MODULE-5 POWER SYSTEM

OPERATION AND CONTROL

 Power System Security:

 Introduction
 Factors affecting power system security
 Contingency Analysis
 Linear Sensitivity Factors
 AC power flow methods
 Contingency Selection and Ranking.

Dept of EEE
 INTRODUCTION

• Until now you have studied minimizing fuel cost or operation of power system.
• An overriding factor is Power system security.
• System security involves practices designed to keep the system operating when
components fail.
• Since power system equipment is designed to be operated within certain limits, most pieces
of equipment are protected by automatic devices that can cause equipment to be switched
out of the system if these limits are violated.
• If operating limits are violated, the event may be followed by a series of further actions that
switch other equipment out of service.
• If this process of cascading failures continues, the entire system or large parts of it may
completely collapse. This is usually referred to as a system blackout

Dept of EEE
 INTRODUCTION

• Example 1:
• Generator unit is out
• More load, frequency drop
• Sufficient spinning reserve to keep frequency and avoid load shed.
• Example 2:
• Transmission line out due to ?
• To maintain proper power flow
• Remaining transmission line to take-up the load and still remain within its limit s

 Three major functions of system security that are carried out in an operations control
center:
1. System monitoring.
2. Contingency analysis.
3. Security-constrained optimal power flow.

Dept of EEE
 INTRODUCTION

1) SYSTEM MONITORING

• Provides the operators of the power system with pertinent up-to-date information on the
conditions on the power system.
• A good telemetry systems.
• So much of information, NO human operator could check all of it in a given time frame.
• Digital computers are usually installed in operations control centers
• To gather the telemetered data
• To process them
• Display graphically
• Check with preset limits and alert if in any case.

Dept of EEE
 INTRODUCTION

2) CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS

• This is a defense mechanism ?

• Cascading failures ?
• Is a result of action being not taken within the respected time.
• Modern system are equipped with contingency analysis programs
• Model possible systems troubles before they arise.

Dept of EEE
 INTRODUCTION

2) CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS
1.1 Advanced Grounding Concepts (WinIGS) 1.19 KEPCO (KW-PSS)
1.2 ASPEN 1.20 MATMOR (PADEE)
1.3 BCP Switzerland (NEPLAN) 1.21 MILSOFT (Windmil)
1.4 Commonwealth Associates (Transmission 2000) 1.22 Manitoba HVDC Research Centre (PSCAD)
1.5 CYME 1.23 MathWorks (SimPowerSystems)
1.6 DIgSILENT (PowerFactory) 1.24 MicroTran
1.7 DNV GL (SynerGEE Electric) 1.25 Nexant (SCOPE)
1.8 Energy Advice (EA-PSM) 1.26 Phase to Phase (Vision Network Analysis)
1.9 Energy Computer Systems (SPARD) 1.27 Power Analytics (EDSA)
1.10 Electrocon (CAPE) 1.28 Powertech Labs (DSATools)
1.11 EMTP-RV 1.29 PowerWorld
1.12 EPFL (SIMSEN) 1.30 PRDC (MiPower)
1.13 ERACS 1.31 ReticMaster
1.14 EasyPower 1.32 SES & Technologies (CDEGS)
1.15 ETAP 1.33 Siemens PTI (PSS/E and SINCAL)
1.16 GDF Suez (Eurostag) 1.34 SIMPOW
1.17 GE Energy (PSLF) 1.35 SKM (Power*Tools for Windows)
1.18 IPSA Power 1.36 Tom (PASHA)
1.37 Xendee Non-Commercial Software
Dept of EEE
 INTRODUCTION

2) CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS
2.1 AMES 2.19 PSAT
2.2 DCOPFJ 2.20 PYPOWER
2.3 ATP-EMTP 2.21 PYPOWER-Dynamics
2.4 DiSC 2.22 PyPSA
2.5 Dome 2.23 RAMSES
2.6 Elplek 2.24 RPowerLABS
2.7 GridCal 2.25 SmartGridToolbox
2.8 GRIDLAB-D 2.26 TEFTS
2.9 GridPACK 2.27 UWPFLOW
2.10 InterPSS 2.28 vSPD
2.11 MatDyn
2.12 MATPOWER
2.13 Minpower
2.14 Mosaik
2.15 NEMO
2.16 OpenDSS
2.17 pandapower
2.18 PowerGAMA

Dept of EEE
 INTRODUCTION

3) SECURITY-CONSTRAINED OPTIMAL POWER FLOW

400MW

400MW

How to design a secure dispatch

Post contingency
Dept of EEE
 INTRODUCTION

3) SECURITY-CONSTRAINED OPTIMAL POWER FLOW

400MW

400MW

How to design a secure dispatch

> Security Corrections ?
Programs which can make control
adjustments to the base or pre-
contingency operation to prevent
violations in the post-contingency
conditions are called “security-
constrained optimal power flows”
Secure Post contingency or SCOPF
Dept of EEE
 INTRODUCTION

3) SECURITY-CONSTRAINED OPTIMAL POWER FLOW

In this function, a contingency analysis is combined with an optimal power flow which seeks
to make changes to the optimal dispatch of generation, as well as other adjustments, so that
when a security analysis is run, no contingencies result in violations.

Optimal Dispatch: This is the state that the power system is in prior to any contingency. It is optimal with respect to
economic operation, but it may not be secure.
Post contingency: is the state of the power system after a contingency has occurred. We shall assume here that this
condition has a security violation (line or transformer beyond its flow limit, or a bus voltage outside the limit).
Secure dispatch: is the state of the system with no contingency outages, but with corrections to the operating
parameters to account for security violations.
Secure post-contingency: is the state of the system when the contingency is applied to the base-operating
condition-with corrections.

Dept of EEE
 FACTORS AFFECTING POWER SYSTEM SECURITY
• The priorities for operation of modern power systems have evolved listed below:

1) Operate the system in such a way that power is delivered reliably.

2) Within the constraints placed on the system operation by reliability considerations, the system
will be operated most economically.
You have come across methods to operate a power system to gain maximum economy ?
Economic operation of power system
• Economic Distribution of Loads between the Units of a Plant
• Generating Limits
• Economic Sharing of Loads between Different Plants
• However what factors affect its operation of a power system from a reliability standpoint ?
• Assumptions
• Generation : Adequate generation has been installed to meet the load.
• Transmission : Adequate lines to deliver the generated power to the load
 NO Reliability problems:
Operation of the system went on without sudden failures or without experiencing unanticipated
operating states
Dept of EEE
 FACTORS AFFECTING POWER SYSTEM SECURITY
• However failure are caused either by Internal External factors
_______ or _________
• It is highly uneconomical, if not impossible, to build a power system with so much redundancy
(i.e., extra transmission lines, reserve generation, etc.)
How reliable power system is build ?
• Rather, systems are designed so that the probability of dropping load is acceptably small.
• Thus, most power systems are designed to have sufficient redundancy to withstand all major
failure events, but this does not guarantee that the system will be 100% reliable
• It is the job of the operators to try to maximize the reliability of the system they have at any given
time.
Will all the equipment's connected being operated at a time ?
• A power system is never operated with all equipment ‘‘in” (i-e., connected) since failures occur or
maintenance may require taking equipment out of service.
Dept of EEE
 FACTORS AFFECTING POWER SYSTEM SECURITY
• We are not concerned with the events that can cause trouble on a power system.
• Instead, we will concentrate on the possible consequences and remedial actions required by two
major types of failure events-Transmission-line outages and Generation-unit failures.
• Transmission line outage:
• The changes in the flows and voltages on the Line equipment's therefore, the analysis of
transmission failures requires methods to predict these flows and voltages so as to be sure they
are within their respective limits.
• Generator outage:
• The changes in the flows and voltages on the Line equipment's, the analysis of voltage
generated, frequency etc.

