SESSION – 2020-21

ENGINEERING PHYSICS

UNIT – I ( WAVE OPTICS )

BY
Dr. G.P. Joshi
Assistant Professor
Department of Physics (HEAS)
 Newton’s ring
When a convex lens of long focal length is placed on a plane glass plate with its

convex surface in contact with glass plate, a thin film of air is formed between

the copper surface of plane glass plate and the lower surface (convex surface)

of lens. When a beam of light form a monochromatic source is made to fall

normally on the combination of convex lens and plane glass plate. The fringes

are circular because air film has a circular symmetry. These are known as

Newton’s ring. These rings are formed due to interference between the wave

reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of air film.

S is a source of monochromatic light. A horizontal beam of light falls on the

glass plate G1 at 45o

AB is the incident ray and R1 and R2 are reflected rays which produce
interference. The path difference between reflected rays is
△=2 𝜇 𝑡 cos𝑟+𝜆/2
Here μ is refractive index of film for air μ=1,t is thickness of air film , r is
refracting angle depends upon incident angle and ϴ is wedge angle but ϴ is
small
For normal incidence, r = 0 ⟹ cos𝑟 =1
So △=2𝑡+𝜆/2

(a) Conduction for maximum intensity as bright rings-

Δ= effective path difference =n𝜆

2t+𝜆/2 =n𝜆
2t = (n-1/2 ) 𝜆 =(2n-1) 𝜆/2
2t= (2n-1) 𝜆/2 ________(1)

(b) Conduction for minimum intensity as dark rings –

Δ = path difference = (2𝑛+1) 𝜆/2

2𝑡+𝜆/2 = (2𝑛+1) 𝜆/2 = (𝑛+1/2 ) 𝜆
2t=n𝜆 ________(2)
(c) Conduction for central spot-

At the point of contact between lens and plate t=0. Therefore path difference
is 𝜆/2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 we get a dark spot at the centre.

(d) Diameter of dark and bright fringes

Let a vertical section of convex lens surface with its centre of curvature at o
having radius of curvature O’L= R . The thickness of air film at L is tn where
interference fringe at radius rn =ML is formed
From Pythagoras theorem
(ML)2 = (OL)2 – (OM)2
rn2 = R2 – (O’O – MO)2
=R2 – (R – tn)2
rn2 = 2Rtn – tn2
Since thickness of air is negligible in comparison of radius of curvature of lens,
so neglecting tn2 in comparison of 2Rtn.
∵ rn2 = 2Rtn
Hence diameter of nth ring is
Dn = 2rn
 =2 √2𝑅𝑡𝑛
= √8𝑅𝑡𝑛 --------------(3)

(1) Diameter of dark rings –

For dark fringes from eqn (2) and eqn (3)

Dn = 2 √ 𝑛𝜆𝑅

Thus diameter of dark fringes is directly proportional to the under roots of n

positive natural integer

(2) Diameter of bright rings –

From eqn (1) and (3)

Dn = 2 √ (𝑛−1/2)𝜆𝑅

Thus the diameter of bright fringe is directly proportional to the square root of
positive odd integer (2n -1)

**********

Determination of wave length of monochromatic light using Newton’s Rings:-

From eqn (4) the diameter of nth dark ring is given by

D2n = 4nR𝜆 ----------------(6)

Similarly the diameter of (n + p )th dark ring is given by

D2n+p = 4(n+p) R𝜆 ------------ (7)

Subtracting eqn (7) & (6)

D2n+p - D2n = 4(n+p) R𝜆 - 4nR𝜆 = 4PR𝜆

𝜆 = D2n+p - D2n / 4PR ( for air film 𝜇 = 1)

***********
 Michelson’s Interferometer

Principle & Working:-

When a beam of light from a monochromatic source is incident on a half

silvered glass plate, it is divided into two parts. One part is a reflected wave
and other part is a refracted wave.
After reflection from mirrors (M1 & M2), when they superpose each other, they
produce interference fringes. P & C are two optically parallel glass plates of
same thickness and same material at an angle of 450.

