CELLS 2.

Cell Envelope: Capsule, cell wall,

➔ Cells are the structural and and plasma membrane.
functional units of all living 3. Cytoplasmic Region: Contains the
organisms. cell genome (DNA), ribosomes, and
➔ Also called the “building blocks of various inclusions.
life.”
➔ All cells are made from the same EUKARYOTIC CELL
major classes of organic molecules: ➔ Include fungi, animals, plants, and
nucleic acids, proteins, some unicellular organisms.
carbohydrates, and lipids. ➔ About 10x the size of a prokaryote
and can be up to 1000x greater in
HISTORY OF THE CELL volume.
➔ In 1665, Robert Hooke made an ➔ Contain membrane-bound
improved microscope and compartments where specific
discovered cells in cork. metabolic activities take place.
➔ Contains a nucleus.
TYPES OF CELL ➔ Has other specialized structures
called organelles.
PROKARYOTIC CELL
➔ Unicellular organisms that do not MAJOR PARTS OF THE CELL
develop or differentiate into
multicellular forms. CELL MEMBRANE
➔ Identical and capable of independent ➔ Also called the plasma membrane or
existence. plasmalemma.
➔ No continuity or communication ➔ Semi-permeable membrane.
between the cells. ➔ All membranes are phospholipid
➔ Capable of inhabiting almost every bilayers with embedded proteins.
place on Earth.
➔ Include all bacteria and archaea FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL MEMBRANE
(archaebacteria). ➔ Delimits the cell from its
➔ Lack a nucleus and membranous surroundings.
organelles. ➔ Controls what gets in and out of the
➔ Most functions of organelles, such cell.
as mitochondria, chloroplasts, and ➔ Provides attachment for the skeleton
the Golgi apparatus, are taken over of the cell.
by the prokaryotic plasma ➔ Receives and sends out stimuli.
membrane. ➔ Provides binding sites and receptors
for enzymes and other substances.
ARCHITECTURAL REGIONS OF A ➔ Allows cell-to-cell recognition.
PROKARYOTIC CELL
➔ Forms specialized junctions with the
1. Appendages: Flagella and pili
cell membrane of adjacent cells.
(proteins attached to the cell
surface).
CYTOPLASM
 ➔ Jelly-like matrix that surrounds the ➔ A continuous extension of the rough
nucleus and is bound by the cell ER, located more distally from the
membrane. nucleus.
➔ Contains dissolved nutrients, helps ➔ More tubular in structure, forming a
break down waste products, and lacelike reticulum.
moves material around the cell.
➔ The living substance of the cell. ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
(ROUGH ER)
CYTOSOL ➔ Granular – with ribosomes.
➔ The fluid portion of a cell's ➔ Composed of flattened sealed sacs,
cytoplasm. contiguous with the nuclear
➔ Contains water, free proteins, and membrane.
other substances. ➔ Connected to the nuclear envelope.
➔ A major part of cellular metabolism ➔ More extensive than the smooth ER.
takes place here. ➔ Found throughout the cell, but the
➔ Contains the cytoskeleton. density is higher near the nucleus
and the Golgi apparatus.
ORGANELLES
MITOCHONDRIA
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER) ➔ The powerhouse of the cell.
➔ The principal protein-folding ➔ The major source of ATP synthesis
organelle for secretory and in cells during aerobic respiration.
membrane proteins. ➔ The mitochondrial inner membrane
➔ Proteins are folded, assembled, and is highly invaginated, forming folded
post-translationally modified in the structures called cristae that
ER. protrude into the matrix of the
➔ Concerned with intracellular mitochondrion.
transport. ➔ ATP generation occurs in the matrix.
➔ The largest membrane compartment
within eukaryotic cells, consisting of WHY ARE MITOCHONDRIA SIMILAR TO
membranous tubules or flattened BACTERIA?
sacs (cisternae) that enclose a ➔ They are organelles with a double
continuous lumen or space and membrane, approximately the size
extend throughout the cytoplasm. of a bacterium.
➔ They have a circular DNA molecule
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM and ribosomes with strikingly
(SMOOTH ER) prokaryotic features.
➔ Agranular – no attached ribosomes. ➔ They are motile.
➔ Synthesizes lipids, phospholipids, ➔ They can undergo self-replication
and steroids like cholesterol. similar to bacterial cell division.
➔ Involved in the transport of fatty
