INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

CENTRAL SCIENCE
Can be…
- Change in color of leaves.
- Electrical energy that powers a phone.
- Spoilage of foods left standing at room temperature.
CHEMISTRY - Study of the nature, properties, and composition of matter, and how these
undergo changes.
BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY:
1. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - The study of the structure, properties, composition,
mechanisms, and reactions of organic compounds. An organic compound is defined as
any compound based on a carbon skeleton.
2. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - The study of the properties and reactions of inorganic
compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and
there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic
chemistry.
3. PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY - The study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical
systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and
processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include:
● Chemical thermodynamics
● Chemical kinetics
● Electrochemistry
● Statistical mechanics
● Spectroscopy
● Astrochemistry
4. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY - The analysis of material samples to gain an
understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry
incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be
used in all sub-disciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry.
 5. BIOCHEMISTRY - The study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemical
interactions that take place in living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are
closely related, as in medicinal chemistry or neurochemistry. Biochemistry is also
associated with molecular biology and genetics.

MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES

PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
MATTER - Anything that occupies space and has mass. Every matter you see has specific
properties.
● Particulate in nature.
● Between separate bits of matter there are spaces that contain no matter.
SPACE - Boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events have relative position
and direction.
MASS - Amount of matter in a material.
WEIGHT - Measure of how the force of gravity acts upon that mass.

ATOMS AND ELEMENTS

ATOMS - The almost infinitesimally small building blocks of matter.
ELEMENTS - Composed of only one type of atom.
MOLECULES - A group of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.
COMPOUNDS - Is a substance which is formed by two or more different types of elements
which are united chemically in a fixed proportion.
CHEMICAL FORMULA - The symbolic expression of a compound or a substance.
● Chemical symbol
● Superscript
● Subscript
AMMONIA (NH3) - Usually the first chemical symbol written
at the right side is the central atom, or the atom located at the
center of the molecule.

SODIUM HYDROXIDE (NaOH) - Caustic Soda.

“Elements enclosed in parentheses: the subscript outside the parentheses will be multiplied by
the number of atoms inside.”
PROPERTY - A trait or characteristic that you use to describe matter through observation,
measurement, or both.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES - Characteristic or trait of matter that can be observed or perceived
with our senses easily without changing its chemical composition.
● Sight
● Taste
● Smell
● Hearing
● Touch
1. INTENSIVE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES - Does not depend on the amount.
● Boiling point
● Color
● Temperature
● Luster
● Hardness

2. EXTENSIVE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES - Depends on the amount.

● Volume
 ● Mass
● Size
● Weight
● Length
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES - Characteristic or trait that can be observed when a matter reacts
to another substance. It is also called a chemical reaction because the substance is transformed
into a chemically different substance.
● Toxicity
● Oxidation states
● Heat of combustion
● Chemical stability
● Flammability
● Coordination number
● Reactivity
● Possible chemical bonds
● Enthalpy of formation

CONSUMER PRODUCTS - Products that are bought by individuals or households for personal
use. goods that are bought for consumption by the average consumer.

COMPONENTS OF CONSUMER PRODUCTS

1. Active Ingredients.
 2. Safety Data Sheet (SDS)
- Includes information such as the properties of each chemical; the physical, health, and
environmental health hazards; protective measures; and safety precautions for handling,
storing, and transporting the chemical.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

PHYSICAL STATE
● SOLID
- Retains a fixed volume and shape.
- Not easily compressible.
- Does not flow easily.
● LIQUID
- Assumes the shape of the part of the container which it occupies.
- Not easily compressible.
- Flows easily.
● GAS
- Assumes the shape and volume of its container.
- Compressible.
- Flows easily.
● PLASMA
- Bose-Einstein condensates
- Neutron-degenerate
- Photonic matter
 - Quark-gluon plasmas

