Textbook of

PHYSICAL SCIENCE
9

Physical Science
Free distribution by Samagra Shiksha, Government of Andhra Pradesh

Semester ( ™d$TdŸ¼sY) - 1

Semester ( ™d$TdŸ¼sY) - 1

State Council of Educational Research & Training

Andhra Pradesh
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PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Class - IX, Semester - 1

State Council of Educational Research & Training

Andhra Pradesh
 © Government of Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati

First Published 2023

All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means
without the prior permission in writing of the
publisher, nor be otherwise circulated in any
form of binding or cover other than that in
which it is published and without a similar
condition including this condition being
imposed on the subsequent purchaser.
The copyright holder of this book is the
Commissioner of School Education,
Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh.

This book has been printed on 70 G.S.M. SS Maplitho

Title Page 200 G.S.M. White Art Card

Free distribution by Samagra Shiksha, Government of Andhra Pradesh

Printed in India
at the A.P. Govt. Text Book Press
Amaravati
Andhra Pradesh
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Class - IX, Semester - 1
Text Book Development Committee
Sri Praveen Prakash I.A.S
Principal Secretary to Government
Department of School Education, AP
Sri S. Suresh Kumar I.A.S
Commissioner of School Education &
State Project Director, Samagra Shiksha, AP

Ms. Nidhi Meena I.A.S

Special Officer English Medium Project
O/o the Commissioner of School Education, AP

Dr. B. Pratap Reddy

MA., B.Ed., Ph.D.
Director, SCERT, AP

Sri K. Ravindranadh Reddy

M.A., B.Ed.
Director, Govt. Text book Press, AP
Programme Co-ordinators
Dr. G. Kesava Reddy
MSc, MSc, MEd, MPhil, PhD
Prof. C&T, SCERT, AP
Subject Co-ordinator
Dr. Sangoju Rajeswari
Prof. SCERT, AP
Sri D. David Sri M. N. Prakash
Lecturer SCERT, AP Faculty SCERT, AP

Technical Co-ordinator
Dr. Ch.V.S. Ramesh Kumar
Faculty, SCERT-AP
Published by Government of Andhra Pradesh, Amaravati.
 Editors for Translation

Dr. Borelli Deva Prasad Raju Dr. K.S.V Krishna Rao

Professor of Physics, Associate Professor Chemistry
Sri Venkateswara University Yogi Vemana University

Dr. Y.P. Venkata Subbaiah

Registrar, Yogi Vemana University

Translators

Sri. R. Sivanageswara Rao Sri. M. Srinivasa Rao

ZPHS, Athota, Kollipara (M), Guntur Dist. Muncipal High School, Gudivada, Krishna Dist.

Sri. Ajjada Naresh Sri. S. Brahmananda Reddy

ZPHS, Kotyada, Kota (M), E.G. Dist ZPHS, Valicherla, H.M Padu (M),
Prakasam Dist,

Sri. B.V.L.N. Ananda Babu Smt. B. Punyavathi

Govt. High School, Korukonda, E.G. Dist KGBV, Dharmavaram, Satyasai Dist

Sri. GK. Sham Sheer Khan Smt. B.Vijaya Bharathi

ZPHS, Tekumandada, Bangaru Palayam (M), GTWA. GH School, Nelabonthu (M),
Chittoor Dist. Srikakulam Dist

Sri. K. Sundara Rao

Smt. K. Lakshmana Kumari ZPHS, Karimaddula, Nandyal Dist.
ZPHS, Bhemuni patnam, Visakhapatnam Dist.

Sri. G. Gangadhar
ZPHS, Chinna Machupalli, Chennuru (M),
Kadapa Dist.

Designing & Page Layout : Stock Assortment, Bapatla.

Textbook Development Committee
(NCERT)
C HAIRPERSON , ADVISORY GROUP FOR T EXTBOOKS IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMAT-
ICS

J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor, Inter University Centre for Astronomy and
Astrophysics (IUCCA), Ganeshkhind, Pune University, Pune
C HIEF ADVISOR
V.B. Bhatia, Professor (Retd.) (Physics), Delhi University, Delhi
MEMBERS
Bharati Sarkar, Reader (Retd.) (Zoology), Maitreyi College, Delhi University, Delhi
C. V. Shimray, Lecturer, Department of Education in Science and Mathematics,
(DESM), NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Gagandeep Bajaj, Lecturer, Department of Education, SPM College, Delhi
University, Delhi
H.C. Jain, Principal, (Retd.) Regional Institute of Education, Ajmer
Harsh Kumari, Headmistress, CIE Experimental Basic School, Department of
Education, Delhi University, Delhi
J. S. Gill, Professor (Retd.), DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Kanhiya Lal, Principal (Retd.), Directorate of Education, Delhi
Lalita S. Kumar, Reader (Chemistry), School of Sciences, Indira Gandhi National
Open University (IGNOU), Maidan Garhi, New Delhi
P.C. Agarwal, Reader, Regional Institute of Education, Ajmer
P.S. Yadava, Professor, Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Imphal
Puranchand, Professor and Joint Director (Retd.), Central Institute of
Educational Technology (CIET), NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
R. Joshi, Lecturer (SG), DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Rachna Garg, Lecturer, Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET),
NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Rashmi Sharma, Lecturer, North-East Regional Institute of Education, Shillong
R.K. Parashar, Reader, Regional Institute of Education, Bhubaneshwar
Ruchi Verma, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Shashi Prabha, Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
Sunila Masih, Teacher, Mitra GHS School, Suhagpur, P.O. Hoshangabad,
Madhya Pradesh

MEMBER-COORDINATOR
R. S. Sindhu, Professor, DESM, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi
 Foreword
The Government of Andhra Pradesh has unleashed a new era in school education by introducing
extensive curricular reforms from the academic year 2020-21. The Government has taken up
curricular reforms intending to enhance the learning outcomes of the children with focus on building
solid foundational learning and to build up an environment conducive for an effective teaching-
learning process. To achieve this objective, The Government of A.P has adopted NCERT curriculum
from Class 8th for academic year 2022 - 23 and for 9th &10th in a phased manner to reach the
global standards.
To enrich the content of the subject QR codes are incorporated in the beginning of each
lesson to enable learning outside the classroom. In this textbook, lessons are prepared based on
the themes like Materials, Moving things, How things work, People and ideas, Natural Phenomena
and Natural resources are incorporated under Physical Science. In order to reinforce the concepts,
several projects and activities are given to inculcate scientific temperament. Each lesson is provided
with eye catching illustrations to engage the children. The salient features of the lessons are given
under the title "What you have learnt" for the review of the important concepts. Questions are
framed for each lesson to recapitulate the conceptual understanding and to achieve competencies
required for project works, drawings and model makings under “Exercises”. An effort has been
made to relate the scientific concepts with the real-life events thereby developing and promoting
scientific temperament in “Extended Learning - Activities and Projects”.
We are grateful to our Honourable Chief Minister Sri Y.S. Jagan Mohan Reddy for being
our source of inspiration to carry out this extensive reform in the Education Department. We extend
our gratitude to our Honourable Minister of Education Sri Botcha Satyanarayana for striving
towards qualitative education. Our special thanks to Sri Praveen Prakash, IAS, Principal Secretary,
School Education Sri S. Suresh Kumar IAS, Commissioner of School Education & State Project
Director, Samagra Shiksha A.P, and Ms. Nidhi Meena IAS, Special Officer English Medium
Project - AP. for their constant motivation and guidance.
We convey our special thanks to the NCERT for their cooperation and assistance in adopting
their curriculum. We also thank to our translaters, editors and layout designers for their contribution
in the development of this textbook. We invite constructive feedback from the teachers and the
parents in further refinement of the textbook.
Dr. B. Pratap Reddy
Director
SCERT – Andhra Pradesh
 Preface
This book is the outcome of the efforts of the textbook development committee
appointed by the NCERT. The committee met a few times to interact with one
another to improve the draft. Then there was a review meeting in which many
experts and practicing school teachers were invited to review the draft and suggest
improvements.
By and large we have stuck to the format of the Class VII book. By now famous
characters, Boojho and Paheli, have been used to make the text interactive. Attempt
has been made to recall children’s own experiences and build concepts around
them. This is designed to connect science that they study in the school with their
everyday life.
Many activities have been suggested to clarify concepts. Some of these activities
are so simple that children can perform them on their own. The requirement of the
apparatus required for the activities is minimal. We performed all the activities
ourselves to ensure that there was no difficulty in performing them in the school
situation. The activities should also help children in developing skills such as
presentation of data in tabular and graphical forms, reasoning and drawing inference
from the given data.
The language of the book has been kept as simple as possible. A large number of
photographs, illustrations, cartoons, etc. have been included to make the book
attractive. To help teachers evaluate children effectively, a large number of exercises
have been given at the end of each chapter. The teachers are encouraged to frame
additional exercises to test children’s understanding. Some challenging exercises
have also been devised for those children who would like to appear for the National
Talent Search Examination conducted by the NCERT.
We are conscious of the fact that there is a paucity of additional reading material
for children. We have tried to address this problem by providing non-evaluative
boxes. These boxes, in light orange, contain additional information, anecdotes,
stories, strange facts and other such interesting materials.
We all know that children are mischievous and playful by nature. Therefore, in
order to prevent any untoward incident during the performance of the activities in
the school or outside, necessary cautions, in magenta, have been inserted at various
places in the book.
To prepare children to assume their roles as responsible citizens of tomorrow,
attempt has been made to sensitise them to the issues concerning gender, religion,
environment, health and hygiene, water scarcity and energy conservation. We have
sought to weave into the text the value of cooperation and the importance of peer
learning.
An important feature of the book is what we call Extended Learning. These are
totally non-evaluative, and purely voluntary activities and projects. Some of the
projects in this section have been designed to enhance children’s interaction with
the experts, teachers, even parents, and society at large. The children are required
to collect information of various kinds and draw conclusions of their own.
My request to teachers and parents is to use the book in the spirit in which it
has been written. Encourage children to perform activities and learn by doing,
rather than by rote. You can supplement, or even replace, the activities given here.
If you feel that you have better alternatives, especially with your local/regional
flavour, please write to us so that these activities could be used in the future editions
of the book.
We have been able to include only a small subset of children’s experiences. You
have a better knowledge of their experiences because you are in touch with them.
Use them to illustrate the concepts being taught. Above all, please do not stifle
children’s natural curiosity. Encourage them to ask questions, even if sometimes
you feel uncomfortable. If you do not know the answer to a question on the spot, do
not feel embarrassed. You can promise them to find the answer and deal with it
later. Make a genuine attempt to get the answer from whatever resources are within
your reach, such as senior school or college teachers, experts, libraries, internet
etc. If, inspite of your efforts, you cannot get the answer to some question, you could
write to NCERT.
I must thank the NCERT for enabling us to talk to children through the medium
of this book. Every member of the NCERT has been courteous and helpful to us.
In the end, I must express my gratitude to the members of the Editing Team,
who worked tirelessly to help me bring the book to the present form. If you and your
students find this book useful and enjoy teaching/learning science through this
book, the Editing Team and I shall consider ourselves well-rewarded.