acids and other lipids. GOLGI COMPLEX
➔ Connected to the nuclear envelope.
 ➔ Also called Golgi apparatus or Golgi ➔ Composed of a large and a small
body. subunit.
➔ Consists of disk-like membranes ➔ The site of protein synthesis in the
(cisternae) organized into stacks or cell.
dictyosomes. ➔ All cells have ribosomes, either free-
➔ Its inner face (cis or entry face) is floating or attached.
near the rough ER.
➔ Transports substances to and from NUCLEUS
the cell.
➔ Modifies, packages, and transports Structure
proteins. ➔ A round structure at the center of the
➔ Produces lysosomes. cell.
➔ A double-membrane-bound structure
LYSOSOMES found in eukaryotic cells.
➔ Simple tiny spherical sac-like ➔ Controls metabolic activities.
structures. ➔ Usually the largest structure in the
➔ Surrounded by a single membrane cell.
and contains powerful enzymes ➔ Contains DNA.
capable of digesting organic
materials. Functions
➔ Contains acid hydrolases and 40 ➔ Regulates the heredity traits of an
different enzymes. entity.
➔ Produced in the Golgi apparatus. ➔ Maintains the integrity of genes that
➔ Part of an intracellular digestive control gene expression.
system. ➔ Reserves heredity material in the
➔ Known as "suicide bags." form of DNA strands that also store
RNA and proteins in the nucleolus.
PEROXISOME ➔ Controls protein synthesis, growth,
➔ Small cellular organelles that play an cell division, and differentiation.
important role in the oxidation of ➔ Involved in the transcription process
cellular lipids, especially fatty acids where mRNA is produced to
derived from membrane lipids. generate proteins.
➔ Breaks down hydrogen peroxide into ➔ Assists in the exchange of RNA and
water and oxygen. DNA between the cell and the
➔ Plays a role in the detoxification of nucleus.
alcohol and other toxic compounds.
➔ Formed by budding off the NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
endoplasmic reticulum. ➔ Also called the nuclear envelope.
➔ A double membrane system,
RIBOSOMES consisting of two concentric
➔ Molecular structures made of both membranes (inner and outer
RNA and protein. membrane).
 ➔ Separated by a fluid-filled space 2. Carrier Proteins
called the perinuclear cisterna. - Changes shape to move material from one
➔ Encloses DNA within the nucleus side of the membrane to the other.
and protects it from the substances
in the cytoplasm.
Cell Transport
➔ Regulates the entry and exit of
substances in the nucleus.
Types of Transport
NUCLEOLUS - Passive
➔ A membrane-less structure whose - Does not require energy
primary function is ribosomal RNA - Goes with the concentration gradient
(rRNA) synthesis and ribosome
biogenesis. - Active
➔ Generates ribosomes, referred to as - Requires energy
protein factories. - Goes against the concentration gradient
➔ The most prominent structure in the
nucleus. Carrier Proteins for Active Transport
1. Uniporters
- Carries one specific ion or molecule.
Cell Membrane
2. Symporters
Parts of the Cell Membrane - Carries two different ions or molecules,
1. Phosphate Head both in the same direction.
- Polar
- Hydrophilic 3. Antiporters
- Carries two different ions or molecules,
2. Fatty Acid Tail but in different directions.
- Non-polar
- Hydrophobic Simple Diffusion
- Saturated Fatty Acid - Diffusion is the random movement of
- Unsaturated Fatty Acid molecules from an area of high
concentration to low concentration.
3. Proteins - Requires no energy.
- Transmembrane Proteins
- Integral Proteins
- Peripheral Proteins Rate of Diffusion
1. Size of the particle.
2. Temperature.
Types of Transport Proteins 3. Extent of the concentration gradient.
1. Channel Proteins 4. Mass of the molecules diffusing.
- Embedded in the cell membrane and have 5. Property of the solvent.
a pore for materials to cross. 6. Solubility.
7. Surface area and thickness of the plasma 3. Hypertonic
membrane. - A solution whose solute concentration is
higher than the solute concentration inside a
cell.
Molecules that Diffuse Through Cell
Membranes
1. Oxygen Cytolysis & Plasmolysis
- Non-polar so diffuses very quickly. - Cytolysis: The bursting of a cell due to
excessive water intake.
2. Carbon Dioxide - Plasmolysis: The shrinking of a cell due to
- Polar but very small so diffuses quickly. water loss.