COMPOSITION
PURE SUBSTANCE - Substances that are made up of only one kind of particle and have a
fixed or constant structure.
● ELEMENT - A pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
CHEMICAL CHANGES. Displayed on the periodic table. Each element is made of the
same kind of atom.
● COMPOUND - Made of two or more different kinds of elements.
MIXTURES - A material made up of two or more different substances which are not chemically
combined.
● HOMOGENEOUS - Uniform structure or composition throughout a culturally
homogeneous neighborhood.
● HETEROGENEOUS - Process involving substances in different phases (solid, liquid, or
gaseous).
METHODS OF SEPARATING MIXTURES INTO THEIR COMPONENT SUBSTANCES
FILTRATION - Is a process used to separate solids from liquids or gasses using a filter medium
that allows the fluid to pass through but not the solid.
DECANTATION - The process of separation of liquid from solid and other immiscible
(non-mixing) liquids, by removing the liquid layer at the top from the layer of solid or liquid
below.
MECHANICAL SEPARATION - This process uses forceps, sieves, magnet and other similar
tools to separate the components of mixtures manually.
CENTRIFUGATION - A method of separating molecules having different densities by
spinning them in solution around an axis (in a centrifuge rotor) at high speed.
DISTILLATION - Is process takes the advantage of the difference in boiling points of
molecules and is best for mixtures involving two or more liquids.
CHROMATOGRAPHY - This process uses the difference in the degrees to which substances
are absorbed on the surface of an inert substance, which affect the different rates of movement of
each molecule.
ELECTROLYSIS - This is a chemical decomposition or breakdown produced by passing an
electric current through a liquid or solution containing ions.

MEASUREMENTS
MEASUREMENTS - Comparison of an unknown quantity with a known quantity.
KILOGRAM (kg) - The mass of a particular international prototype made of platinum-iridium
and kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.

Two systems used for specifying units of measure:

ENGLISH SYSTEM - Historical units of measurement used in medieval England which
evolved from the Anglo-Saxon and Roman systems.
METRIC SYSTEM - A decimalized system of measurement developed in France in the late
18th century. Often referred to as the International System of Units and abbreviated SI.

LENGTH - The measurement or extent of something from end to end.

ACCURACY AND PRECISION
ACCURACY - Refers to how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value.
PRECISION - How close measurements of the same item are to each other.

SOURCES OF ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS

ERRORS - Differences between observed values and what is true in nature. Causes results that
are inaccurate or misleading and can misrepresent nature.
● RANDOM ERRORS - Occurs due to chance. There is always some variability when a
measurement is made. Affects precision.
- REPLICATION - Repeating a measurement many times and taking the average.
 ● SYSTEMATIC ERRORS- Gives measurements that are consistently different from the
true value in nature, often due to limitations of either the instruments or the procedure.
Lead to bias in measurement results. Affects accuracy.
BIAS - Measures the systematic error associated with an analysis.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN CALCULATIONS
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES - The digits of a number that are meaningful in terms of accuracy or
precision. In any measurement, the digit farthest to the right is estimated. Significant figures are
necessary to reduce uncertainty in our measurements.
SIGNIFICANT DIGITS - In a measurement include all the known digits plus one estimated
digits.
1. Read to the last digit that you know
2. Estimate or ‘eyeball’ the final digit

RULES OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES:

1. All nonzero digits are ALWAYS significant
2. All zeros between significant digits are ALWAYS significant
3. All FINAL zeros to the right of the decimal ARE significant
4. All zeros that act as place holders are NOT significant. Zeros on the left are not
significant
5. Numbers ending in zeros with no decimal are ambiguous
6. All counting numbers and constants have an infinite number of significant digits
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION - Used to express very large or very small numbers.

Exponents can be determined by the number of decimal places you have to move to get only 1
number in front of the decimal.
DENSITY MEASUREMENTS
DENSITY - Mass of a unit volume of a material substance. Describes how compact or
concentrated something is.
LAWS OF MATTER
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS (ANTOINE LAVOISIER, 1774) - The total mass of
substances present after a chemical reaction is the same as the total mass of substances before the
reaction.
LAW OF DEFINITE COMPOSITION (JOSEPH PROUST, 1799) - All samples of a
compound have the same composition the same proportions by mass of the constituent elements.

LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTION (JOHN DALTON, 1803) - If two elements form more
than a single compound, the masses of one element combined with a fixed mass of the second
are in the ratio of small whole numbers.
DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY (1807)
1. All matter consists of indivisible particles called atoms. (Presence of subatomic particles)
2. Atoms of the same element are similar in shape and mass, but differ from the atoms of
other elements. (Presence of Isotopes)
3. Atoms cannot be created nor destroyed. (Law of Conservation of Mass Nuclear reactions)
4. Atoms of different elements may combine with each other in a fixed, simple, whole
number ratio to form compound atoms. (Law of definite proportion)
5. Atoms of the same element can combine in more than one ratio to form two or more
compounds. (Law of multiple proportion)
6. The atom is the smallest unit of matter that can take part in a chemical reaction.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
ATOM - Building block of matter.

DEMOCRITUS (400 BC) - Made of invisible particles.