The surface of plate P towards C is half silvered. There is no polish on the plate
C, this plate is called compensatory plate.

Action of compensatory plate:-

In absence of plate C the reflected wave passes the plate P twice where as the
refracted wave does pass even once through the plate P . Therefore the optical
path of the reflected and refracted waves not equal when mirrors M1 & M2 are
at equal distance from plate P. In order to equalize the optical path of these
waves a plate C is placed parallel to plate P.
This plate C is called compensatory plate.

Formation of fringes: -

In Michelson interferometer the fringes may be straight, circular & elliptical

depending upon distance between mirror M1 & M2.

I. Circular fringes:-
Mirror M1 is parallel to M2 than the air film between M1 & M2 . If the thickness
of film is d, then light reflected from M1 & M2 will be look as it is coming from
virtual sources S1 & S2. Distance between S1 & S2 is 2d.

Then path difference

2d cos𝜃 + 𝜆/2 = 𝑛𝜆 ………… (1) (maxima)

2d cos𝜃 + 𝜆/2 = (2𝑛+1)𝜆2 ……………(2) (minima)

Since forgiven value of n,𝜆,𝑑,𝜃 will be constant so fringes produced will be in

the form of circle .
These fringes are called Haidingers fringes.
ii. Localised fringes :-

When mirror M1 & M2 are not perpendicular then M1 & M2 is wedge shape film
is formed. These fringes are known as localized fringes. When M1 intersects M2
is centre, the fringes will be straight.
 Determination of difference in wave length between two nearly
equal wavelengths

Let the light emitted by source with two wave lengths 𝜆1 & 𝜆2, which are nearly
equal. The fringe pattern formed by two wave lengths 𝜆1 & 𝜆2 is separate but as
the difference between two wavelengths is very small then two pattern
overlap. Let for 𝜆1, nth fringe overlap with (n+1) th fringe of 𝜆2 .
∴ 2𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+𝜆/2 =𝑛𝜆
2d = n 𝜆1 = (n+1) 𝜆2
2d = (n - 1/2) 𝜆1 = ( n+ 1 – ½ ) 𝜆2
d = (n−1/2) 𝜆1 / 2 = (n+ ½ ) 𝜆2 / 2
(n – ½) = 2𝑑 / 𝜆1 ………………… (1)
(n + ½) = 2𝑑 / 𝜆2 ………………… (2)
eqn (2) – eqn (1)
Then 2𝑑 / 𝜆2 - 2𝑑 / 𝜆1 = 1
2d (𝜆1−𝜆2 / 𝜆1𝜆2) = 1
𝜆1− 𝜆2 = 𝜆1𝜆2 / 2𝑑
Δ 𝜆 = 𝜆2 / 2d
Where Δ𝜆 = Difference in two wave lengths
𝜆 = Average wave length
d = distance by which mirror is moved

Determination of wave length of monochromatic light by Michelson

Interferometer

Now if mirror M1 is placed through a distance d, then the path difference

introduced in the path of rays will be 2d.
Let N fringes cross the field of view when the mirror M 2 is displaced through a
distance x.
Hence 2d = n𝜆 …………(1)
2(d + x ) = (n + N) 𝜆 ………………(2)
(1) - (2)
2x = N 𝜆
λ = 2x / N
 Diffraction

The phenomenon of bending of light waves around the obstacle and entering
in the region of the geometrical shadow of the obstacle is called diffraction of
light.
Dependence of the diffraction of waves on the size of the obstacle and the
wave length of the waves.

Types of Diffraction:

i) Fresnel Diffraction: -
When the light source and the observation point are at finite distance from the
obstacle, diffraction so produced is called Fresnel diffraction. In this diffraction
the incident and the diffracted wave fronts are spherical.

ii) Fraunhofer Diffraction:-

When the light source and observation point are at infinite distance from the
obstacle that is, the incident and diffracted wave fronts are plane, diffraction
so produced is called fraunhofer diffraction.

