Acids and Bases The addition of CO also causes the plito

lower slightly.
❖ Acids 5. Black coffee
• Substances that produce H3O+ ions Levels of acids found in coffee can be
in aqueous solution affected by the altitude at which the coffee
• Proton donors grown, and the minerals present in the soil.
• pH below 7 6. Cow's milk
• Taste: Sour Milk goes sour over time due to the bacteria
• Smell: burns the nose
producing lactic acid as part of a fermenting
• Feel: Sticky
process.
• Litmus paper: Turns blue to red
7. Distilled water
• Phenolphthalein: Colorless
• Methyl orange: Red orange Pure water is neutral as it contains the
same amount of positive ions as negative
❖ Bases ions, though most water isn't pure in this
• Substances that produce OH- ions in sense.
aqueous solution 8. Baking soda
• Proton acceptors A slightly salty substance used as a base in
• pH above 7 foods to regulate the pH if something is too
• Taste: Bitter
acidic
• Smell: usually odorless
9. Toothpaste
• Litmus paper: Turns red to blue
• Phenolphthalein: Pink Acidic toothpaste can put ? at risk of decay,
• Methyl orange: Yellow orange so a weak base such as sodium hydroxide
is added in order to regulate the pH.
pH Levels 10. Milk of magnesia
A weak base of magnesian hydroxide in
0. Hydrofluoric acid water, used to ease stomach aches caused
A highly corrosive substance which a as gas by too much acid.
is a severe poison and acts a catalyst in 11. Ammonia solution
(refining?) When placed in water, ammonia removes
1. Sulfuric acid protons from a small fraction of the water to
Used in the production of fertilizers, this form ammonium and hydroxide. It is used in
strong act is a chemical found in acid rain. many cleaning products for its basic
2. Lemon juice properties.
Lemon juice is about ? auric acid - a week 12. Bleach
organic acid that gives lemons their sour Can contain sodium hypochlorite at different
taste. strengths, making it a strong caustic base.
3. Cola 13. Caustic oven cleaner
Cola contains phosphoric acid, which has Heavy-duty oven cleaners can be really
been linked to the lowering of bone density caustic and corrosive, helping to break
in various studies. down fat and grease.
4. Beer 14. Caustic soda
Various acids are formed during the Chemically known as sodium hydroxide, in
fermentation process in beer production. its purest form it is a white solid and can
cause severe burns due to its high alkalinity
❖ Strength of Acids and Bases • Diprotic
- Strong acids readily reacts with water an acid that can give up only two
to form H, 0+ (hydronium) ions. protons
- Strong bases readily reacts with water • Triprotic
to form OH (hydroxide) ions. an acid that can give up three protons
- Weak acids/bases are only partially
ionized in an aqueous solution. ❖ Conjugate Base
a substance formed when an acid
❖ Svante Arrhenius acid donates a proton to another
Acids molecule.
contains a hydrogen atom and dissolves
in water to form a hydrogen ion, H+. ❖ Conjugate Acid
Examples: HCI, H2SO4, H3PO4 a substance formed when a base
accepts a proton from another molecule.
Bases
contains hydroxide and dissolves in ❖ Acid-Base Reaction
water to form -OH The stronger the acid the weaker and
Examples: NaOH, KOH, Ba(OH)2 less reactive its conjugate base; the
stronger the base the weaker and less
Arrhenius Definition reactive its conjugate acid.
Arrhenius definition of acids and bases
is limited and sometimes inaccurate. ❖ Gilbert N. Lewis
- Hydrogen ion does not exist in water, Acids
rather hydronium ion H3O+ is present electron-pair acceptors.
- Several compounds exhibit the - Includes all electrophilic or electron
characteristic properties of bases poor species, as well as those which
despite the absence of hydroxide possess formal positive charges and
anions. those with greatly reduced electron
densities.
Johannes Nicolaus Bronsted Thomas Examples:
Martin Lowry Carboxylic acids, phenols, alcohols
Acids H2O, HCI, HBr, HNO3, AlCl2, FeCl3,
Substances that donate a proton (H+). ZnCL2
- acids can be positively charged,
neutral or negatively charged ❖ Ph
Bases - Potential of hydrogen
Substances that accept a proton (H+). - A numeric scale used to specify the
- bases can be negatively charged or acidity or basicity of an aqueous
neutral solution.
- pH is the negative logarithm of
❖ Classification of Acids hydrogen ion concentration of
• Monoprotic solution.
an acid that can give up only one proton - Low pH values correspond to high
concentrations of H*
 - High pH values correspond to low a. Carbonic acid-Bicarbonate
concentrations of H*
❖ Protein Buffers
❖ pH Scale • Chemical Buffer
- A scale which measures how acidic - First-line of defense
or basic a substance is. - Takes seconds
- It ranges from 0 to 14 - Buffer in both plasma and cells
- A pH value of 7 is neutral • Hemoglobin - most important
- A pH value of below 7 is acidic • Binds to hydrogen and hydroxyl ions
- A pH value of above 7 is basic - (Arrow up) pH level = COOH release
H+
❖ Significant Figures - (Arrow down) pH Level = NH2, bind
If the pH is given, check the decimal place. H+
This would correspond to the number of
significant figures in the concentration ❖ Phosphate Buffers
• Example: pH is 4. (1 decimal place) = • Chemical Buffer