DALTON MODEL (1803) - Solid invisible particles.
THOMSON MODEL (1897) - Subatomic particles.
RUTHERFORD MODEL (1911) - Known as the nuclear model. In the nuclear atom, the
protons and neutrons, which comprise nearly all of the mass of the atom, are located in the
nucleus at the center of the atom.
BOHR MODEL (1922) - Shows the atom as a central nucleus containing protons and neutrons
with the electrons in circular orbitals at specific distances from the nucleus.
SCHRÖDINGER MODEL - Current model. It assumes that the electron is a wave and tries to
describe the regions in space, or orbitals, where electrons are most likely to be found.

SUBATOMIC PARTICLES
ISOTOPES - Atoms having the same number of protons but differ in the number of neutrons.

CARBON-14 DATING - A key tool used for determining the age of prehistoric samples.
ATOMIC MASS - Sum of protons and neutrons of a single atom.
ATOMIC WEIGHT - Weighted average of the atomic mass of all natural isotopes of an
element.

MOLAR MASS - Mass (g) of a given substance divided by the amount (mole) of that substance
(atoms, compounds).
PERCENT COMPOSITION - Abundance of an element in a compound by mass.

MOLECULAR FORMULA - Give the kind and number of atoms of each element present in
the molecular compound.
EMPIRICAL FORMULA - Tells us the relative ratios of different atoms in a compound.
In many cases, the molecular formula is the same as the empirical formula.
IONIC COMPOUND - Electrostatic interaction (transfer of electron).
● Cation: positively charged ion (metals)
● Anion: negatively charged ion (non-metals)
COVALENT COMPOUND - Sharing of electron pairs.
STOICHIOMETRY
AVOGADRO’S NUMBER AND THE MOLE CONCEPT

Chemists have devised a counting unit for describing large numbers of atoms or molecules:

MOLE - the amount of matter that contains as many objects (atoms, molecules, or whatever
other objects we are considering) as the number of atoms in exactly 12g of isotopically pure.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS - A process in which one or more substances, the reactants, are
converted to one or more different substances, the products. Rearranges the constituent atoms of
the reactants to create different substances as products. Electrons are the only subatomic
particles.

CHEMICAL EQUATION - Concise representations of chemical reactions.

The states of the reactants and products are written in parentheses to the right of each
compound.

SUBSCRIPTS - Tell the number of atoms of each element in a molecule.

COEFFICIENTS - tell the number of molecules.

CHEMICAL REACTION TYPES

1. COMBINATION REACTIONS - Two or more substances react to form one product.
2. DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS - One substance breaks down into two or more
substances.

3. COMBUSTION REACTIONS - A substance reacts with oxygen gas, releasing energy

in the form of light and heat. Are generally rapid reactions that produce a flame. Most
often involve hydrocarbons reacting with oxygen in the air.
AQUEOUS SOLUTION - One in which the solvent is liquid water. Must be homogeneous.

AQUEOUS REACTIONS - Reactions that take place in water.

PRECIPITATION REACTIONS - Produce an insoluble product (the precipitate).
IONIC EQUATIONS - Show the compounds as individual ions.

SPECTATOR IONS - Ions that don't participate in the chemical reaction at all.

● ACID-BASE REACTIONS
 ● OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS

OXIDATION - The loss of electrons and the corresponding increase in the oxidation state of a
given reactant.
REDUCTION - The gain of electrons and the corresponding decrease in the oxidation state of a
reactant.
OXIDIZING AGENT - Causes the oxidation of the other. The one being REDUCED – gains
electrons, becomes more negative.
REDUCING AGENT - Causes the reduction of the other. The one being OXIDIZED – loses
electrons, becoming more positive.
OXIDATION NUMBER - The charge that atom would have if the compound was composed of
ions. Number of electrons an atom can donate or accept to form a bond with another atom.
ELEMENTAL FORM - the native state of an element which contains one or more atoms of the
same element and not any other
RULES FOR ASSIGNING OXIDATION NUMBER:
1. The oxidation number for an atom in its elemental form is always zero.
2. The oxidation number for any monatomic ion always equals the charge on that ion.
3. Nonmetals usually have negative oxidation numbers, but occasionally have positive ones.
4. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a compound is zero; the sum of
oxidation numbers of all atoms in a polyatomic ion equals the charge of the ion.
5. The change in an oxidation number from one side of the equation to another indicates
whether a substance has been oxidized or reduced.
STOICHIOMETRY - A section of chemistry that involves using relationships between
reactants and/or products in a chemical reaction to determine desired quantitative data.
The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation indicate both the relative numbers of molecules
(or formula units) in the reaction and the relative numbers of moles.
FUELS AND ENERGY RELATIONSHIP
FUEL - Dense repositories of energy that are consumed to provide energy services such as
heating, transportation and electrical generation. Produces energy in the form of heat when it
undergoes combustion. Contains carbon and hydrogen bonds that are readily combustible.
Combustible matter to maintain FIRE. Made to reach with other substances to release energy in
the form of thermal energy.
TYPES OF FUELS
1. Solid Fuels
2. Liquid Fuels
3. Gaseous Fuels
HOW DO FUELS GENERATE ENERGY?
When burned, chemical energy is released in the form of heat, light, or electricity. Fuels are
composed of different molecules (mostly contain the CARBON atom). These molecules store
energy in their bonds.