Dept of EEE
 CONTINGENCY-ANALYSIS (CA)
• Power system should not have any reliability violations
• Over/under voltage
• Over load
• Frequency violations
• Equipment failure
• Loss of Generator
• Load shedding
• Loss of line • Looks ate failure rate of components and looks at
various contingencies and gives result
• Active or passive failure
• Two types of CA
• Probabilistic – Reliability assessment module
• Statistical – Contingency Analysis module

• Take information and then calculate various

contingencies just like power flow modules

Dept of EEE
 CONTINGENCY-ANALYSIS (CA)

Dept of EEE
 TL from Bus 3 to 5 open

Dept of EEE
Dept of EEE Mohan B S
 CONTINGENCY-ANALYSIS (CA)
The simplest form of such a contingency analysis technique is shown below
Start

Set system
(Initial conditions)

i =1 l=1

Outage of G i Outage of TL l

Y Y

< Any line flow

Exceed limits
NO
> Alarm Message
< Any line flow
Exceed limits
NO
> Alarm Message

i=i+1
<NO
Any Bus voltage
Exceed limits
NO
Last G done
> Y

Y
Alarm Message
< l=l+1
Any Bus voltage
Exceed limits
NO
> Y

Last line done

Alarm Message

Y
END
Dept of EEE NO
 CONTINGENCY-ANALYSIS (CA)

• Time take for the algorithm ?

• Should we consider all contingencies ?
• How to demark important cases and study in details ?

A security analysis study which is run in an operations center must be executed very quickly in order to be
of any use to operators. There are three basic ways to accomplish this.

1) Study the power system with approximate but very fast algorithms.
2) Select only the important cases for detailed analysis.
3) Use a computer system made up of multiple processors or vector processors to gain speed.

• To eliminate all or most of the nonviolation cases and only run complete power flows on the “critical” cases.
• These techniques go under the names of “contingency selection” or “contingency screening

• DC power flow methods, D factor methods, Linear sensitivity methods etc

Dept of EEE
 CONTINGENCY-ANALYSIS (CA)
• Linear Sensitivity Factors

• The problem of studying thousands of possible outages becomes very difficult to solve if it is desired
to present the results quickly.
• One of the easiest ways to provide a quick calculation of possible overloads is to use linear sensitivity
factors.

These factors can be derived in a variety of ways and basically of two types: GOSF
1. Generation shift factors. LOSF
2. Line outage distribution factors.

Dept of EEE
 CONTINGENCY-ANALYSIS (CA)
• Linear Sensitivity Factors
 First, it assumes that the generator output and Lines in the system are available.
 Second, it assumes that the sensitivity factors have been calculated and stored, and that they are correct.

A B
D C

A
D

C
Check all lines for
overload after
Line outage

Dept of EEE B
 CONTINGENCY-ANALYSIS (CA)
• AC Power Flow Methods
 The calculations made by network sensitivity methods are faster than those made by AC power flow methods
and therefore find wide use in operations.
 For below two situation, AC power flow are chosen over network sensitivity methods
 In power systems where voltage magnitudes are the critical factor in assessing contingencies.
 VAR flows predominate on some circuits, such as underground cables, and an analysis of only the MW
flows will not be adequate to indicate overloads.

 Most operations control centers that use an AC power flow program for contingency analysis use either a 1)
1) Newton-Raphson or
Advantage ?
2) Decoupled power flow
These two are chooses as
> Speed of solution
> Reasonably reliable in convergence.

Dept of EEE
 CONTINGENCY-ANALYSIS (CA)
• AC Power Flow Methods flow chart
Last outage
i=1 END
done?