concentration is 8 x 10-5 - First-line of defense
pOH is 2. (2 decimal place) = concentration - Takes seconds
is 3 × 10-12 - Buffers renal tubules and
If the ion concentration is given, check the intracellular fluids
number of significant figures. The number of • Provides temporary solution
significant figures corresponds to the • Works like the carbonic acid-bicarbonate
number of decimal place in the pH buffer system
• Example: concentration is x 10-3 (2 sig fig)
= pH is 2.46 ❖ Respiratory System
Physiological Buffer
❖ Buffer - Second-line of defense
- Takes minutes
• A substance that resists changes in pH
Regulates the blood levels of carbonic acid.
• Releases H+ when a base is added. o (high) in CO, = 1 pH level = high
• Absorbs H+ when acid is added. carbonic acid
• Chemical substances that neutralize small o (low) in CO, = 1 pH level = low
amounts of acids and bases carbonic acid
• It is composed of a weak acid or a base
and its salt. ❖ Renal System
• Acts as a shock absorber • Physiological Buffer
- Second-line of defense
- Takes hours, even days
❖ Buffer Systems in the Body - Most effective pH regulator
1. Intracellular Fluid • Eliminates fixed acids
a. Protein Buffers • Filters HCOg
I.Plasma buffers • Excretion of H+
II. Hemoglobin buffer • If kidneys fail, pH balance will fail
II. Amino acid buffer
b. Phosphate Buffer ❖ Acid-Base Balance
2. Extracellular Fluid
 - The acid-base balance in body fluids o A large loss of potassium or sodium
is one of the most vital aspects of in a short period
homeostasis. o Antacids
- Acid-Base control involves body o Laxatives
buffers, lung function and kidney o alcohol abuse
function Respiratory Alkalosis
- pH affects all functional proteins and • Caused by a low level of CO2 in the blood
biochemical reactions that results from rapid or deep breathing
o Hyperventilation
❖ ACID-BASE BALANCE o High fever
DISTURBANCES o lack of oxygen
• Occurs when acid-base changes o salicylate poisoning
surpass the body's ability to regulate o being in high altitudes
it, or when normal regulatory o liver disease
mechanisms become ineffective. o lung disease
• Acidosis - build up of too much acid
in the body ❖ ACID IONIZATION CONSTANT (K)
• Alkalosis - build up of too much • An equilibrium constant for the
base in the body ionization of an acid in aqueous
solution to H30* and its conjugate
❖ ACIDOSIS base
Metabolic Acidosis • It is also called an acid dissociation
• Caused by an excessive loss of HCO, constant
from the blood. • Ka is a value that characterizes the
• Diabetes mellitus and ketoacidosis degree to which an acid dissociates
• Severe shock or heart failure and lactic in water.
acidosis ➢ The higher the dissociation,
• Diarrhea and loss of HCO the higher the value of Ka,
• Renal tubular acidosis and retention of and the stronger the acid.
hydrogen ions
• Starvation o The weaker the acid, the smaller its
• High fever Ka but the larger its pKa.
Respiratory Acidosis o The weaker the acid, the smaller its
• Caused by a buildup of CO, in the blood Ka, the higher its
due to poor lung function or depressed pH.
breathing
• Chronic airway conditions, i.e. asthma ❖ BUFFER CAPACITY
• injury to the chest • It is the amount of hydronium or
• Obesity hydroxide ions that a buffer can
• Sedative misuse absorb without a significant change
• Overuse of alcohol in its pH.
• muscle weakness in the chest • The closer the pH of the buffer is to
• Problems with the nervous system the pKa of the weak acid, the more
symmetric the buffer capacity,
❖ ALKALOSIS meaning the buffer can resist a pH
Metabolic Alkalosis change with added acid or added
o Caused by a loss of acid from the base.
blood. • The greater the concentration of the
o Excessive vomiting weak acid and its conjugate base,
o Overuse of diuretics the greater the buffer capacity.
o Adrenal disease
 ❖ HENDERSON-HASSELBALCH ❖ URINE
EQUATION • The excretory product of the kidneys.
o A mathematical relationship between • Normal urine is a clear, transparent,
pH, the pKa of a weak acid, and the amber-colored fluid made of urea, uric acid,
concentrations of the weak acid and salt, and water.
its conjugate base. • Normal pH: 4.6 to 8
o It is a convenient way to calculate • Freshly voided urine is acidic
the pH of a buffer when the • Low pH may be caused by uncontrolled
concentrations of the weak acid and its diabetes, severe diarrhea, dehydration,
conjugate base are not equal. starvation, or drinking too much alcohol
• High pH may be caused by severe
❖ Body Fluid vomiting, kidney disease, UTI, and asthma
• Intracellular Fluid
• Fluid inside cells ❖ SALIVA
• 40% of body weight • A watery and usually somewhat frothy
• Plasma membrane separates ICF from substance produced in the mouths of some
surrounding interstitial fluid animals. including humans.
• Extracellular Fluid • Saliva is 98% water, but it also contalns
- Fluid outside/between cells electrolytes, mucus, antibacterial
- 20% of body weight compounds and various enzymes.
- Includes: • Saliva contains the enzyme amylase that
a. Interstitial fluid breaks some starches down into maltose
b. Plasma and dextrin.
c. synovial fluid • Normal pH: 6.2 to 7.6
d. aqueous humor • Resting pH of mouth does not fall below
e. cerebrospinal fluid 6.3