Fraunhofer Diffraction at a single slit

Let a plane wave front WF produced by a monochromatic light source of wave

length 𝜆 be incident upon a slit AB of width e According to Hagen’s wave
theory each point of the wave front at the slit AB acts as a secondary source of
light and send-out secondary wavelets in forward directions.
Now consider those wavelets which are diffracted at an angle 𝜃 from the
direction of incident ray. The diffracted plane wave front W’F’ is incident at a
point P on the screen by a convex lens L.
To determine the resultant intensity at the point P [Let us consider a large
number of secondary sources on the wave front at the slit AB which emit
wavelets of same phase and same amplitude a]
Thus path difference between the wavelets generated at A & B is given by
BK = e sin𝜃
As, AK is perpendicular to BK and the optical paths from the AK to P are equal.
Then phase difference
= (2𝜋 / 𝜆) (BK) = (2𝜋 / 𝜆) sin𝜃 = 𝛿 (let) …….. (1)
Let the width AB of the slit be divided into p equal parts. The amplitude of
wavelets at p due to the wavelets from each part will be the same (suppose a)
but their initial phase increases gradually from a to b in steps of 𝛿 / 𝑝 . The
resultant amplitude due to all equal parts of slit AB at the point p can be
determined by method of vector addition of amplitude. (Polygon method)

Now construct a polygon of each side of length a represent the amplitude of

wavelets coming from a small part of the slit AB and keeping the phase angle
𝛿/P between the successive amplitude vector of the wavelets.
Resultant amplitude vector is representing by 𝐴𝐵 due to all the wavelets. The
phase difference between the first and the last amplitude vector is 𝛿 which will
be equal to the tangents drawn at the points A & B.
Angle 𝛿 = arc AB /radius = Pa / r
r = Pa / 𝛿 ………. (2)
Now a perpendicular CG is drawn from the centre C of arc on the line AB which
will bisect the line AB in two equal parts.
Thus ∠𝐴𝐶𝐺= ∠BCG = 𝛿/2
And sin𝛿/2= AG / AC
∴ Length of line AB, AB = 2AG = 2r sin𝛿/2 …………………………(3)
Substituting the value of r in eqn (3) we have
A = (2𝑃𝑎 / 𝛿) sin𝛿2 = Pa [(sin𝛿/ 2) /(𝛿/2)]
= Pa [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 / 𝛼]
Where 𝛼 = 𝛿/ 2= 𝜋 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 / 𝜆 {from eqn (1)}
Hence the resultant intensity at point P
I = KA2 = KP2a2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 / 𝛼2)
I = I0 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 / 𝛼2) …………………….(4)
Where I0 = K A20 = KP2a2 is the maximum intensity. At the point where all the
waves reach in the same phase .
(i) Central maximum:-

For the central point O on the screen i.e. 𝜃 = 0 and hence δ = 0 or 𝛼= 0

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
lim =1
𝛼→0 𝛼

Hence intensity at O
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
I =Io ( ) =Io = maximum intensity ……………… (5)
𝛼2
The maximum intensity at 𝜃 = 0 is called Central maximum.

(ii) Principle minima: -

From equation (4)

I = 0 if sin 𝛼= 0
 Thus for minimum intensity
Sin𝛼 = sin δ/2 =0 but 𝛼 ≠ 0
δ/2 = ±𝜋 , ±2𝜋
δ= ±2𝑛𝜋
Where n = 1, 2, 3, 4……..
2πesinθ
From equation (1), δ = = ±2𝑛𝜋
θ
e sin θ = ±𝑛𝜆……………………………………. (6)
𝑠𝑡
Thus the positions of 𝐼 , 𝐼𝐼……….. etc minima are given by ±𝜆/e, ±2𝜆/
𝑒, ±3𝜆/𝑒……… from various value of sin𝜃.