BOND-BREAKING (ENDOTHERMIC PROCESS) - Energy is absorbed.

BOND-FORMING (EXOTHERMIC PROCESS) - Energy is released.
METHANE - Is used as a fuel for ovens, homes, water heaters, kilns, automobiles, turbines, and
other things.
BOND ENERGY - Energy required to break a bond and/or energy stored in a bond.

HOW DOES AN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE WORK?

1. Intake
2. Compression
3. Power
4. Exhaust
COMPRESSION RATIO - Degree to which the fuel mixture is compressed before ignition.
The maximum volume of the combustion chamber divided by the volume with the piston in the
full compression position.

KNOCKING - A rapid pinging or knocking sound that comes from an engine when it is pushed
to produce a lot of power quickly.
● An ignition of the mixture before the piston has risen to the point where the spark plug
normally fires.
● From a combustion that begins spontaneously at one or more spots in the cylinder, either
before or just as the plug fires.
● A combination of the two.
KNOCKING CAN BE PREVENTED BY USING BRANCHED-CHAIN ALKANES
RESISTING KNOCKING - Highly branched alkane: burn smoothly and evenly and resist
knocking.
OCTANE RATING / OCTANE NUMBER - Measure of the fuel’s ability to resist knocking.
Based on the ratios of two compounds in the gasoline.
 Higher number; More resistant
The more compression from the piston the gasoline can withstand before igniting in the engine.
Higher performance vehicles require fuels with a higher octane rating.

FUEL CALORIFIC VALUE - The amount of heat that is liberated by a fuel’s complete
combustion is known as the fuel’s calorific value or heating value.
APPLICATION OF STOICHIOMETRY IN COMBUSTION REACTIONS
COMBUSTION REACTIONS - BURNING. Exothermic reaction of a material with oxygen to
produce oxides of all other elements as products releasing energy in the form of heat during the
process.
LIMITING REACTANT & EXCESS REACTANT
LIMITING REACTANT - Is defined as an ingredient or reactant in a chemical reaction that
produces the least amount of the product.
EXCESS REACTANT - A reactant present in an amount in excess of that required to combine
with all of the limiting reactants.

THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS
1. TEMPERATURE - A measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in an
object. Temperature on a scale where 0 is the absolute zero. At absolute zero, atoms and
molecules have minimum energy.
● PHASE DIAGRAM - A graphical representation of the physical states of a
substance under different conditions of temperature and pressure.
2. PRESSURE - As the amount of the normal force that is exerted over a specific surface
area.

● ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE (BAROMETRIC PRESSURE) - pressure

within the atmosphere of Earth Force/Area exerted against a surface by the
weight of the air above that surface ~ 1 atm, 14.7 PSI, 760 mmHg, 101 KPA,
1.013 bar.
● GAUGE PRESSURE - Above (relative to) the atmospheric pressure. Used to
measure the pressure difference between a system and the surrounding
 atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure is used as a reference point. Pressure gauge
reading is showing at atmosphere is: 0 PSI
● VACUUM PRESSURE (NEGATIVE GAUGE PRESSURE) - Below the
atmospheric pressure. Used in machineries that need pressures lower than the
atmospheric pressure (Vacuum oven). Usually indicated with a negative sign.
● ABSOLUTE PRESSURE - Pressure above absolute zero. Absolute zero /
Absolute vacuum is used as a reference point. Pressure gauge reading is showing
at absolute vacuum is: 0 PSIA.

● DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE - Difference between two points above the

atmospheric pressure. Used to monitor filter contamination, level measurement in
closed vessels, overpressure measurement in clean rooms, flow measurement of
gaseous and liquid media, and control of pumping plants.
3. FLUID - A substance that flows easily and can alter its shape.
● exhibit density
● can exert buoyant forces
● gasses and liquids
UNDERSTANDING THE WORLD OF THERMODYNAMICS
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY - Study of the underlying physical principles that govern the
properties and behavior of chemical systems.
CHEMICAL SYSTEM
MICROSCOPIC VIEWPOINT - Based on the concept of molecules.
MACROSCOPIC VIEWPOINT - Studies large-scale properties of matter without explicit use
of the molecule concept.
THERMOCHEMISTRY - A branch of thermodynamics; the quantitative study of the relation
between heat and chemical reactions.