❖ BLOOD ❖ GASTRIC JUICE

• Blood is a tissue consisting of different • A colorless, watery, acidic, digestive fluid
types of cells suspended in a liquid medium produced in the stomach
called plasma. • Normal pH: 1 to 5
- Red blood cells (RBC) • pH after a high-protein meal: 1 or 2
- White blood cells (WBC) • Resting pH level: about 4 or 5.
- Platelets • Contains water, mucus, HCl, intrinsic
• Blood transports oxygen from the lungs to factors and enzymes
the tissues and CO, from the tissues to the • Pepsin and renin
lungs. • Gastric lipase
• Normal pH: 7.35 to 7.45 • Antiseptic
• Digests proteins
❖ SWEAT
• A salty, watery solution produced by sweat ❖ CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF)
glands • Clear, colorless, and transparent fluid that
- Sebum and sweat mix up on the skin circulates through ventricles of brain,
surface forming the acid mantle subarachnoid space, and central canal of
- Sebum is an oily secretion produced the spinal cord.
by sebacious glands • Contains 99.13% water
➢ Waterproof the skin and hair • Hydrolic shock absorber
• Acid mantle has a pH range of ~4 to 5.5. • Regulates intracranial pressure
• Helps protect skin • Influences the hunger sensation and
• Inhibits the growth of harmful bacteria and eating behavior
fungi. Spinal cord
• Normal pH: 7.35 ❖ TEAR FILM
• A unique thin fluid layer that covers
❖ SYNOVIAL FLUID the outer mucosal surfaces of the eye.
• It is a viscous liquid found in small • pH 7.3
quantities in the spaces between the joints. • Aqueous layer
• Clear, pale or straw-colored, and it does - provides oxygen and nutrients and
not clot. flushes away debris, toxins and foreign
• Normal pH: 7.3 to 7.43 bodies.
• Reduces friction by lubricating articulating • Mucin layer
joints - help stabilise the tear film.
• Shock absorber • lipid layer
• Transports nutrients and waste - retards the evaporation of tears