(iii) Secondary maxima: -

To find other direction of maximum intensity differentiate equation (4)

with respect to 𝛼 and equate to zero.
𝑑𝐼
Thus =0
𝑑𝛼

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
𝑑(± )
𝛼2
=0
𝑑𝛼

−2 1
Io [𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼( 3 )+ (2cos𝛼 sin𝛼)] = 0
𝛼 𝛼2

2sin 𝛼(𝛼cos𝛼− sin𝛼)

Io =0
𝛼3

Hence either sin 𝛼 = 0 or 𝛼 cos 𝛼 – sin 𝛼 = 0

Since sin 𝛼 = 0 gives the positions of minimum intensity, so for the

secondary maxima

𝛼 cos 𝛼 – sin 𝛼 = 0

tan 𝛼 = 𝛼 ………………………………. (7)

This is the condition of secondary of secondary maxima and can be solved by

plotting graphs for y = 𝛼 and y = tan 𝛼
Taking 𝛼 as X-coordinate. The curve y = 𝛼 is a straight line passing through the
origin and inclined to X-axis at 45° and the curves y = tan 𝜶 are the
discontinuous curve from y =−∞ to y =+ ∞ .
The point of intersections of the two curve give the solution of equation (7).
The solution of equation (7) are 0, ±1.43𝜋, ±2.46𝜋…….
Thus for other secondary maxima
𝛼 = ±1.43𝛱, ±2.46𝛱 , ±3.47𝛱…..
3𝛱 5𝛱 7𝛱
=± ,± ,± ………..
2 2 2

(2𝑛+1)𝛱
=± where n = 1, 2, 3….
2

(2𝑛+1)𝜆
or e Sin𝜃 = ± from equation (1) {𝛼 = 𝛿/2}
2
Substituting (put) the values of 𝛼 in equation (4)
The intensity of secondary maxima is given by
4𝐼𝑜
I= ……………… (8)
(2𝑛+1)2 𝜋2

a) The first Secondary maximum:

3𝜋 𝜋𝑒 sin 𝜃
α=± =
2 𝜆
3𝜋
e sin 𝜃 = ± ………………. (9)
2
The intensity of first secondary maximum
 3𝜋
sin( ) 4Io 𝐼0
2 2
I= Io [ 3𝜋 ] = = ………… (10)
9𝜋2 22
2

b) For second Secondary maximum

5𝜋 𝜋𝑒 sin 𝜃
𝛼=± =
2 𝜆
5𝜋
e sin 𝜃 = ±
2

The intensity of second secondary maximum

5𝜋
sin(
2
)
2 4Io 𝐼0
I = Io [ 5𝜋 ] = = ………… (11)
2
25𝜋2 61

Width of Central maximum:

The distance between the first minima on either side of Central maximum is
called width of central maximum. If the distance between the central
maximum and the first minimum is x, then sin 𝜃 = x/f, where f is the focal
length of the convex lens.

𝜆
But sin 𝜃 = ±
𝑒

𝑥 𝜆
sin 𝜃 = = ±
𝑓 𝑒
 𝜆𝑓
x=±
𝑒

2𝜆𝑓
The width of central maximum, 2x =
𝑒

The angular width of Central maximum

2𝑥 2𝜆
𝜃= =
𝑓 𝑒

Thus it is clear that the width of central maximum is proportional to the

wavelength of incident light and inversely proportional to the width of the slit.

PLANE TRANSMISSION GRATING

A plane transmission grating is a transparent material plate such as glass plate
on which a large number of equidistant parallel and fine lines are drawn by
means of a fine point worked with a ruling engine. When the light is incident
on this plate, the ruled lines act like opaque and the space between the ruled
lines act like slit so that light can pass through them. Such type of transparent
glass plate is called plane transmission grating the number of lines in a plane
transmission grating is of the order of 10,000 to 15,000 per inch.
Theory:

Let a plane wave front be incident normally on N slits then according to

Huygens’s Principle. All points in each slit become a source of secondary
wavelets by the theory of diffraction at a single slit the resultant amplitude in
the direction 𝜃 is given by
A0 sin 𝛼 𝜋𝑒 sin 𝜃
Aθ = ------ (1) Where 𝛼 =
𝛼 𝜆

The resultant wave in each slit may be supposed to be coming from the middle
point of the slit now suppose S1, S2,S3……Sn be the middle point of the successive
slits, thus we have N diffracted parallel waves one each from S1, S2, S3…… Sn
producing interference.