SYSTEM AND ITS SURROUNDINGS

SYSTEM + SURROUNDINGS = UNIVERSE
BOUNDARIES - The surface dividing the system from its surroundings. Can be classified by
what transfer they allow.

TRANSFERS:
1. MECHANICAL TRANSFER
● Movable wall
● Rigid wall
2. THERMAL TRANSFER
● Nonadiabatic (thermally conducting / diathermic)
● Adiabatic
3. MATERIAL TRANSFER
● Permeable
● Impermeable
A system surrounded by a rigid, impermeable, and adiabatic system cannot interact with the
surroundings and is isolated.

THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
COMPOSITION ( n / m )
VOLUME ( V )
PRESSURE ( p )
TEMPERATURE ( T )
1. EXTENSIVE THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY - Whose value is equal to the sum
of its values for the parts of the system.
2. INTENSIVE THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY - Whose value does not depend on
the size of the system, provided the system remains of macroscopic size.
HOMOGENEOUS - If each intensive macroscopic property is constant throughout a system.
HETEROGENEOUS - A system composed of two or more phases.
PHASE - Homogeneous part of a system.
EQUILIBRIUM THERMODYNAMICS
ISOLATED SYSTEM - is in equilibrium when its macroscopic properties remain constant with
time.
NON-ISOLATED SYSTEMS - in equilibrium when following condition hold:
1. The system’s macroscopic properties remain constant with time.
2. Removal of the system from contact with its surroundings causes no change in the
properties of the system.
STEADY STATE - A state or condition of a system or process that does not change in time
broadly.
1. MECHANICAL EQUILIBRIUM - No unbalanced forces act on or within the system.
System undergoes no acceleration, and there is no turbulence within the system.
2. MATERIAL EQUILIBRIUM - no net chemical reactions are occurring in the system.
The concentrations of the chemical species in the various parts of the system are constant
in time.
3. THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM - no change in the properties of the system or
surroundings when they are separated by a thermally conducting wall.
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS - The transformation of a thermodynamic system undergoes
changes from one system to another.

STATE OF A THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM - Describing the path of the system.

PATH - Series of condition changes through which a system passes through a method.
Suppose that the value of every thermodynamic property in a certain thermodynamic system
equals the value of the corresponding property in a second system. The systems are then said to
be in the same thermodynamic state.

STATE FUNCTION - Describes the equilibrium state of a system, thus also describing the type
of system. The value of a state function depends only on the present state of a system and not on
its past history.
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
“The energy of an isolated system remains constant and whenever a quantity of some form of
energy disappears, an exactly equivalent quantity of some other form of energy must make its
appearance”

19TH CENTURY | CALORIC THEORY

CALORIC - Heat is an invisible fluid which flows between objects with different temperatures.

JOULE’S EXPERIMENT
JAMES PRESCOTT JOULE - Brewer and amateur scientist.
● Give rise to the 1st law of thermodynamics
● Relates heat to mechanical work
● Rejected caloric theory of heat
● Fixed amount of work is required per unit mass of water for every degree of temperature
rise caused by the stirring.
● The original temperature of the water could be restored by the transfer of heat through
simple contact with a cooler object.
● There is a quantitative relationship between WORK and HEAT.
● HEAT IS A FORM OF ENERGY.

INTERNAL ENERGY (U) - The energy at the molecular level. Energy that is found within the
system itself. Sum of all the potential energies and kinetic energies of the molecules within the
system – total energy of the system. Function of T, V, P and n of the system. Sum of heat
transferred to the system and the work done on the system.
 ● ENDOTHERMIC PROCESS – absorb heat from the surrounding (+q)
● EXOTHERMIC PROCESS – release heat to the surrounding (-q)

PV-WORK SYSTEM - Work that involves expansion and/or contraction of a system. Work in
thermodynamics is defined as in classical mechanics.
PV-WORK | REVERSIBLE - Common way work done on a thermodynamic system is by a
change in the system’s volume.
REVERSIBLE PROCESS (IDEAL PROCESS) - One where the system is always
infinitesimally close to equilibrium, and an infinitesimal change in conditions can reverse the
process to restore both system and surroundings to their initial states.

ENTHALPY (H) - The amount of internal energy and the output of a thermodynamic system's
pressure and volume.