3. Water
- Polar but also very small so diffuses Dialysis
quickly. - The separation of colloids from dissolved
- Facilitated Diffusion: Aquaporin - water ions or molecules of small dimensions, or
channel. crystalloid, in a solution.
- Dialysis is possible because of the
unequal rates of diffusion through a
Osmosis semipermeable membrane.
- Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a - Influenced by heat and electric field.
membrane.
- Moves from high water concentration to
low water concentration. Facilitated Diffusion
- Does not require energy.
- Uses transport proteins to move from high
Diffusion Across a Membrane to low concentration.
- High water concentration → Low water - Molecules will randomly move through the
pores in channel proteins.
concentration - Examples: Glucose or amino acids
- Low solute concentration → High solute moving from blood into a cell.

concentration
Active Transport
- Requires energy (ATP).
Cells in Solutions - Moves materials from low to high
1. Isotonic concentration.
- A solution whose solute concentration is - Against the concentration gradient.
the same as the solute concentration inside - Example: Sodium-Potassium Pump.
the cell.

Active Transport - Exocytosis

2. Hypotonic
- Molecules are moved out of the cell by
- A solution whose solute concentration is
vesicles that fuse with the plasma
lower than the solute concentration inside a
membrane.
cell.
- This is how many hormones are secreted
and how nerve cells communicate with each Saliva
other. - A complex fluid that influences oral health
through specific and nonspecific physical
and chemical properties.
Active Transport - Endocytosis - Produced and secreted from the acini cells
- Large molecules move materials into the of the salivary glands.
cell by one of three forms of endocytosis: - Functions include:
1. Pinocytosis - Lubrication and binding
2. Receptor-mediated endocytosis - Solubilization of dry food
3. Phagocytosis - Oral hygiene
- Initiation of starch digestion
Surface Tension
- The property of the surface of a liquid that Pancreatin
allows it to resist an external force, due to - Contains enzymatic components including
the cohesive nature of its molecules. trypsin, amylase, lipase, ribonuclease, and
protease, produced by the exocrine cells of
Lower Surface Tension the porcine pancreas.
- Surfactants are surface active agents. - This combination of enzymes allows it to
- They are amphiphilic molecules. hydrolyze proteins, starch, and fats.
- They decrease surface and interfacial - Lipase: Hydrolyzes fat.
tension and stabilize the interface. - Protease: Hydrolyzes protein.
- They lower the surface tension (or - Amylase: Hydrolyzes starch.
interfacial tension) between two liquids or
between a liquid and a solid.

Bile
- Biosurfactants that allow fat to be
emulsified into microdroplets.
- Contains bile salts, lecithin, and
substances derived from cholesterol.
- Made and released by the liver and stored
in the gallbladder.
- Attracts and holds onto fat while
simultaneously being attracted to and held
onto by water.

Hydrolysis
- A common form of a chemical reaction
where water is used to break down the
chemical bonds that exist between a
particular substance.