Pick outage i from the list i=i+l

List of and remove that component
possible from the power flow model
outage

Run an AC Power Flow on

the current model updated
to reflect the outage

Test for overloads and

voltage limit violations.
Alarm List
Report all limit violations in
an alarm list.

Dept of EEE
 CONTINGENCY-ANALYSIS (CA)
• AC power flow security analysis
with contingency case selection
Last outage
Short List i=1 END
done?
of most
likely
bad cases Pick outage i from the list i=i+l
and remove that component
from the power flow model
Select the bad
cases from the • Very few of the outages will cause
full case list Run an AC Power Flow on trouble.
and store in a the current model updated • Study only those select contingencies
short list to reflect the outage which results in an overload or voltage
limit violation, thus skip others.
Test for overloads and Two sources of error can arise
List of
voltage limit violations.
possible Alarm List
Report all limit violations in
outage
an alarm list.
• Placing too many cases on the short list
• Skipping cases
Dept of EEE
 CONTINGENCY Selection and ranking
The contingency analysis comprises of three steps.
1) Contingency creation: A list of all possible contingency
2) Contingency selection: Contingencies which can lead to line MVA and bus voltage violation
3) Contingency evaluation: Necessary control actions and necessary security action to be taken in order to
mitigate effects of the most severe case of the list
There are two main approaches for contingency selection
Direct methods: These involve screening and direct ranking of contingency cases

Indirect methods: The values of the contingency case severity indices for ranking, without calculating the monitored
contingent quantities directly

The overload Performance Index (PI) is a good index for ranking the contingencies as per their Severity.

PI are explicitly expressed in terms of network variables and are

not directly evaluated .

• PI will be a small number if all flows are within limit, and it will be large if one or more lines are overloaded.
• PI table is ordered from largest value to least
• Top N entries in the list are the candidates for the short list.
Dept of EEE
 CONTINGENCY Selection and ranking
• A decoupled power flow is used
• The solution is interrupted after This CA is of two part
• one iteration (one P - 𝜃) calculation and Real power CA (Flow of power in lines)
• one Q – V calculation; thus, the name 1P 1Q Reactive power CA (monitor voltages of buses)

• Using a different PI to include Voltage

difference between the voltage magnitude as solved at the end
of the lPlQ

limit a bus voltage from changing on one outage case.

Dept of EEE
 CONTINGENCY Selection and ranking

Dept of EEE
 State Estimation in Power Systems

• Transducers in power system measurements, will be subject to errors.

• If the errors are small, they may go undetected and can cause misinterpretation by those reading the
measured values.
• In addition, transducers may have gross measurement errors that render their output useless
• Finally, the telemetry equipment often experiences periods when communications channels are
completely out; thus, depriving the system operator of any information about some part of the power
system network.

Definition: The state estimator as “a data processing algorithm for converting redundant meter
readings and other available information into an estimate of the state of an electric power system”

Dept of EEE
 Introduction
• It is a process where the state of the power system is estimated.
• All the telemetry values of power flow, voltage levels are considered.
• State estimation (SE) is the process of assigning a value to an unknown system state variable based on
measurements from that system according to some criteria.
• SE is a core part of monitoring system.
• Weighted Least Square (WLS) estimates are universally accepted for SE
• All the telemetry values of power flow, V levels are considered.
• These values are used to calculate the phase angle of the voltage which helps in determination of the
power flow between two nodes in the power system.

 FOLLOWING ARE THE POINTS CONSIDER FOR SE

• P, Q, I & V measurement models.
• Measurement plausibility checks.
• Automatic bad data detection/elimination.
• Verification of system observability.
• Various options to handle unobservable regions.
• Consideration of load flow constrain

Dept of EEE Mohan B S

 Introduction

Various flags for the data received over SCADA

system,
Good (G)
Data received is accurate.

Suspect(S)
Data incorrect due to communication problem.