V.B. BHATIA
Chief Advisor
Textbook Development Committee
 Acknowledgements
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
acknowledges the valuable contribution of the individuals and
organisations involved in the development of this book. The Council
acknowledges the valuable contribution of the following academics for
reviewing and refining the manuscript of this book: K.C. Sharma, Reader
(Physics), Regional Institute of Education, Ajmer; Charu Verma, Lecturer
(Science), DIET, Pitampura, Delhi; Geeta Bajaj, TGT (Science), K.V. No.
3, Delhi Cantt., New Delhi; K.D. Sharma, TGT (Science), R.P.V.V. Civil
Lines, Delhi; Manohar Lal Patel, Teacher, Govt. R.N.A. Higher Secondary
School, Pipariya, Madhya Pradesh; Reeta Sharma, Reader (Botany),
Regional Institute of Education, Bhopal; Kamal Deep Peter, OEI, Oracle
India, Bangalore; Puneeta Sharma, TGT (Science), L.D. Jain Girls Senior
Secondary School, Sadar Bazar, Delhi; M.C. Das, Teacher (Science),
Govt. Secondary School, Zoom, West Sikkim; Deepti Kohli, P.D. Public
School, Shalimar Bagh, Delhi; Sulekha Chandra, Reader (Chemistry),
Zakir Husain College, Delhi University, Delhi; R.S. Tomar, TGT (Science),
J.N.V. Mothuka, Faridabad (Haryana); Anjali Khirwadkar, Lecturer,
Department of Education, M.S. University, Baroda (Gujrat); Suresh
Chand, TGT (Science), J.N.V. Ghaziabad Uttar Pradesh; Satheesh H.L.,
TGT (Science), Demonstration School, Regional Institute of Education,
Mysore; Simminder Kaur Thukral, NIIT, Kalkaji, New Delhi; M.M.
Kapoor, Professor (Retd.) (Chemistry), Delhi University, Delhi; Sarita
Kumar, Reader (Zoology) , Acharya Narendra Dev College, Delhi
University, Delhi. The contributions of Pushplata Verma, R.R. Koireng,
Pramila Tanvar and Ashish K. Srivastava, Assistant Professors, are
acknowledged for being a part of the review of this textbook.
 The Council gratefully acknowledges the valuable suggestions received
from the National Monitoring Committee in the development of the
manuscript of this textbook.
The dynamic leadership of Professor Hukum Singh, Head, DESM, for
providing guidance at different stages of development of the textbook
and extending infrastructure facilities is highly acknowledged. Special
thanks are due to Shveta Uppal, Chief Editor and Shashi Chadha, Assistant
Editor for going through the manuscript and suggesting relevant changes.
The Council also acknowledges the efforts of Deepak Kapoor,
Incharge Computer Station, Inder Kumar, DTP Operator; K.T. Chitralekha,
Copy Editor and Ritu Jha, Proof Reader.
The contributions of APC-office, administration of DESM, Publication
Department and Secretariat of NCERT is also acknowledged.
 A Note for the Students
The team of Paheli and Boojho will be with you as you journey through this
textbook. They love to ask questions. All kinds of questions come to their
minds and they collect them in their sacks. Sometimes, they may share
some of the questions with you, as you read through the chapters.
Paheli and Boojho are also on the lookout for answers to many
questions — sometimes the questions seem answered after they discuss
them with each other, sometimes through discussions with other classmates,
teachers or their parents. Answers to some questions do not seem available
even after all these. They might need to experiment on their own, read
books in the library, send questions to scientists. Just dig and dig and dig
into all possibilities and see if the questions can be answered. Perhaps, they
would carry some of the unanswered questions in their sacks to higher
classes.
What will really thrill them would be your adding questions to their
sacks or answers to their questions. Sometimes, activities are suggested in
the textbook, results or findings of these by different groups of students
would be of interest to other students and teachers. You can complete the
suggested activities and send your results or findings to Paheli and Boojho.
Do keep in mind that activities that involve using blades, scissors or fire
need to be done strictly under the care of your teachers. Stick to the
precautions given and then enjoy doing all the suggested activities. Mind,
the book will not be able to help you much, if the activities are not completed!
We would like to advise you that you must make observations yourself
and record whatever results you get. Keen and true observations are necessary
for exploring any subject of study. For some reason your results may turn
out to be different from those of your classmates. Do not worry. Try to find
out the reason for these results instead of disregarding them. Do not ever
copy results from your classmate.
You can send your feedback for Paheli and Boojho at:

To
The Head
Department of Education in
Science and Mathematics,
NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg,
New Delhi 110016
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To
The Head
Department of Education in
Science and Mathematics,
NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg,
New Delhi 110016
CONTENTS Chapter 1
MATTER IN OUR SURROUNDINGS 2

Chapter 2
IS MATTER AROUND US PURE? 28

Chapter 3
ATOMS AND MOLECULES 52

Chapter 4
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 76

Chapter 7
MOTION 98

Note : Chapter 5 & 6 in Biological Science

Teacher Corner Student Corner

C h a p t e r1
MATTER IN OUR SURROUNDINGS
As we look at our surroundings, we see a large Activity ________ 1.1
variety of things with different shapes, sizes
and textures. Everything in this universe is • Take a 100 mL beaker.
• Fill half the beaker with water and
made up of material which scientists have
mark the level of water.
named “matter”. The air we breathe, the food
• Dissolve some salt/ sugar with the
we eat, stones, clouds, stars, plants and help of a glass rod.
animals, even a small drop of water or a particle • Observe any change in water level.
of sand — every thing is matter. We can also • What do you think has happened to
see as we look around that all the things the salt?
mentioned above occupy space and have • Where does it disappear?
mass. In other words, they have both mass* • Does the level of water change?
and volume**. In order to answer these questions we need
Since early times, human beings have been to use the idea that matter is made up of
trying to understand their surroundings. Early particles. What was there in the spoon, salt or
Indian philosophers classified matter in the sugar, has now spread throughout water. This
form of five basic elements — the “Panch Tatva”
is illustrated in Fig. 1.1.
— air, earth, fire, sky and water. According to
them everything, living or non-living, was made
up of these five basic elements. Ancient Greek
philosophers had arrived at a similar
classification of matter.
Modern day scientists have evolved two
types of classification of matter based on their
physical properties and chemical nature.
In this chapter we shall learn about matter
based on its physical properties. Chemical
aspects of matter will be taken up in
subsequent chapters. Fig. 1.1: When we dissolve salt in water, the
particles o f salt g et into the spaces
1.1 Physical Nature of Matter between particles of water.

1.1.1 MATTER IS MADE UP OF PARTICLES 1.1.2 HOW SMALL ARE THESE PARTICLES
For a long time, two schools of thought prevailed OF MATTER?
regarding the nature of matter. One school
believed matter to be continuous like a block of Activity ________ 1.2
wood, whereas, the other thought that matter
was made up of particles like sand. Let us • Tak e 2–3 cr ysta ls of po tass ium
perform an activity to decide about the nature permanganate and dissolve them in
of matter — is it continuous or particulate? 100 mL of water.
* The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg).
** The SI unit of volume is cubic metre (m3). The common unit of measuring volume is
litre (L) such that 1L = 1 dm3, 1L = 1000 mL, 1 mL = 1 cm3.

2 M A T TE R IN O UR S UR R O U N D I NG S
 1

•
•

•
*
•
**

* SI .
** SI ( ).
3
( ). 1 =1 ,
3

= 1000 .
3

3
 • Take out approximately 10 mL of this 1.2.2 P ARTICLES OF MA TTER ARE
solution and put it into 90 mL of clear
water. CONTINUOUSLY MOVING
• Take out 10 mL of this solution and
put it into another 90 mL of clear
water. Activity ________ 1.3
• Keep diluting the solution like this 5
to 8 times. • Put an unlit incense stick in a corner
• Is the water still coloured ? of your class. How close do you have
to go near it so as to get its smell?
• Now light the incense stick. What
happens? Do you get the smell sitting
at a distance?
• Record your observations.

Activity ________ 1.4

• Take two glasses/beakers filled with
Fig. 1.2: Estimating how small are the particles of water.
matter. With every dilution, though the • Put a drop of blue or red ink slowly
colour becomes light, it is still visible.
and carefully along the sides of the
first beaker and honey in the same
This experiment shows that just a few way in the second beaker.
crystals of potassium permanganate can • Leave them undisturbed in your
colour a large volume of water (about 1000 house or in a corner of the class.
L). So we conclude that there must be millions • Record your observations.
of tiny particles in just one crystal of • What do you observe immediately
potassium permanganate, which keep after adding the ink drop?
on dividing themselves into smaller and • What do you observe immediately
smaller particles. after adding a drop of honey?
The same activity can be done using 2 ml • How many hours or days does it take
of Dettol instead of potassium permanganate. for the colour of ink to spread evenly
Th e smell can be detected even on throughout the water?
repeated dilution.
The particles of matter are very small – Activity ________ 1.5
they are small beyond our imagination!!!!
• Drop a crystal of copper sulphate or
potassium permanganate into a glass
1.2 Characteristics of Particles of of hot water and another containing
Matter cold water. Do not stir the solution.
Allow the crystals to settle at the
1.2.1 PARTICLES OF MATTER HAVE SPACE bottom.
BETWEEN THEM • What do you observe just above the
solid crystal in the glass?
In activities 1.1 and 1.2 we saw that particles • What happens as time passes?
of sugar, salt, D ettol, or potassium • What does this suggest about the
permanganate got evenly distributed in water. particles of solid and liquid?
Similarly, when we make tea, coffee or • Does the rate of mixing change with
lemonade (nimbu paani ), particles of one type temperature? Why and how?
of matter get into the spaces between particles
From the above three activities (1.3, 1.4 and
of the other. This shows that there is enough
1.5), we can conclude the following:
space between particles of matter.