Path difference between the successive wavelets at an angle 𝜃 from each slit is
same and is equal to (e + b) sin𝜃.
2𝜋
The equivalent phase difference will be (e + b) sin 𝜃
𝜆

2𝜋 𝜋
Let 2𝛽 = (e + b) sin 𝜃 ⇒ 𝛽 = (e + b) sin 𝜃
𝜆 𝜆

The resultant of all the wavelets at the point P is the vector sum of all the
amplitudes of the concurrent wavelets obtained from N identical source. The
amplitude of each wavelet is 𝐴𝜃 and its phase increase by an amount 2 𝛽 in
successive wavelets.

If the wavelet produced by a first source and arriving at P is represented by the

equation E = 𝐴𝜃 expj (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼) then the wavelets produced by other successive
source and arriving at point P can be represented by

E2 = 𝐴𝜃 expj (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼 − 2𝛽) E3 = 𝐴𝜃 expj (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼 − 4𝛽)

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
E = 𝐴𝜃 expj (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼 − 2(𝑁 − 1)𝛽 )

Resultant of waves is given by

E = E1 + E2 + E3 +…………+En

E = E = 𝐴𝜃 expj (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼)( 1 + 𝑒 −2𝐽𝛽 + 𝑒 −4𝐽𝛽 + ……. +𝑒 −2𝐽(𝑁−1)𝛽 )

Since R.H.S of this equation is a geometric series so

(1−𝑒 −2𝐽𝑁𝛽 )
E = 𝐴𝜃 expj (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼)
(1−𝑒 −2𝐽𝛽 )
 𝑒 −𝐽𝑁𝛽 (𝑒 −𝐽𝑁𝛽 −𝑒 𝐽𝑁𝛽 )
= 𝐴𝜃 expj (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼)
𝑒 −𝐽𝛽 (𝑒 −𝐽𝛽 −𝑒 𝐽𝛽 )

sin 𝑁𝛽
= 𝐴𝜃 𝑒 −𝐽(𝑁−1)𝛽 expj (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼)
sin 𝛽

sin 𝑁𝛽
E = A expj (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼) (A= Aθ expj (𝑁 − 1)𝛽)
sin 𝛽

Intensity I = k A A*
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽 2
= kAθ2 expj (N-1) 𝛽 exp -(- J(N-1) 𝛽)
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛽 2

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽 2 sin 𝛼
I= k Aθ2 but 𝐴𝜃 = 𝐴0
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 2 𝛼

sin 𝛼 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽 2
∴ Resultant Intensity I = Io ( ) ( ) ………….. (2)
𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽

Where Io = 𝛽𝐴2𝜃
sin 𝛼 2
It is clear from equation (2) that the first factor ( ) gives the diffraction due
𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽 2
to single slit while the second factor ( ) gives the interference pattern due
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
to N slits.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽 2
Dependence of interference compound of resultant intensity on ( ):
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽

I. Principal maxima:
when sin 𝛽 = 0 or 𝛽 = ±𝑛 𝜋
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ..
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽
sin N𝛽 is also equal to zero, thus comes out to be indeterminate
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽
Hence lim
𝛽→±𝑛 𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽

𝑑(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑁𝛽)
𝑑𝛽 𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠(±𝑛 𝜋)
= lim 𝑑(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽) = =N
𝛽→±𝑛 𝜋 cos(±𝑛 𝜋)
𝑑𝛽

Therefore the intensity at 𝛽 = ±𝑛 𝜋

sin 𝛼 2 2
I = to ( ) N = maximum
𝛼
The intensity at these positions are called principal maximum for these
positions
𝛽 = ±𝑛 𝜋
 (𝑒+𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Or 𝜋 = ±𝑛 𝜋
𝜆