Manual (M) Two types of Data

Data is set manually by operator Analog Data
R flow, Q flow & V
Low weights are assigned for S flagged data

Digital Data
CB, Isolators, etc
No weights as in case of analog system

Dept of EEE
 Introduction
• Its applications in the aerospace field.
• The basic problems have involved the location of an aerospace vehicle (i.e., missile, airplane, or space
vehicle) and the estimation of its trajectory given redundant and imperfect measurements of its position and
velocity vector.
• State estimators may be both static and dynamic

• The behavior of the state variable with time.

• Static state estimation: The State model is build on the assumption that the state variable is in steady
state or quasi steady state i-e it remain constant with respect to time.
• Dynamic state estimation: The model is build on the assumption of changing behavior of state variable
w.r.t time.
• Real time state estimation can be possible with dynamic state estimation as no System always remain
constant it's parameter may change with time

• We shall be dealing with static state estimations

• In a power system, the state variables are the voltage magnitudes and relative phase angles at the system
nodes.

Dept of EEE
 Introduction
• The inputs to an estimator are imperfect power system measurements of voltage magnitudes and power,
VAR, or ampere-flow quantities.
• The estimator is designed to produce the “best estimate” of the system voltage and phase angles, recognizing
that there are errors in the measured quantities

Dept of EEE
 Since we know that 𝜃3, = 0 rad, we can solve the
f13equation for 𝜃2, and the f32 for 𝜃2

𝜃1 = 0.02 rad
𝜃2 = -0.10rad

We will now investigate the case where all three meter

readings have slight errors. Suppose the readings obtained
are

M12 = 62 MW = 0.62 PU
M13 = 6 MW = 0.06 PU
M32 = 37 MW = 0.37 PU
M13 = 5 MW = 0.05 PU
𝜃1= 0.24 rad
M32 = 40 MW = 0.40 PU 𝜃2= -0.0925 rad

Dept of EEE
 MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD WEIGHTED LEAST-SQUARES ESTIMATION

Statistical estimation refers to a procedure where one uses samples to calculate the value of one or more
unknown parameters in a system.
Since the samples (or measurements) are inexact, the estimate obtained for the unknown parameter is also
inexact.
This leads to the problem of how to formulate a “best”estimate of the unknown parameters given the available
measurements.

The development of the notions of state estimation may proceed along several lines, depending on the statistical
criterion selected.

1. The maximum likelihood criterion, where the objective is to maximize the probability that the estimate of the
state variable, X^, is the true value of the state variable vector, x (i.e., maximize P(x^) = x).
2. The weighted least-squares criterion, where the objective is to minimize the sum of the squares of the
weighted deviations of the estimated measurements, P, from the actual measurements, z.
3. The minimum variance criterion, where the object is to minimize the expected value of the sum of the
squares of the deviations of the estimated components of the state variable vector from the corresponding
components of the true state variable vector.

Dept of EEE
 Maximum likelihood procedure
• What is the probability (or likelihood) that I will get the measurements I have obtained ?
• It depends on the
• Random error in the measuring device (transducer)
• Unknown parameters to be estimated.
• The maximum likelihood estimator assumes that we know the probability density function (PDF) of the
random errors in the measurement.
• The “least-squares” estimator does not require that we know the PDF for the sample or measurement errors

• The measurements are assumed to be in error: that is, the value obtained from the measurement device is
close to the true value of the parameter being measured but differs by an unknown error.
• Mathematically, this can be modeled as follows.
• Zmeas = Ztrue + η
zmeas be the value of a measurement as received from a measurement device.
ztrue be the true value of the quantity being measured.
η, be the random measurement error.

The PDF of η is where 𝜎is called the standard deviation and

𝜎2 is called the variance of the random number.

Dept of EEE
 Maximum likelihood procedure

• If 𝜎is large, the measurement is relatively inaccurate

• (i.e., a poor-quality measurement device),
• Small value of 𝜎denotes a small error spread (i.e., a higher-
quality measurement device).

The normal distribution.

Dept of EEE