4 M A T TE R IN O UR S UR R O U N D I NG S
•

• •

•
•

•
•

•
•
•
•

•
•

5
 Particles of matter are continuously • If we consider each student as a
moving, that is, they possess what we call the particle of matter, then in which group
kinetic energy. As the temperature rises, the particles held each other with the
maximum force?
particles move faster. So, we can say that with
increase in temperature the kinetic energy of
the particles also increases. Activity ________ 1.7
In the above three activities we observe that
• Take an iron nail, a piece of chalk and
particles of matter intermix on their own with a rubber band.
each other. They do so by getting into the • Try breaking them by hammering,
spaces between the particles. This intermixing cutting or stretching.
of particles of two different types of matter on • In which o f the a bove thr ee
their own is called diffusion. We also observe substances do you think the particles
that on heating, diffusion becomes faster. Why are held together with greater force?
does this happen?
Activity ________ 1.8
1.2.3 P ARTICLES OF MATTER ATTRACT
• Take some water in a container, try
EACH OTHER cutting the surface of water with your
fingers.
Activity ________ 1.6 • Were you able to cut the surface of
water?
• Play this game in the field— make • What could be the reason behind the
four groups and form human chains surface of water remaining together?
as suggested:
• The first group should hold each The above three activities (1.6, 1.7 and 1.8)
other from the back and lock arms suggest that particles of matter have force
like Idu-Mishmi dancers (Fig. 1.3). acting between them. This force keeps the
particles together. The strength of this force of
attraction varies from one kind of matter to

Q
another.

uestions
1. Which of the following are
matter?
Chair, air, love, smell, hate,
almonds, thought, cold, lemon
Fig. 1.3 water, smell of perfume.
2. Give reasons for the following
• The second group should hold hands observation:
to form a human chain. The smell of hot sizzling food
• The third group should form a chain reaches you several metres away,
by touching each other with only but to get the smell from cold food
their finger tips.
you have to go close.
• Now, the fourth group of students
should run around and try to break 3. A diver is able to cut through
the three human chains one by one water in a swimming pool. Which
in to a s ma ny small gro ups as property of matter does this
possible. observation show?
• Which group was the easiest to 4. What are the characteristics of the
break? Why? particles of matter?

6 M A T TE R IN O UR S UR R O U N D I NG S
 •

• •
•

• Idu-Mishmi)

7
1.3 States of Matter the force is removed. If excessive force is
applied, it breaks.
Observe different types of matter around you. • The shape of each individual sugar or
What are its different states? We can see that salt crystal remains fixed, whether we
matter around us exists in three different take it in our hand, put it in a plate or in
states– solid, liquid and gas. These states of a jar.
matter arise due to the variation in the • A sponge has minute holes, in which air
characteristics of the particles of matter. is trapped, when we press it, the air
Now, let us study about the properties of is expelled out and we are able to
these three states of matter in detail. compress it.

1.3.1 THE SOLID STATE 1.3.2 THE LIQUID STATE

Activity _______ 1.9 Activity _______ 1.10
• Collect the following articles — a pen, • Collect the following:
a book, a needle and a piece of wooden (a) water, cooking oil, milk, juice, a
stick. cold drink.
• Sketch the shape of the above articles (b) containers of different shapes.
in your notebook by moving a pencil Put a 50 mL mark on these
around them. containers using a measuring
• Do all these have a definite shape, cylinder from the laboratory.
distinct boundaries and a fixed volume? • What will happen if these liquids are
• What happens if they are hammered, spilt on the floor?
pulled or dropped? • Measure 50 mL of any one liquid and
• Are these capable of diffusing into transfer it into different containers
each other? one by one. Does the volume remain
• Try compressing them by applying the same?
force. Are you able to compress them? • Does the shape of the liquid remain
the same ?
All the above are examples of solids. We • When you pour the liquid from one
can observe that all these have a definite shape, container into another, does it flow
distinct boundaries and fixed volumes, that easily?
is, have negligible compressibility. Solids have We observe that liquids have no fixed
a tendency to maintain their shape when shape but have a fixed volume. They take up
subjected to outside force. Solids may break the shape of the container in which they are
under force but it is difficult to change their kept. Liquids flow and change shape, so they
shape, so they are rigid. are not rigid but can be called fluid.
Consider the following: Refer to activities 1.4 and 1.5 where we
saw that solids and liquids can diffuse into
(a) What about a rubber band, can it liquids. The gases from the atmosphere
change its shape on stretching? Is it diffuse and dissolve in water. These gases,
a solid? especially oxygen and carbon dioxide, are
(b) What about sugar and salt? When essential for the survival of aquatic animals
kept in different jars these take the and plants.
shape of the jar. Are they solid? All living creatures need to breathe for
(c) What about a sponge? It is a solid yet survival. The aquatic animals can breathe
we are able to compress it. Why? under water due to the presence of dissolved
All the above are solids as: oxygen in water. Thus, we may conclude that
• A rubber band changes shape under force solids, liquids and gases can diffuse into
and regains the same shape when liquids. The rate of diffusion of liquids is

8 M A T TE R IN O UR S UR R O U N D I NG S
 •

• •

•
•
•
•
•

•
•

9
higher than that of solids. This is due to the We have observed that gases are highly
fact that in the liquid state, particles move compressible as compared to solids and
freely and have greater space between each liquids. The liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)
other as compared to particles in the solid cylinder that we get in our home for cooking
state. or the oxygen supplied to hospitals in cylinders
is compressed gas. Compressed natural gas
1.3.3 THE GASEOUS STATE (CNG) is used as fuel these days in vehicles.
Due to its high compressibility, large volumes
Have you ever observed a balloon seller filling of a gas can be compressed into a small
a large number of balloons from a single cylinder and transported easily.
cylinder of gas? Enquire from him how many We come to know of what is being cooked
balloons is he able to fill from one cylinder. Ask in the kitchen without even entering there, by
him which gas does he have in the cylinder. the smell that reaches our nostrils. How does
this smell reach us? The particles of the aroma
Activity _______ 1.11 of food mix with the particles of air spread from
the kitchen, reach us and even farther away.
• Take three 100 mL syringes and close
The smell of hot cooked food reaches us in
their nozzles by rubber corks, as
shown in Fig.1.4.
seconds; compare this with the rate of diffusion
• Remove the pistons from all the of solids and liquids. Due to high speed of
syringes. particles and large space between them, gases
• Leaving one syringe untouched, fill show the property of diffusing very fast into
water in the second and pieces of other gases.
chalk in the third. In the gaseous state, the particles move
• Insert the pistons back into the about randomly at high speed. Due to this
sy ring es. You may apply some random movement, the particles hit each other
vaseline on the pistons before and also the walls of the container. The
inserting them into the syringes for
pressure exerted by the gas is because of this
their smooth movement.
• Now, try to compress the content by
force exerted by gas particles per unit area on
pushing the piston in each syringe. the walls of the container.

Fig. 1.4
• What do you observe? In which case Fig.1.5: a, b and c show the magnified schematic
was the piston easily pushed in? pictures of the three states of matter. The
• Wh at do yo u in fer fro m yo ur motion of the particles can be seen and
observations? compared in the three states of matter.

10 M A T TE R IN O UR S UR R O U N D I NG S
 (LPG - liquified Petroleum Gas)

(CNG - Compressed Natural Gas)

•
•

11
Q
uestions 1.4.1 EFFECT OF CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE
1. The mass per unit volume of a
substance is called density.
Activity _______ 1.12
(density = mass/volume). • Take about 150 g of ice in a beaker
Arrange the following in order of and suspend a laboratory thermometer
increasing density – air, exhaust so that its bulb is in contact with
the ice, as in Fig. 1.6.
from chimneys, honey, water,
chalk, cotton and iron.
2. (a) Tabulate the differences in
the characterisitcs of states of
matter.
(b) C omment upon the
following: rigidity,
compressibility, fluidity,
filling a gas container, shape,
kinetic energy and density.
3. Give reasons
(a) A gas fills completely the
vessel in which it is kept.
(b) A gas exerts pressure on the
walls of the container.
(c) A wooden table should be
called a solid.
(d) We can easily move our hand
(a)
in air but to do the same
through a solid block of
wood we need a karate
expert.
4. Liquids generally have lower
density as compared to solids.
But you must have observed that
ice floats on water. Find out why.
1.4 Can Matter Change its State?
We all know from our observation that water
can exist in three states of matter–
• solid, as ice,
• liquid, as the familiar water, and
• gas, as water vapour.
What happens inside the matter during
this change of state? What happens to the
particles of matter during the change of (b)
states? How does this change of state take
place? We need answers to these questions, Fig. 1.6: (a) Conversion of ice to water,
isn’t it? (b) conversion of water to water vapour