…(𝑒 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ±𝑛 𝜋 ……. (3) where n=1, 2, 3,…

II. Minima:
When sin N 𝛽 = 0 then the intensity at P will be I= 0 thus for minima
N 𝛽 = ±𝑃 𝜋
𝑁𝜋 (𝑒 + 𝑏)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= ±𝑃 𝜋
𝜆
𝑃
(e + b) sin 𝜃 = ± 𝜆…………………(4)
𝑁

The minima can be obtained are

𝜆 2𝜆 3𝜆
(e + b) sin 𝜃 = ± , ± ,± , …….
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁

a sin 𝜃 = n 𝜆
n=1
a sin 𝜃 = 𝜆
𝜃 → 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙
a𝜃=𝜆
𝑥 𝜆
=
𝑓 𝑎
𝑓𝜆 𝑓𝜆
𝑥= 2x = 2
𝑎 𝑎
 RESOLVING POWER

Two close objects just as separate is called resolution and the ability or the
power of the optical instruments to see two close objects just as separate is
called Resolving power.

1
Resolving power =
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡

Rayleigh Criterion for Resolution:

According to Rayleigh, two close point sources of nearly equal intensity are
said to be just resolved by an optical instrument. When the central maximum
of the diffraction pattern of the one source falls on the first minimum of the
diffraction pattern of the other.
In case of just resolution the distance between the two sources is called
resolution limit.

Fig.1 fig.2 fig.3

Let A and B are the central maxima of diffraction pattern due to two lines of
wavelength 𝜆1 and 𝜆2 respectively. The objects are said to be well resolved of
the diffraction pattern overlaps as shown in figure 1. The objects are said to be
just resolved if the diffraction pattern overlaps as shown in figure 3. The
objects are said to be unresolved if the diffraction pattern overlaps as shown in
fig 2.
 RESOLVING POWER OF PLANE TRANSMISSION GRATING

Resolving power of a grating is its ability to separate different spectral lines of

nearly same wavelength. The resolving power of a grating is also defined as the
ratio of wavelength. [Of any spectral line to the difference in wavelength of
this line and next nearest line that can be seen separate.]
Let xy is plane transmission grating let a beam of wavelength 𝜆 and 𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆
incident normally on the grating.
 Let P1is the position of nth principal maxima of spectrum of wavelength 𝜆
diffracted at angle 𝜃𝑛 .
 Let P2 is the position of nth principal maximum of spectrum of
wavelength (𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆) diffracted at an angle (𝜃𝑛 + 𝑑𝜃),

The direction of nth principal maxima for wavelength 𝜆 is given by

(e + b) sin 𝜃𝑛 = n 𝜆 ……………….. (1)
The direction of nth principal maxima for wavelength (𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆) is given by
(e + b) sin (𝜃𝑛 + 𝑑𝜃) = n( 𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆 ) ……………… (2)
𝜆
The first minima is obtained if extra path difference of is introduced
𝑁
where N is the total number of lines on the grating.
𝜆
(e + b) sin (𝜃𝑛 + 𝑑𝜃) = 𝑛𝜆 + ………………… (3)
𝑁
From equation (2) and (3) we get
𝜆
n (𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆) = n 𝜆 +
𝑁
𝜆
nd𝜆=
𝑁
𝜆
= n N …………… (4)
𝑑𝜆

From equation (4) resolving power of grating is directly proportional to

I. The order of the spectrum.
II. The total number of lines on grating and independent of grating element
(e+b)
The dispersive power of grating is given by
𝑑𝜃 𝑛𝑁 𝑛
= = ……….. (5)
𝑑𝑥 cos 𝜃 (𝑒+𝑏) cos 𝜃

From equation (4) and (5)

𝜆 𝑑𝜃
= N (e + b) cos 𝜃
𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜆

High dispersive power means a wide separation of spectral lines and high
resolving power means the ability to separate two nearby spectrum.
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