❖ AQUEOUS HUMOR
• A thin, transparent fluid similar to plasma CELLS
that fills the space between the cornea and ➔ Cells are the structural and
the iris. functional units of all living
• Produced specifically and continually by
organisms.
the non-pigmented epithelium of the ciliary
body. ➔ Also called the “building blocks of
• It nourishes the cornea and the lens, as life.”
well as giving the eye its shape. ➔ All cells are made from the same
• It also removes waste major classes of organic molecules:
• 98.9% water
nucleic acids, proteins,
• Normal pH: 7.1 to 7.3
carbohydrates, and lipids.
❖ VITREOUS HUMOR
• A transparent substance that is around HISTORY OF THE CELL
99% water. ➔ In 1665, Robert Hooke made an
• 1% Collagen and hyaluronic acid improved microscope and
- gelatinous consistency.
• The vitreous humor comprises a large discovered cells in cork.
portion of the eyeball.
• Helps absorb shocks to the eye and keeps TYPES OF CELL
the retina properly connected to the back
wall of the eye. PROKARYOTIC CELL
• Normal pH: 7.29
➔ Unicellular organisms that do not
❖ TEARS develop or differentiate into
• The body's release valve for stress, multicellular forms.
sadness, grief, anxiety, and frustration. ➔ Identical and capable of independent
• Produced by lachrymal glands existence.
• Lubricates the surface of the cornea ➔ No continuity or communication
• Remove irritants
• Reduce stress hormones between the cells.
• Lysozyme protects eye from infection ➔ Capable of inhabiting almost every
• Three kinds of tears: place on Earth.
• Reflex; Continuous; and Emotional. ➔ Include all bacteria and archaea
• Normal pH: 7.2 to 7.4
(archaebacteria).
 ➔ Lack a nucleus and membranous ➔ Delimits the cell from its
organelles. surroundings.
➔ Most functions of organelles, such ➔ Controls what gets in and out of the
as mitochondria, chloroplasts, and cell.
the Golgi apparatus, are taken over ➔ Provides attachment for the skeleton
by the prokaryotic plasma of the cell.
membrane. ➔ Receives and sends out stimuli.
➔ Provides binding sites and receptors
ARCHITECTURAL REGIONS OF A for enzymes and other substances.
PROKARYOTIC CELL
➔ Allows cell-to-cell recognition.
1. Appendages: Flagella and pili
➔ Forms specialized junctions with the
(proteins attached to the cell
cell membrane of adjacent cells.
surface).
2. Cell Envelope: Capsule, cell wall,
CYTOPLASM
and plasma membrane.
3. Cytoplasmic Region: Contains the ➔ Jelly-like matrix that surrounds the
cell genome (DNA), ribosomes, and nucleus and is bound by the cell
various inclusions. membrane.
➔ Contains dissolved nutrients, helps
EUKARYOTIC CELL break down waste products, and
➔ Include fungi, animals, plants, and moves material around the cell.
some unicellular organisms. ➔ The living substance of the cell.
➔ About 10x the size of a prokaryote
and can be up to 1000x greater in CYTOSOL
volume. ➔ The fluid portion of a cell's
➔ Contain membrane-bound cytoplasm.
compartments where specific ➔ Contains water, free proteins, and
metabolic activities take place. other substances.
➔ Contains a nucleus. ➔ A major part of cellular metabolism
➔ Has other specialized structures takes place here.
called organelles. ➔ Contains the cytoskeleton.