12 M A T TE R IN O UR S UR R O U N D I NG S
 •

•
•
•

13
 • Start heating the beaker on a low flame. by overcoming the forces of attraction between
• Note the temperature when the ice the particles. As this heat energy is absorbed
starts melting. by ice with out sh owin g an y rise in
• Note the temperature when all the ice temperature, it is considered that it gets
has converted into water. hidden into the contents of the beaker and is
• Record your observations for this known as the latent heat. The word latent
conversion of solid to liquid state. means hidden. The amount of heat energy that
• Now, put a glass rod in the beaker is required to change 1 kg of a solid into liquid
and heat while stirring till the water
at atmospheric pressure at its melting point is
starts boiling.
known as the latent heat of fusion. So, particles
• Keep a careful eye on the
in water at 0oC (273 K) have more energy as
thermometer reading till most of the
water has vaporised.
compared to particles in ice at the same
• Record your observations for the temperature.
conversion of water in the liquid state When we supply heat energy to water,
to the gaseous state. particles start moving even faster. At a certain
temperature, a point is reached when the
On increasing the temperature of solids, particles have enough energy to break free
the kinetic energy of the particles increases. from the forces of attraction of each other. At
Due to the increase in kinetic energy, the this temperature the liquid starts changing
particles start vibrating with greater speed. The into gas. The temperature at which a liquid
energy supplied by heat overcomes the forces starts boiling at the atmospheric pressure is
of attraction between the particles. The known as its boiling point. Boiling is a bulk
particles leave their fixed positions and start phenomenon. Particles from the bulk of the
moving more freely. A stage is reached when liquid gain enough energy to change into the
the solid melts and is converted to a liquid. vapour state.
The minimum temperature at which a solid For water this temperature is 373 K
melts to become a liquid at the atmospheric (100oC = 273 + 100 = 373 K).
pressure is called its melting point. Can you define the latent heat of
vaporisation? Do it in the same way as we have
The melting point of a solid is an indication defined the latent heat of fusion. Particles in
of the strength of the force of attraction steam, that is, water vapour at 373 K (1000 C)
between its particles. have more energy than water at the same
temperature. This is because particles in steam
The melting point of ice is 273.15 K*. The have absorbed extra energy in the form of latent
process of melting, that is, change of solid state heat of vaporisation.
into liquid state is also known as fusion.
When a solid melts, its temperature
remains the same, so where does the heat
energy go?
You must have observed, during the
experiment of melting, that the temperature So, we infer that the state of matter can be
of the system does not change after the melting changed into another state by changing the
point is reached, till all the ice melts. This temperature.
happens even though we continue to heat the We have learnt that substances around us
beaker, that is, we continue to supply heat. change state from solid to liquid and from
This heat gets used up in changing the state liquid to gas on application of heat. But there

*Note: Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature, 0o C =273.15 K. For convenience, we take 0o C = 273 K after
rounding off the decimal. To change a temperature on the Kelvin scale to the Celsius scale you
have to subtract 273 from the given temperature, and to convert a temperature on the Celsius
scale to the Kelvin scale you have to add 273 to the given temperature.

14 M A T TE R IN O UR S UR R O U N D I NG S
•

•
Latent Heat
•

•
0oC (273 K)
•

Boiling Point

K o
C=
K

K C
o

Fusion

* SI ,0
o
C =273.15 K. 0o C = 273 K

15
are some that change directly from solid state enclosed in a cylinder? Will the particles come
to gaseous state and vice versa without closer? Do you think that increasing or
changing into the liquid state. decreasing the pressure can change the state
of matter?
Activity _______ 1.13
• Take some camphor or ammonium
chloride. Crush it and put it in a
china dish.
• Put an inverted funnel over the china
dish.
• Put a cotton plug on the stem of the
funnel, as shown in Fig. 1.7.

Cotton Plug

Inverted funnel

ammonium
choloride Solidified Fig. 1.8: By applying pressure, particles of matter
vapours ammonium can be brought close together
choloride

App lyin g pr essure and reducin g

China dish
temperature can liquefy gases.
Have you heard of solid carbon dioxide
(CO2)? It is stored under high pressure. Solid
Burner CO2 gets converted directly into gaseous state
on decrease of pressure to 1 atmosphere*
without coming into liquid state. This is the
Fig. 1.7: Sublimation of ammonium chloride reason that solid carbon dioxide is also known
as dry ice.
• Now, heat slowly and observe.
Thus, we can say that pressure and
• What do you infer from the above
temperature determ ine the stat e of a
activity?
substance, whether it will be solid, liquid
A change of state directly from solid to gas or gas.
without changing into liquid state is called
sublimation and the direct change of gas to
solid without changing into liquid is called
deposition.

1.4.2 EFFECT OF CHANGE OF PRESSURE

We have already learnt that the difference in
various states of matter is due to the Deposition

difference in the distances between the

constituent particles. What will happen when
we start putting pressure and compress a gas Fig. 1.9: Interconversion of the three states of matter

* atmosphere (atm) is a unit of measuring pressure exerted by a gas. The unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa):
1 atmosphere = 1.01 105 Pa. The pressure of air in atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure. The
atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1 atmosphere, and is taken as the normal atmospheric pressure.

16 M A T TE R IN O UR S UR R O U N D I NG S
•

* Atmosphere

(Dry Ice)
•
•

*
(pa) 1.01 105

17
Q
dish and keep it inside a cupboard or
uestions on a shelf in your class.
• Record the room temperature.
1. Convert the following temperature • Record the time or days taken for the
to celsius scale: evaporation process in the above
a. 300 K b. 573 K cases.
2. What is the physical state of • Repeat the above three steps of
water at: activity on a rainy day and record your
a. 250oC b. 100oC ? observations.
3. For any substance, why does the • What do you infer about the effect of
temperature remain constant temperature, surface area and wind
during the change of state? velocity (speed) on evaporation?
4. Suggest a method to liquefy
atmospheric gases. You must have observed that the rate of
evaporation increases with–
1.5 Evaporation • an increase of surface area:
We know that evaporation is a surface
Do we always need to heat or change pressure phenomenon. If the surface area is
for changing the state of matter? Can you increased, the rate of evaporation
quote some examples from everyday life where increases. For example, while putting
change of state from liquid to vapour takes clothes for drying up we spread them out.
place without the liquid reaching the boiling
• an increase of temperature:
point? Water, when left uncovered, slowly
With the increase of temperature, more
changes into vapour. Wet clothes dry up. What
number of particles get enough kinetic
happens to water in the above two examples?
We know that particles of matter are energy to go into the vapour state.
always moving and are never at rest. At a given • a decrease in humidity:
temperature in any gas, liquid or solid, there Humidity is the amount of water vapour
are particles with different amounts of kinetic present in air. The air around us cannot
energy. In the case of liquids, a small fraction hold more than a definite amount of water
of particles at the surface, having higher vapour at a given temperature. If the
kinetic energy, is able to break away from the amount of water in air is already high, the
forces of attraction of other particles and gets rate of evaporation decreases.
converted into vapour. This phenomenon of • an increase in wind speed:
change of liquid into vapours at any It is a common observation that clothes
temperature below its boiling point is called dry faster on a windy day. With the
evaporation.
increase in wind speed, the particles of
water vapour move away with the wind,
1.5.1 FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION decreasing the amount of water vapour
Let us understand this with an activity. in the surrounding.

Activity _______ 1.14 1.5.2 H OW DOES EVAPORATION CAUSE

COOLING?
• Take 5 mL of water in a test tube and In an open vessel, the liquid keeps on
keep it near a window or under a fan. evaporating. The particles of liquid absorb
• Take 5 mL of water in an open china
energy from the surrounding to regain the
dish and keep it near a window or
under a fan.
energy lost during evaporation. This
• Take 5 mL of water in an open china absorption of energy from the surroundings
make the surroundings cold.

18 M A T TE R IN O UR S UR R O U N D I NG S
 •
•

K K •

•
C
o
C
o

19
 What happens when you pour some Why do we see water droplets on the outer
acetone (nail polish remover) on your palm? surface of a glass containing ice-cold
The particles gain energy from your palm or water?
surroundings and evaporate causing the palm Let us take some ice-cold water in a
to feel cool. tumbler. Soon we will see water droplets on
After a hot sunny day, people sprinkle the outer surface of the tumbler. The water
water on the roof or open ground because the vapour present in air, on coming in contact
large latent heat of vaporisation of water helps with the cold glass of water, loses energy and
to cool the hot surface. gets converted to liquid state, which we see as
Can you cite some more examples from water droplets.

Q
daily life where we can feel the effect of cooling
due to evaporation?
Why should we wear cotton clothes in
uestions
summer? 1. Why does a desert cooler cool
During summer, we perspire more because better on a hot dry day?
of the mechanism of our body which keeps us 2. How does the water kept in an
cool. We know that during evaporation, the earthen pot (matka) become cool
particles at the surface of the liquid gain energy during summer?
from the surroundings or body surface and 3. Why does our palm feel cold
change into vapour. The heat energy equal to when we put some acetone or petrol
the latent heat of vaporisation is absorbed from or perfume on it?
the body leaving the body cool. Cotton, being 4. Why are we able to sip hot tea or
a good absorber of water helps in absorbing milk faster from a saucer rather
the sweat and exposing it to the atmosphere than a cup?
for easy evaporation. 5. What type of clothes should we
wear in summer?

What
you have
learnt
• Matter is made up of small particles.
• The matter around us exists in three states—solid, liquid
and gas.
• The forces of attraction between the particles are maximum
in solids, intermediate in liquids and minimum in gases.
• The spaces in between the constituent particles and kinetic
energy of the particles are minimum in the case of solids,
intermediate in liquids and maximum in gases.

20 M A T TE R IN O UR S UR R O U N D I NG S
•

21
 • The arrangement of particles is most ordered in the case of
solids, in the case of liquids layers of particles can slip and
slide over each other while for gases, there is no order,
particles just move about randomly.
• The states of matter are inter-convertible. The state of matter
can be changed by changing temperature or pressure.
• Sublimation is the change of solid state directly to gaseous
state without going through liquid state.
• Deposition is the change of gaseous state directly to solid
state without going through liquid state.
• Boiling is a bulk phenomenon. Particles from the bulk (whole)
of the liquid change into vapour state.
• Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. Particles from the
surface gain enough energy to overcome the forces of
attraction present in the liquid and change into the vapour
state.
• The rate of evaporation depends upon the surface area
exposed to the atmosphere, the temperature, the humidity
and the wind speed.
• Evaporation causes cooling.
• Latent heat of vaporisation is the heat energy required to
change 1 kg of a liquid to gas at atmospheric pressure at its
boiling point.
• Latent heat of fusion is the amount of heat energy required
to change 1 kg of solid into liquid at its melting point.
• Some measurable quantities and their units to remember:

Quantity Unit Symbol

Temperature kelvin K
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Weight newton N
Volume cubic metre m3
Density kilogram per cubic metre kg m–3
Pressure pascal Pa

22 M A T TE R IN O UR S UR R O U N D I NG S
•

3.

