated and characterized
TRL was developed for
 Other variations: Line-Reflect-Match (LRM),
non-coaxial microwave
Thru-Reflect-Match (TRM), plus many others
measurements

Page 58
Agenda Page 59

– What measurements do we make?

– Network analyzer hardware

– Error models and calibration

– Advanced S-parameter measurements

Agenda Page 60

– Multiport S-parameter measurement

– Mixed-mode S-parameter measurement

– Time domain analysis

– Gain Compression
4-port VNA Block Diagram
(E5071C)

R1 R1 R1 R1

A A A A

Bias-tee
(optional)

Port 1 Port 2 Port 3 Port 4

Page 61
Full 3 and 4-Port Error Correction
1
Ex21
Ex21
S21M

Et21 Port 4
a11 b21
S11M Ed1
S21A Et41
El21
Es1 Ex41 El41
Er1 S11A S22A

S23A
S31A a21
b11

1 Et21
S13A S12A
S32A
Port 1
Ed1 Es1 El21 Port 2
S33A

a31 b31
Er1

El31 Et31 Ex31 El31

Ex31 Et31
S31M
Port 3

Total number of Error Terms: 2-port Error Terms : 3*2^2 = 12

3-port Error Terms : 3*3^2 = 27
3N+3N*(N-1) = 3N^2
4-port Error Terms : 3*4^2 = 48

Page 62
Agenda Page 63

– Multiport S-parameter measurement

– Mixed-mode S-parameter measurement

– Time domain analysis

– Gain Compression
 Mixed-mode S-parameter Measurement
Example
Differential amplifier
Output Impedance
Input
Impedance

Common
Differential
to Differential
Gain
Conversion

Differential to
Common Mode
Conversion

Page 64
Agenda Page 65

– Multiport S-parameter measurement

– Mixed-mode S-parameter measurement

– Time domain analysis

– Gain Compression
Example of VNA-based time domain analysis
(E5071C)

Time domain Freq domain

Sdd11 Sdd11

Freq domain
Sdd21
Time domain
Sdd21

Page 66
Agenda Page 67

– Multiport S-parameter measurement

– Mixed-mode S-parameter measurement

– Time domain analysis

– Gain Compression
 What is gain compression? DUT
Parameter to define the transition between the linear and nonlinear region of an
active device.
The compression point is observed as x dB drop in the gain with VNA’s power sweep.

Output Power (dBm) Gain (S21)

Sufficient power
level to drive DUT
Linear region Power is not high enough
Compression to compress DUT.
(nonlinear) region

Input Power (dBm) Input Power (dBm)

Enough margin of source power capability

is needed for analyzers.

Page 68
 Gain compression over frequency

Gain (i.e. S21)

Compression Input or output power
F1 point level @ P1dB (dBm)
F2
F3
F4
F5
F2 F3
F6 F1 F4
Input Power (dBm) F5
F6

Frequency Frequency

Gain compression over frequency

Page 69
Gain compression measurement example

Ch 1 (vs. Input power):

Tr 1: Gain Compresssion vs. Pin
Tr 2: Pout vs. Pin

Ch 2 (vs. Frequency):
Tr 1: Pin @ P1dB vs. Freq
Tr 2: Pout @ P1dB vs. Freq

Page 70
 RF amplifier test
The modern VNA is a more suited solution for many parametric tests of RF amplifiers.

Stability (K-factor) Gain compression High-power test

Sweeps both frequency and Performs accurate tests with
Calculates stability (K-factor)
input power level at PxdB high-power input / output of DUT
from all S-parameters with
equation editor

Harmonic Distortion Swept IMD

Performs real-time harmonics test Performs IMD analysis over an
over frequency or input power entire range of frequencies

f1 f1 f2 f3

Pulsed-RF Efficiency (PAE)

Characterize pulsed Calculate power-added
performance of devices efficiency (PAE)
VNA
Page 71
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Page 72
Thank You