MAJOR PARTS OF THE CELL ORGANELLES

CELL MEMBRANE ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

➔ Also called the plasma membrane or ➔ The principal protein-folding
plasmalemma. organelle for secretory and
➔ Semi-permeable membrane. membrane proteins.
➔ All membranes are phospholipid ➔ Proteins are folded, assembled, and
bilayers with embedded proteins. post-translationally modified in the
ER.
FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL MEMBRANE ➔ Concerned with intracellular
transport.
 ➔ The largest membrane compartment ➔ ATP generation occurs in the matrix.
within eukaryotic cells, consisting of
membranous tubules or flattened WHY ARE MITOCHONDRIA SIMILAR TO
sacs (cisternae) that enclose a BACTERIA?
continuous lumen or space and ➔ They are organelles with a double
extend throughout the cytoplasm. membrane, approximately the size
of a bacterium.
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM ➔ They have a circular DNA molecule
(SMOOTH ER) and ribosomes with strikingly
➔ Agranular – no attached ribosomes. prokaryotic features.
➔ Synthesizes lipids, phospholipids, ➔ They are motile.
and steroids like cholesterol. ➔ They can undergo self-replication
➔ Involved in the transport of fatty similar to bacterial cell division.
acids and other lipids.
➔ Connected to the nuclear envelope. GOLGI COMPLEX
➔ A continuous extension of the rough ➔ Also called Golgi apparatus or Golgi
ER, located more distally from the body.
nucleus. ➔ Consists of disk-like membranes
➔ More tubular in structure, forming a (cisternae) organized into stacks or
lacelike reticulum. dictyosomes.
➔ Its inner face (cis or entry face) is
ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM near the rough ER.
(ROUGH ER) ➔ Transports substances to and from
➔ Granular – with ribosomes. the cell.
➔ Composed of flattened sealed sacs, ➔ Modifies, packages, and transports
contiguous with the nuclear proteins.
membrane. ➔ Produces lysosomes.
➔ Connected to the nuclear envelope.
➔ More extensive than the smooth ER. LYSOSOMES
➔ Found throughout the cell, but the ➔ Simple tiny spherical sac-like
density is higher near the nucleus structures.
and the Golgi apparatus. ➔ Surrounded by a single membrane
and contains powerful enzymes
MITOCHONDRIA capable of digesting organic
➔ The powerhouse of the cell. materials.
➔ The major source of ATP synthesis ➔ Contains acid hydrolases and 40
in cells during aerobic respiration. different enzymes.
➔ The mitochondrial inner membrane ➔ Produced in the Golgi apparatus.
is highly invaginated, forming folded ➔ Part of an intracellular digestive
structures called cristae that system.
protrude into the matrix of the ➔ Known as "suicide bags."
mitochondrion.
PEROXISOME ➔ Controls protein synthesis, growth,
➔ Small cellular organelles that play an cell division, and differentiation.
important role in the oxidation of ➔ Involved in the transcription process
cellular lipids, especially fatty acids where mRNA is produced to
derived from membrane lipids. generate proteins.
➔ Breaks down hydrogen peroxide into ➔ Assists in the exchange of RNA and
water and oxygen. DNA between the cell and the
➔ Plays a role in the detoxification of nucleus.
alcohol and other toxic compounds.
➔ Formed by budding off the NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
endoplasmic reticulum. ➔ Also called the nuclear envelope.
➔ A double membrane system,
RIBOSOMES consisting of two concentric
➔ Molecular structures made of both membranes (inner and outer
RNA and protein. membrane).
➔ Composed of a large and a small ➔ Separated by a fluid-filled space
subunit. called the perinuclear cisterna.
➔ The site of protein synthesis in the ➔ Encloses DNA within the nucleus
cell. and protects it from the substances
➔ All cells have ribosomes, either free- in the cytoplasm.
floating or attached. ➔ Regulates the entry and exit of
substances in the nucleus.
NUCLEUS
NUCLEOLUS
Structure ➔ A membrane-less structure whose
➔ A round structure at the center of the primary function is ribosomal RNA
cell. (rRNA) synthesis and ribosome
➔ A double-membrane-bound structure biogenesis.
found in eukaryotic cells. ➔ Generates ribosomes, referred to as
➔ Controls metabolic activities. protein factories.
➔ Usually the largest structure in the ➔ The most prominent structure in the
cell. nucleus.
➔ Contains DNA.

Functions Cell Membrane

➔ Regulates the heredity traits of an
entity. Parts of the Cell Membrane
➔ Maintains the integrity of genes that 1. Phosphate Head
control gene expression. - Polar
➔ Reserves heredity material in the - Hydrophilic
form of DNA strands that also store
RNA and proteins in the nucleolus. 2. Fatty Acid Tail
- Non-polar Simple Diffusion
- Hydrophobic - Diffusion is the random movement of
- Saturated Fatty Acid molecules from an area of high
- Unsaturated Fatty Acid concentration to low concentration.
- Requires no energy.
3. Proteins
- Transmembrane Proteins
- Integral Proteins Rate of Diffusion
- Peripheral Proteins 1. Size of the particle.
2. Temperature.
3. Extent of the concentration gradient.
Types of Transport Proteins 4. Mass of the molecules diffusing.
1. Channel Proteins 5. Property of the solvent.
- Embedded in the cell membrane and have 6. Solubility.
a pore for materials to cross. 7. Surface area and thickness of the plasma
membrane.
2. Carrier Proteins
- Changes shape to move material from one
side of the membrane to the other. Molecules that Diffuse Through Cell
Membranes
1. Oxygen
Cell Transport - Non-polar so diffuses very quickly.