–3

Pa

23
 Exercises
1. Convert the following temperatures to the celsius scale.
(a) 293 K (b) 470 K
2. Convert the following temperatures to the kelvin scale.
(a) 25oC (b) 373oC
3. Give reason for the following observations.
(a) Naphthalene balls disappear with time without leaving
any solid.
(b) We can get the smell of perfume sitting several metres
away.
4. Arrange the following substances in increasing order of forces
of attraction between the particles— water, sugar, oxygen.
5. What is the physical state of water at—
(a) 25o°C (b) 0o°C (c) 100oC ?
6. Give two reasons to justify—
(a) water at room temperature is a liquid.
(b) an iron almirah is a solid at room temperature.
7. Why is ice at 273 K more effective in cooling than water at the
same temperature?
8. What produces more severe burns, boiling water or steam?
9. Name A,B,C,D,E and F in the following diagram showing change
in its state

24 M A T TE R IN O UR S UR R O U N D I NG S
 K K

C
o
C
o

C
o
C
o
C
o

25
 Group Activity
Prepare a model to demonstrate movement of particles in solids,
liquids and gases.
For making this model you will need
• A transparent jar
• A big rubber balloon or piece of stretchable rubber sheet
• A string
• Few chickpeas or black gram or dry green peas.
How to make?
• Put the seeds in the jar.
• Sew the string to the centre of the rubber sheet and put
some tape to keep it tied securely.
• Stretch and tie the rubber sheet on the mouth of the jar.
• Your model is ready. Now run your fingers up and down the
string by first tugging at it slowly and then rapidly.

Fig. 1.10: A model for converting of solid to liquid and liquid to gas.

26 M A T TE R IN O UR S UR R O U N D I NG S
•
•
•
•

•
•

•
•

27
C hapter 2
IS MATTER AROUND US PURE?
How do we judge whether milk, ghee, butter, itself a pure substance and cannot be
salt, spices, mineral water or juice that we separated by physical process into its
buy from the market are pure? chemical constituents. Similarly, sugar is a
substance which contains only one kind of
pure matter and its composition is the same
throughout.
Soft drink and soil are not single pure
substances. Whatever the source of a
pure substance may be, it will always have
the same characteristic properties.
Therefore, we can say that a mixture
contains more than one pure substance.
Fig. 2.1: Some consumable items
2.1.1 TYPES OF MIXTURES
Have you ever noticed the word ‘pure’
written on the packs of these consumables? Depen ding upo n th e nature of th e
For a common person pure means having no components that form a mixture, we can have
different types of mixtures.
adulteration. But, for a scientist all these
things are actually mixtures of different Activity _______________ 2.1
substances and hence not pure. For example,
Let us divide the class into groups A,
milk is actually a mixture of water, fat,
B, C and D.
proteins, etc. When a scientist says that
Group A takes a beaker containing
something is pure, it means that all the 50 mL of water and one spatula full of
constituent particles of that substance are copper sulphate powder. Group B takes
the same in their chemical nature. A pure 50 mL of water and two spatula full of
substance consists of a single type of particle. copper sulphate powder in a beaker.
In other words, a substance is a pure single Groups C and D can take different
amounts of copper sulphate and
form of matter.
potassium permanganate or common
As we look around, we can see that most salt (sodium chloride) and mix the given
of the matter around us exists as mixtures of components to form a mixture.
two or more pure components, for example, Report the observations on the
sea water, minerals, soil, etc., are all mixtures. uniformity in colour and texture.
Groups A and B have obtained a
2.1 What is a Mixture? mixtur e which has a u niform
Mixtures are constituted by more than one co mpos ition th roug hout . Su ch
mixtures are called homogeneous
kind of pure form of matter. We know that
mixtures or solutions. Some other
dissolved sodium chloride can be separated examples of such mixtures are: (i) salt
from water by the physical process of dissolved in water and (ii) sugar
evaporation. However, sodium chloride is dissolved in water. Compare the

28 IS MATTER AROUND US PURE?

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 colour of the solutions of the two
groups. Though both the groups have
obtained copper sulphate solution but
the intensity of colour of the solutions
is dif fere nt. This sh ows that a
homogeneous mixture can have a
variable composition.
Groups C and D have obtained mixtures,
which contain physically distinct parts
and have non-uniform compositions.
Such mixtures are called heterogeneous
mixtures. Mixtures of sodium chloride Fig. 2.2: Filtration
and iron filings, salt and sulphur, and Now, we shall learn about solutions,
oil and water are exa mples of suspensions and colloidal solutions in the
heterogeneous mixtures.
following sections.

Q
Activity _______________ 2.2
uestions
Let us again divide the class into four
groups— A, B, C and D. 1. What is meant by a substance?
Distribute the following samples to 2. List the points of differences
each group: between homogeneous and
Few crystals of copper sulphate to
heterogeneous mixtures.
group A.
One spa tula full of cop per
sulphate to group B.
Chalk powder or wheat flour to 2.2 What is a Solution?
group C. A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two
Few drops of milk or ink to or more substances. You come across various
group D. types of solutions in your daily life. Lemonade,
Each group should add the given soda water, etc., are all examples of solutions.
sample in water and stir properly using Usually we think of a solution as a liquid that
a glass rod. A re the particles in the contains either a solid, liquid or a gas
mixture visible? dissolved in it. But, we can also have solid
Direct a beam of light from a torch solutions (alloys) and gaseous solutions (air).
through the beaker containing the In a solution there is homogeneity at the
mixture and observe from the front. Was particle level. For example, lemonade tastes
the path of the beam of light visible?
the same throughout. This shows that
Leave the mixtures undisturbed for a particles of sugar or salt are evenly distributed
few minutes (and set up the filtration in the solution.
apparatus in the meantime). Is the
mixture stable or do the particles begin
to settle after some time? Alloys: Alloys are mixtures of two or
Filter the mixture. Is there any residue more metals or a metal and a non-metal
More to know

on the filter paper? and cannot be separated into their

components by physical methods. But
Discuss the results and form an still, an alloy is considered as a mixture
opinion. because it shows the properties of its
Groups A and B have got a solution. constituents and can have variable
Group C has got a suspension. composition. For example, brass is a
Group D has got a colloidal solution. mixture of approximately 30% zinc and
70% copper.

30 IS MATTER AROUND US PURE?

 C D

--------------------------
A, B, C D.

A
B
C
D

A B
C
D

31
 A solution has a solvent and a solute as relative proportion of the solute and solvent
its components. The component of the can be varied. Depending upon the amount
solution that dissolves the other component of solute present in a solution, it can be
in it (usually the component present in larger called dilute, concentrated or saturated
amount) is called the solvent. The component solution. Dilute and concentrated are
of the solution that is dissolved in the solvent comparative terms. In activity 2.2, the
(usually present in lesser quantity) is called solution obtained by group A is dilute as
the solute. compared to that obtained by group B.
Examples: Activity _______________ 2.3
(i) A solution of sugar in water is a solid
• Take approximately 50 mL of water
in liquid solution. In this solution,
each in two separate beakers.
sugar is the solute and water is • Add salt in one beaker and sugar or
the solvent. barium chloride in the second beaker
(ii) A solution of iodine in alcohol known with continuous stirring.
as ‘tincture of iodine’, has iodine (solid) • When no more solute can be dissolved,
as the solute and alcohol (liquid) as heat the contents of the beaker to raise
the solvent. the temperature by about 5oC.°
(iii) Aerated drinks like soda water, etc., • Start adding the solute again.
are gas in liquid solutions. These Is the amount of salt and sugar or barium
contain carbon dioxide (gas) as solute chloride, that can be dissolved in water at a
and water (liquid) as solvent. given temperature, the same?
(iv) Air is a mixture of gas in gas. Air is a At any particular temperature, a solution
homogeneous mixture of a number of that has dissolved as much solute as it is
gases. Its two main constituents are: capable of dissolving, is said to be a saturated
oxygen (21%) and nitrogen (78%). The solution. In other words, when no more solute
oth er gases are present in very can be dissolved in a solution at a given
small quantities. temperature, it is called a saturated solution.
Properties of a Solution The amount of the solute present in the
saturated solution at this temperature is
• A solution is a homogeneous mixture. called its solubility.
• The particles of a solution are smaller If the amount of solute contained in a
than 1 nm (10-9 metre) in diameter. So, solution is less than the saturation level, it is
they cannot be seen by naked eyes. called an unsaturated solution.
• Because of very small particle size, they What would happen if you were to take a
do not scatter a beam of light passing saturated solution at a certain temperature
through the solution. So, the path of and cool it slowly.
light is not visible in a solution. We can infer from the above activity that
• The solute particles cannot be different substances in a given solvent have
separated from the mixture by the different solubilities at the same temperature.
process of filtration. The solute particles The concentration of a solution is the
d o n ot set t l e d ow n w h en l ef t amount (mass or volume) of solute present in
u n dist u r bed, t h at i s, a sol u t i on i s a given amount (mass or volume) of solution.
stable.
There are various ways of expressing the
concentration of a solution, but here we will
2.2.1 CONCENTRATION OF A SOLUTION learn only three methods.
In activity 2.2, we observed that groups A (i) Mass by mass percentage of a solution
and B obtained different shades of solutions. Mass of solute
= 100
So, we understand that in a solution the Mass of solution

32 IS MATTER AROUND US PURE?

 A
B

--------------------------
•
(i)

(ii)
•
o
C
(iii)
•

(iv)

•
•

A B

33
 (ii) Mass by volume percentage of a solution • The particles of a suspension scatter a
beam of light passing through it and
Mass of solute make its path visible.
= 100
Volume of solution • The solute particles settle down when
(iii) Volume by volume percentage of a a suspension is left undisturbed, that
solution is, a suspension is unstable. They can
be separated from the mixture by the
Volume of solute
= 100 process of filtration. When the particles
Volume of solution settle down, the suspension breaks and
it does not scatter light any more.
Example 2.1 A solution contains 40 g of
common salt in 320 g of water. 2.2.3 WHAT IS A COLLOIDAL SOLUTION?
Calculate the concentration in terms of
mass by mass percentage of the The mixture obtained by group D in activity
solution. 2.2 is called a colloid or a colloidal solution.
The particles of a colloid are uniformly spread
Solution: throughout the solution. Due to the relatively
Mass of solute (salt) = 40 g smaller size of particles, as compared to that
Mass of solvent (water) = 320 g of a suspension, the mixture appears to be
We know, homogeneous. But actually, a colloidal
Mass of solution = Mass of solute + solution is a heterogeneous mixture, for
Mass of solvent example, milk.
= 40 g + 320 g Because of the small size of colloidal
= 360 g
particles, we cannot see them with naked
Mass percentage of solution eyes. But, these particles can easily scatter a
beam of visible light as observed in activity
Mass of solute 2.2. This scattering of a beam of light is called
= 100
Mass of solution the Tyndall effect after the name of the
scientist who discovered this effect.
40 Tyndall effect can also be observed when
= 100 =11.1%
360 a fine beam of light enters a room through a
small hole. This happens due to the scattering
2.2.2 WHAT IS A SUSPENSION?
of light by the particles of dust and smoke in
Non-homogeneous systems, like those the air.
obtained by group C in activity 2.2, in which
solids are dispersed in liquids, are called
suspensions. A suspension is a heterogeneous
mixture in which the solute particles do not
dissolve but remain suspended throughout
the bulk of the medium. Particles of a
suspension are visible to the naked eye.
Properties of a Suspension (a) (b)

• S u spe n si on is a h et ero ge n eo us
mixture. Fig. 2.3: (a) Solution of copper sulphate does not
• The particles of a suspension can be show Tyndall effect, (b) mixture of water
seen by the naked eye. and milk shows Tyndall effect.

34 IS MATTER AROUND US PURE?

 •
(ii)

×
•
(iii)

40
× 100 = 11.1%
360

•
•

35
 Tyndall effect can be observed when • Colloids are big enough to scatter a
sunlight passes through the canopy of a beam of light passing through it and
dense forest. In the forest, mist contains tiny make its path visible.
droplets of water, which act as particles of • They do not settle down when left
colloid dispersed in air. undisturbed, that is, a colloid is quite
stable.
• They cannot be separated from the
mixture by the process of filtration. But,
a special technique of separation known
as centrifugation (perform activity 2.5),
can be used to separate the colloidal
particles.
The components of a colloidal solution are
the dispersed phase and the dispersion
medium. The solute-like component or the
dispersed particles in a colloid form the
dispersed phase, and the component in which
Fig. 2.4: The Tyndall effect
the dispersed phase is suspended is known
as the dispersing medium. Colloids are
Properties of a Colloid classified according to the state (solid, liquid
• A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture. or gas) of the dispersing medium and the
• The size of particles of a colloid is too dispersed phase. A few common examples are
small to be individually seen with given in Table 2.1. From this table you can

Q
naked eyes. see that they are very common everyday life.

uestions
1. Differentiate between homogen- eous and heterogeneous mixtures with examples.
2. How are sol, solution and suspension different from each other?
3. To make a saturated solution, 36 g of sodium chloride is dissolved in 100 g of water
at 293 K. Find its concentration at this temperature.

Table 2.1: Common examples of colloids

Dispersed Dispersing Type Example
phase Medium

Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, clouds, mist

Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, automobile exhaust
Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, face cream
Solid Liquid Sol Milk of magnesia, mud
Gas Solid Foam Foam, rubber, sponge, pumice
Liquid Solid Gel Jelly, cheese, butter
Solid Solid Solid Sol Coloured gemstone, milky glass

36 IS MATTER AROUND US PURE?

 •

•
•

37
2.3 Physical and Chemical • burning of paper and wood.
2. T ry segregating the things
Changes around you as pure substances
or mixtures.
In the previous chapter, we have learnt about
a few physical properties of matter. The
properties that can be observed and specified 2.4 What are the Types of Pure
like colour, hardness, rigidity, fluidity, Substances?
density, melting point, boiling point etc. are
the physical properites. On the basis of their chemical composition,
The interconversion of states is a physical substances can be classified either as
change because these changes occur without elements or compounds.
a change in composition and no change in
the chemical nature of the substance. 2.4.1 ELEMENTS
Although ice, water and water vapour all look
different and display different physical Robert Boyle was the first scientist to use the
properties, they are chemically the same. term element in 1661. A ntoine Laurent
Both water and cooking oil are liquid but Lavoisier (1743–94), a French chemist, was
their chemical characteristics are different. the first to establish an experimentally useful
They differ in odour and inflammability. We definition of an element. He defined an
know that oil burns in air whereas water element as a basic form of matter that cannot
extinguishes fire. It is this chemical property be broken down into simpler substances by
of oil that makes it different from water. chemical reactions.
Burning is a chemical change. During this Elements can be normally divided into
process one substance reacts with another metals, non-metals and metalloids.
to undergo a change in chemical composition. Metals usually show some or all of the
Chemical change brings change in the following properties:
chemical properties of matter and we get new • They have a lustre (shine).
substances. A chemical change is also called • They have silvery-grey or golden-yellow
a chemical reaction. colour.
During burning of a candle, both physical • They conduct heat and electricity.
and chemical changes take place. Can you • They are ductile (can be drawn into
distinguish these? wires).

Q
• They are malleable (can be hammered
into thin sheets).
uestions • They are sonorous (make a ringing
sound when hit).
1. Classify t he following a s
chemical or physical changes: Examples of metals are gold, silver,
• cutting of trees, copper, iron, sodium, potassium etc.
• melting of butter in a pan, Mercury is the only metal that is liquid at
• rusting of almirah, room temperature.
• boiling of water to form steam, Non-metals usually show some or all of
• passing of electric current, the following properties:
through water and the water • They display a variety of colours.
breaking down into hydrogen • They are poor conductors of heat and
and oxygen gases, electricity.
• dissolving common salt in • They are not lustrous, sonorous
water, or malleable.
• making a fruit salad with raw Examples of non-metals are hydrogen,
fruits, and oxygen, iodine, carbon (coal, coke), bromine,

38 IS MATTER AROUND US PURE?

 •
2.

•
•

•
•
•

•
•
• •

• •
•
•

•
•

39
chlorine etc. Some elements have intermediate • Compare the texture and colour of the
properties between those of metals and non- material obtained by the groups.
metals, they are called metalloids; examples • Add carbon disulphide to one part of
are boron, silicon, germanium, etc. the material obtained. Stir well
and filter.
• Add dilute sulphuric acid or dilute
• The number of elements known
hydrochloric acid to the other part of
at present are more than 100.
the material obtained.(Note: teacher
Ninety-two elements are
superv ision is nec essary f or
naturally occurring and the
this activity).
rest are man-made.
• Perform all the above steps with both
More to know

• Majority of the elements are

the elements (iron and sulphur)
solid.
separately.
• Eleven elements are in gaseous
state at room temperature.
• Two elements are liquid at room Now answer
temperature—mercury and
bromine. • Did the material obtained by the two
• Elements, gallium and cesium groups look the same?
become liquid at a temperature • Which group has obtained a material
slightly above r oom with magnetic properties?
temperature (303 K).
• Can we separate the components of
the material obtained?
2.4.2 COMPOUNDS • On adding dilute sulphuric acid or
A compound is a substance composed of two dilute hydrochloric acid, did both the
or more elements, chemically combined with groups obtain a gas? Did the gas in
one another in a fixed proportion. both the cases smell the same
What do we get when two or more elements or different?
are combined?
The gas obtained by Group I is hydrogen,
Activity _______________ 2.4 it is colourless, odourless and combustible–
it is not advised to do the combustion test for
• Divide the class into two groups. Give hydrogen in the class. The gas obtained by
5 g of iron filings and 3 g of sulphur
Group II is hydrogen sulphide. It is a
powder in a china dish to both
the groups. colourless gas with the smell of rotten eggs.
You must have observed that the products
Group I
• Mix and crush iron filings and sulphur
obtained by both the groups show different
powder. properties, though the starting materials were
the same. Group I has carried out the activity
Group II
• Mix and crush iron filings and sulphur
involving a physical change whereas in case
powder. Heat this mixture strongly till of Group II, a chemical change (a chemical
red hot. Remove from flame and let the reaction) has taken place.
mixture cool. • The material obtained by group I is a
Groups I and II mixture of the two substances. The
• Check for magnetism in the material substances given are the elements—
obtained. Bring a magnet near the iron and sulphur.
material and check if the material is • The properties of the mixture are the
attracted towards the magnet.
same as that of its constituents.

40 IS MATTER AROUND US PURE?

 •

•
•

• •
•
•
•

•
K •
•

--------------------------
•

I
•
II
•

•
I II
•
•

41
 Table 2.2: Mixtures and Compounds
Mixtures Compounds

1. Elements or compounds just mix 1. Elements react to form new compounds.

together to form a mixture and no
new compound is formed.
2. A mixture has a variable composition. 2. The composition of each new substance
is always fixed.
3, A mixture shows the properties of the 3. The new substance has totally different
constituent substances. properties.
4. The constituents can be seperated 4. The constituents can be separated only
fairly easily by physical methods. by chemical or electroch emical
reactions.

• The material obtained by group II is a • The composition of a compound is the

compound. same throughout. We can also observe
• On heating the two elements strongly that the texture and the colour of the
we get a compound, which has totally compound are the same throughout.
different properties compared to the Thus, we can summarise the physical
combining elements. and chemical nature of matter in the
following graphical organiser:

Matter
(Soild, Liquid or Gas)

Mixtures
Pure Substances
(No fixed composition)

Elements Compounds Hemogeneous Heterogeneous

Cannot be broken Have fixed composition Non-uniform
Uniform composition
down to simpler can be broken down into composition
substances elements by chemical or for example, sugar in
for example, copper, electrochemical reactions water, salt in water, for example, sand and
oxygen, iron, hydrogen, for example water, sulphur in carbon salt, sugar and salt,
mercury etc. methane, sugar, salt disulphide, water in water in oil etc.
etc. alcohol etc.

What
you have
learnt
• A mixture contains more than one substance (element and/or
compound) mixed in any proportion.