2. Carbon Dioxide
Types of Transport - Polar but very small so diffuses quickly.
- Passive
- Does not require energy 3. Water
- Goes with the concentration gradient - Polar but also very small so diffuses
quickly.
- Active - Facilitated Diffusion: Aquaporin - water
- Requires energy channel.
- Goes against the concentration gradient

Osmosis
Carrier Proteins for Active Transport - Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a
1. Uniporters membrane.
- Carries one specific ion or molecule. - Moves from high water concentration to
low water concentration.
2. Symporters
- Carries two different ions or molecules,
both in the same direction. Diffusion Across a Membrane
- High water concentration → Low water
3. Antiporters
- Carries two different ions or molecules, concentration
but in different directions.
- Low solute concentration → High solute - Examples: Glucose or amino acids
moving from blood into a cell.
concentration

Active Transport
Cells in Solutions - Requires energy (ATP).
1. Isotonic - Moves materials from low to high
- A solution whose solute concentration is concentration.
the same as the solute concentration inside - Against the concentration gradient.
the cell. - Example: Sodium-Potassium Pump.

2. Hypotonic
Active Transport - Exocytosis
- A solution whose solute concentration is
- Molecules are moved out of the cell by
lower than the solute concentration inside a
cell. vesicles that fuse with the plasma
membrane.
- This is how many hormones are secreted
3. Hypertonic
and how nerve cells communicate with each
- A solution whose solute concentration is
other.
higher than the solute concentration inside a
cell.
Active Transport - Endocytosis
- Large molecules move materials into the
Cytolysis & Plasmolysis
cell by one of three forms of endocytosis:
- Cytolysis: The bursting of a cell due to
1. Pinocytosis
excessive water intake.
2. Receptor-mediated endocytosis
- Plasmolysis: The shrinking of a cell due to
3. Phagocytosis
water loss.

Surface Tension
Dialysis
- The property of the surface of a liquid that
- The separation of colloids from dissolved
allows it to resist an external force, due to
ions or molecules of small dimensions, or
the cohesive nature of its molecules.
crystalloid, in a solution.
- Dialysis is possible because of the
unequal rates of diffusion through a Lower Surface Tension
semipermeable membrane. - Surfactants are surface active agents.
- Influenced by heat and electric field. - They are amphiphilic molecules.
- They decrease surface and interfacial
tension and stabilize the interface.
Facilitated Diffusion
- They lower the surface tension (or
- Does not require energy.
interfacial tension) between two liquids or
- Uses transport proteins to move from high
between a liquid and a solid.
to low concentration.
- Molecules will randomly move through the
pores in channel proteins.
Bile
- Biosurfactants that allow fat to be
emulsified into microdroplets.
- Contains bile salts, lecithin, and
substances derived from cholesterol.
- Made and released by the liver and stored
in the gallbladder.
- Attracts and holds onto fat while
simultaneously being attracted to and held
onto by water.

Hydrolysis
- A common form of a chemical reaction
where water is used to break down the
chemical bonds that exist between a
particular substance.

Saliva
- A complex fluid that influences oral health
through specific and nonspecific physical
and chemical properties.
- Produced and secreted from the acini cells
of the salivary glands.
- Functions include:
- Lubrication and binding
- Solubilization of dry food
- Oral hygiene
- Initiation of starch digestion

Pancreatin
- Contains enzymatic components including
trypsin, amylase, lipase, ribonuclease, and
protease, produced by the exocrine cells of
the porcine pancreas.
- This combination of enzymes allows it to
hydrolyze proteins, starch, and fats.
- Lipase: Hydrolyzes fat.
- Protease: Hydrolyzes protein.
- Amylase: Hydrolyzes starch.