42 IS MATTER AROUND US PURE?

• •
•

43
 • Mixtures can be separated into pure substances using
appropriate separation techniques.
• A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more
substances. The major component of a solution is called the
solvent, and the minor, the solute.
• The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present
per unit volume or per unit mass of the solution.
• Materials that are insoluble in a solvent and have particles
that are visible to naked eyes, form a suspension.
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture.
• Colloids are heterogeneous mixtures in which the particle size
is too small to be seen with the naked eye, but is big enough to
scatter light. Colloids are useful in industry and daily life. The
particles are called the dispersed phase and the medium in
which they are distributed is called the dispersion medium.
• Pure substances can be elements or compounds. An element
is a form of matter that cannot be broken down by chemical
reactions into simpler substances. A compound is a substance
composed of two or more different types of elements, chemically
combined in a fixed proportion.
• Properties of a compound are different from its constituent
elements, whereas a mixture shows the properties of its
constituting elements or compounds.

Exercises
1. Which separation techniques will you apply for the separation
of the following?
(a) Sodium chloride from its solution in water
(b) Ammonium chloride from a mixture containing sodium
chloride and ammonium chloride
(c) Small pieces of metal in the engine oil of a car
(d) Different pigments from an extract of flower petals
(e) Butter from curd
(f) Oil from water
(g) Tea leaves from tea
(h) Iron pins from sand
(i) Wheat grains from husk
(j) Fine mud particles suspended in water

44 IS MATTER AROUND US PURE?

•

45
 2. Write the steps you would use for making tea. Use the words
solution, solvent, solute, dissolve, soluble, insoluble, filtrate
and residue.
3. Pragya tested the solubility of three different substances at
different temperatures and collected the data as given below
(results are given in the following table, as grams of substance
dissolved in 100 grams of water to form a saturated solution).

Substance Dissolved Temperature in K

283 293 313 333 353
Solubility

Potassium nitrate 21 32 62 106 167

Sodium chloride 36 36 36 37 37
Potassium chloride 35 35 40 46 54
Ammonium chloride 24 37 41 55 66

(a) What mass of potassium nitrate would be needed to

produce a saturated solution of potassium nitrate in
50 grams of water at 313 K?
(b) Pragya makes a saturated solution of potassium chloride
in water at 353 K and leaves the solution to cool at room
temperature. What would she observe as the solution
cools? Explain.
(c) Find the solubility of each salt at 293 K. Which salt has
the highest solubility at this temperature?
(d) What is the effect of change of temperature on the
solubility of a salt?
4. Explain the following giving examples.
(a) Saturated solution
(b) Pure substance
(c) Colloid
(d) Suspension
5. Classify each of the following as a homogeneous or
heterogeneous mixture.
soda water, wood, air, soil, vinegar, filtered tea.
6. How would you confirm that a colourless liquid given to you is
pure water?

46 IS MATTER AROUND US PURE?

K

47
 7. Which of the following materials fall in the category of a “pure
substance”?
(a) Ice
(b) Milk
(c) Iron
(d) Hydrochloric acid
(e) Calcium oxide
(f) Mercury
(g) Brick
(h) Wood
(i) Air
8. Identify the solutions among the following mixtures.
(a) Soil
(b) Sea water
(c) Air
(d) Coal
(e) Soda water
9. Which of the following will show “Tyndall effect”?
(a) Salt solution
(b) Milk
(c) Copper sulphate solution
(d) Starch solution
10. Classify the following into elements, compounds and mixtures.
(a) Sodium
(b) Soil
(c) Sugar solution
(d) Silver
(e) Calcium carbonate
(f) Tin
(g) Silicon
(h) Coal
(i) Air
(j) Soap
(k) Methane
(l) Carbon dioxide
(m) Blood
11. Which of the following are chemical changes?
(a) Growth of a plant
(b) Rusting of iron

48 IS MATTER AROUND US PURE?

49
 (c) Mixing of iron filings and sand
(d) Cooking of food
(e) Digestion of food
(f) Freezing of water
(g) Burning of a candle

Group Activity
Take an earthen pot (mutka), some pebbles and sand. Design a
small-scale filtration plant that you could use to clean
muddy water.

50 IS MATTER AROUND US PURE?

51
C hapter 3
ATOMS AND MOLECULES
Ancient Indian and Greek philosophers have much experimentations by Lavoisier and
always wondered about the unknown and Joseph L. Proust.
unseen form of matter. The idea of divisibility
of matter was considered long back in India,
3.1.1 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
around 500 BC. An Indian philosopher Is there a change in mass when a chemical
Maharishi Kanad, postulated that if we go on change (chemical reaction) takes place?
dividing matter (padarth), we shall get smaller
and smaller particles. Ultimately, a stage will Activity _______________ 3.1
come when we shall come across the smallest
Take one of the following sets, X and
particles beyond which further division will not
Y of chemicals—
be possible. He named these particles
X Y
Parmanu. A nother Indian philosopher, (i) copper sulphate sodium carbonate
Pakudha Katyayama, elaborated this doctrine
and said that these particles normally exist in (ii) barium chloride sodium sulphate
a combined form which gives us various forms
of matter. (iii) lead nitrate sodium chloride
Around the same era, ancient Greek
philosophers – Democritus and Leucippus Prepare separately a 5% solution of
suggested that if we go on dividing matter, a any one pair of substances listed
stage will come when particles obtained cannot under X and Y each in 10 mL in water.
be divided further. Democritus called these Take a little amount of solution of Y
in a conical flask and some solution
indivisible particles atoms (mean in g
of X in an ignition tube.
in divisible). All th is w as based on
Hang the ignition tube in the flask
philosophical considerations and not much
carefully; see that the solutions do not
experimental work to validate these ideas get mixed. Put a cork on the flask
could be done till the eighteenth century. (see Fig. 3.1).
By the end of the eighteenth century,
scientists recognised the difference between
elements and compounds and naturally
became interested in finding out how and why
elements combine and what happens when
they combine.
Antoine L. Lavoisier laid the foundation of
chemical sciences by establishing two
important laws of chemical combination.

3.1 Laws of Chemical Combination

Fig. 3.1: Ignition tube containing solution of X,
The following two laws of chemical dipped in a conical flask containing
combination w ere established after solution of Y

52 ATOMS AND MOLECULES

3

--------------------------
X Y

X Y

X Y

Y
X

Y
Y
X

53
 Weigh the flask with its contents conservation of mass and the law of
carefully. definite proportions.
Now tilt and swirl the flask, so that
the solutions X and Y get mixed. John Dalton was born in
Weigh again. a poor weaver’s family in
What happens in the reaction flask? 1766 in England. He
Do you think that a chemical reaction began his career as a
has taken place? teacher at the age of
Why should we put a cork on the twelve. Seven years later
mouth of the flask? h e became a sch ool
Does the mass of the flask and its principal. In 1793, Dalton
contents change? left for Manchester to
teach mathematics, John Dalton
Law of conservation of mass states that physics and chemistry in
mass can neither be created nor destroyed in
a college. He spent most of his life there
a chemical reaction.
teaching and researching. In 1808, he
presented his atomic theory which was a
3.1.2 LAW OF CONSTANT PROPORTIONS turning point in the study of matter.
Lavoisier, along with other scientists, noted
that many compounds were composed of two According to Dalton’s atomic theory, all
or more elements and each such compound matter, whether an element, a compound or a
had the same elements in the same mixture is composed of small particles called
proportions, irrespective of where the atoms. The postulates of this theory may be
compound came from or who prepared it. stated as follows:
In a compound such as water, the ratio of (i) All matter is made of very tiny particles
the mass of hydrogen to the mass of oxygen is called atoms, which participate in
always 1:8, whatever the source of water. Thus, chemical reactions.
if 9 g of water is decomposed, 1 g of hydrogen (ii) Atoms are indivisible particles, which
and 8 g of oxygen are always obtained. cannot be created or destroyed in a
Similarly in ammonia, nitrogen and hydrogen chemical reaction.
are always present in the ratio 14:3 by mass, (iii) Atoms of a given element are identical
whatever the method or the source from which in mass and chemical properties.
it is obtained. (iv) Atoms of different elements have
This led to the law of constant proportions differen t masses and chemical
which is also known as the law of definite properties.
proportions. This law was stated by Proust as (v) Atoms combine in the ratio of small
“In a chemical substance the elements are whole numbers to form compounds.
always present in definite proportions by (vi) The relative number and kinds of atoms
mass”. are constant in a given compound.
The next problem faced by scientists was You will study in the next chapter that all
to give appropriate explanations of these laws. atoms are made up of still smaller particles.

Q
British chemist John Dalton provided the
basic theory about the nature of matter. uestions
Dalton picked up the idea of divisibility of
matter, which was till then just a philosophy. 1. In a reaction, 5.3 g of sodium
He took the name ‘atoms’ as given by the carbonate reacted with 6 g of
Greeks and said that the smallest particles of acetic acid. The products were
matter are atoms. His theory was based on the 2.2 g of carbon dioxide, 0.9 g
laws of chemical combination. Dalton’s atomic water and 8.2 g of sodium acetate.
theory provided an explanation for the law of

54 ATOMS AND MOLECULES

X Y

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

(vi)

55
 Show that these observations are We might think that if atoms are so
in agreement with the law of insignificant in size, why should we care about
conservation of mass. them? This is because our entire world is made
sodium carbonate + acetic acid up of atoms. We may not be able to see them,
sodium acetate + carbon but they are there, and constantly affecting
dioxide + water whatever we do. Through modern techniques,
2. Hydrogen and oxygen combine we can now produce magnified images of
in the ratio of 1:8 by mass to form surfaces of elements showing atoms.
water. What mass of oxygen gas
would be required to react
completely with 3 g of hydrogen
gas?
3. Which postulate of Dalton’s
atomic theory is the result of the
law of conservation of mass?
4. Which postulate of Dalton’s
atomic theory can explain the law
of definite proportions?

3.2 What is an Atom?

Have you ever observed a mason building
walls, from these walls a room and then a Fig. 3.2: An image of the surface of silicon
collection of rooms to form a building? What
is the building block of the huge building?
What about the building block of an ant-hill? 3.2.1 W HAT ARE THE M ODE R N DAY
It is a small grain of sand. Similarly, the SYMBOLS OF ATOMS OF DIFFERENT
building blocks of all matter are atoms.
ELEMENTS?
How big are atoms?
Dalton was the first scientist to use the symbols
Atoms are very small, they are smaller than
for elements in a very specific sense. When he
anything that we can imagine or compare with.
used a symbol for an element he also meant a
More than millions of atoms when stacked
definite quantity of that element, that is, one
would make a layer barely as thick as this
atom of that element. Berzilius suggested that
sheet of paper.
the symbols of elements be made from one or
Atomic radius is measured in nanometres. two letters of the name of the element.
1/109 m = 1 nm
1 m = 109 nm

Relative Sizes
Radii (in m) Example
10–10 Atom of hydrogen
10–9 Molecule of water
10–8 Molecule of haemoglobin
10 –4
Grain of sand
10–3 Ant
Fig. 3.3: Symbols for some elements as proposed
10 –1
Apple by Dalton

56 ATOMS AND MOLECULES

 +
+ +

1/109 m = 1
1 m = 109

57
 In the beginning, the names of elements passage of time and repeated usage you will
were derived from the name of the place automatically be able to reproduce
where they were found for the first time. For
the symbols).
example, the name copper was taken from
Cyprus. Some names were taken from
specific colours. For example, gold was taken 3.2.2 ATOMIC MASS
from the English word meaning yellow. The most remarkable concept that Dalton’s
Now-a-days, IUPAC (International Union of
atomic theory proposed was that of the atomic
Pure an d Applied C hemistry ) is an
international scientific organisation which mass. According to him, each element had a
approves names of elements, symbols and characteristic atomic mass. The theory could
units. Many of the symbols are the first one explain the law of constant proportions so well
or two letters of the element’s name in that scientists were prompted to measure the
English. The first letter of a symbol is always atomic mass of an atom. Since determining the
written as a capital letter (uppercase) and the
mass of an individual atom was a relatively
second letter as a small letter (lowercase).
difficult task, relative atomic masses were
For example determined using the laws of chemical
(i) hydrogen, H combinations and the compounds formed.
(ii) aluminium, Al and not AL Let us take the example of a compound,
(iii) cobalt, Co and not CO. carbon monoxide (CO) formed by carbon and
Symbols of some elements are formed from oxygen. It was observed experimentally that 3
the first letter of the name and a letter, g of carbon combines with 4 g of oxygen to
appearing later in the name. Examples are: (i) form CO. In other words, carbon combines
chlorine, Cl, (ii) zinc, Zn etc.
Other symbols have been taken from the with 4/3 times its mass of oxygen. Suppose
names of elements in Latin, German or Greek. we define the atomic mass unit (earlier
For example, the symbol of iron is Fe from its abbreviated as ‘amu’, but according to the
Latin name ferrum, sodium is Na from natrium, latest IUPAC recommendations, it is now
potassium is K from kalium. Therefore, each written as ‘u’ – unified mass) as equal to the
elemen t has a name and a unique mass of one carbon atom, then we would
chemical symbol.

Table 3.1: Symbols for some elements

Element Symbol Element Symbol Element Symbol

Aluminium Al Copper Cu Nitrogen N
Argon Ar Fluorine F Oxygen O
Barium Ba Gold Au Potassium K
Boron B Hydrogen H Silicon Si
Bromine Br Iodine I Silver Ag
Calcium Ca Iron Fe Sodium Na
Carbon C Lead Pb Sulphur S
Chlorine Cl Magnesium Mg Uranium U
Cobalt Co Neon Ne Zinc Zn

(The above table is given for you to refer to assign carbon an atomic mass of 1.0 u and
whenever you study about elements. Do not oxygen an atomic mass of 1.33 u. However, it
bother to memorise all in one go. With the is more convenient to have these numbers as
58 ATOMS AND MOLECULES
 IUPAC (

H
Al AL
Co CO

i Cl ii Zn

amu
Fe Na IUPAC u-
K

Al Cu N
Ar F O
Ba Au K
B H Si
Br I Ag
Ca Fe Na
C Pb S
Cl Mg U
Co Ne Zn

59
whole numbers or as near to a whole numbers mass of the atom, as compared to 1/12th the
as possible. While searching for various atomic mass of one carbon-12 atom.
mass units, scientists initially took 1/16 of the
mass of an atom of naturally occurring oxygen
Table 3.2: Atomic masses of
as the unit. This was considered relevant due
to two reasons: a few elements
oxygen reacted with a large number of
Element Atomic Mass (u)
elements and formed compounds.
this atomic mass unit gave masses of most Hydrogen 1
of the elements as whole numbers. Carbon 12
However, in 1961 for a universally accepted
atomic mass unit, carbon-12 isotope was Nitrogen 14
chosen as the standard reference for Oxygen 16
measuring atomic masses. One atomic mass Sodium 23
unit is a mass unit equal to exactly one-twelfth
(1/12th) the mass of one atom of carbon-12. Magnesium 24
The relative atomic masses of all elements have Sulphur 32
been found with respect to an atom of carbon- Chlorine 35.5
12.
Imagine a fruit seller selling fruits without Calcium 40
any standard weight with him. He takes a
watermelon and says, “this has a mass equal
to 12 units” (12 watermelon units or 12 fruit 3.2.3 HOW DO ATOMS EXIST?
mass units). He makes twelve equal pieces of
Atoms of most elements are not able to exist
the watermelon and finds the mass of each fruit
independently. Atoms form molecules and
he is selling, relative to the mass of one piece
ions. These molecules or ions aggregate in
of the watermelon. Now he sells his fruits by
large numbers to form the matter that we can
relative fruit mass unit (fmu), as in Fig. 3.4.
see, feel or touch.

Q
uestions
1. Define the atomic mass unit.
2. Why is it not possible to see an
atom with naked eyes?

3.3 What is a Molecule?

A molecule is in general a group of two or
more atoms that are chemically bonded
together, that is, tightly held together by
Fig. 3.4 : (a) Watermelon, (b) 12 pieces, (c) 1/12 of attractive forces. A molecule can be defined
watermelon, (d) how the fruit seller can as the smallest particle of an element or a
weigh the fruits using pieces of compound that is capable of an independent
watermelon existence and shows all the properties of that
substance. Atoms of the same element or of
Similarly, the relative atomic mass of the different elements can join together to form
atom of an element is defined as the average molecules.

60 ATOMS AND MOLECULES

 u

fmu

61
3.3.1 MOLECULES OF ELEMENTS Table 3.4 : Molecules of some
The molecules of an element are constituted compounds
by the same type of atoms. Molecules of many Compound Combining Ratio
elements, such as argon (Ar), helium (He) etc. Elements by
are made up of only one atom of that element. Mass
But this is not the case with most of the non- Water (H2O) Hydrogen, Oxygen 1:8
metals. For example, a molecule of oxygen Ammonia (NH3) Nitrogen, Hydrogen 14:3
consists of two atoms of oxygen and hence it
Carbon
is known as a diatomic molecule, O2. If 3 atoms
dioxide (CO2) Carbon, Oxygen 3:8
of oxygen unite into a molecule, instead of the
usual 2, we get ozone, O3. The number of
Activity _______________3.2
atoms constituting a molecule is known as its
atomicity. Refer to Table 3.4 for ratio by mass of
atoms present in molecules and Table
Metals and some other elements, such as
3.2 for atomic masses of elements.
carbon, do not have a simple structure but Find the ratio by number of the atoms
consist of a very large and indefinite number of elements in the molecules of
of atoms bonded together. compounds given in Table 3.4.
The ratio by number of atoms for a
Let us look at the atomicity of some water molecule can be found as
non-metals. follows:

Element Ratio Atomic Mass Simplest

Table 3.3 : Atomicity of some by mass ratio/ ratio
elements mass (u) atomic
mass
Type of Name Atomicity
Element 1
H 1 1 =1 2
1
Non-Metal Argon Monoatomic
8 1
Helium Monoatomic O 8 16 = 1
16 2
Oxygen Diatomic
Thus, the ratio by number of atoms
Hydrogen Diatomic
for water is H:O = 2:1.
Nitrogen Diatomic
Chlorine Diatomic 3.3.3 WHAT IS AN ION?
Phosphorus Tetra-atomic Compounds composed of metals and non-
Sulphur Poly-atomic metals contain charged species. The charged
species are known as ions. Ions may consist
of a single charged atom or a group of atoms
that have a net charge on them. An ion can be
negatively or positively charged. A negatively
3.3.2 MOLECULES OF COMPOUNDS charged ion is called an ‘anion’ and the
Atoms of different elements join together positively charged ion, a ‘cation’. Take, for
in definite proportions to form molecules examp le, sodium chlor ide (NaCl). Its
of compounds. Few examples are given in constituent particles are positively charged
Table 3.4. sodium ions (Na+) and negatively charged

62 ATOMS AND MOLECULES

Ar He

(H2O)
O2
(NH3)

CO2

O3 --------------------------

u
1
H 1 1 =1 2
1

8 1
O 8 16 = 1
16 2

H:O=

NaCl

Na +

63
chloride ions (Cl–). A group of atoms carrying learn the symbols and combining capacity of
a charge is known as a polyatomic ion (Table the elements.
3.6). We shall learn more about the formation The combining power (or capacity) of an
of ions in Chapter 4. element is known as its valency. Valency can
be used to find out how the atoms of an
Table 3.5: Some ionic compounds
element will combine with the atom(s) of
Ionic Constituting Ratio another element to form a chemical compound.
Compound Elements by The valency of the atom of an element can be
Mass thought of as hands or arms of that atom.
Calcium oxide Calcium and Human beings have two arms and an
oxygen 5:2 octopus has eight. If one octopus has to catch
hold of a few people in such a manner that all
Magnesium Magnesium
the eight arms of the octopus and both arms
sulphide and sulphur 3:4
of all the humans are locked, how many
Sodium Sodium humans do you think the octopus can hold?
chloride and chlorine 23:35.5 Represent the octopus with O and humans
with H. Can you write a formula for this
combination? Do you get OH4 as the formula?
3.4 Writing Chemical Formulae The subscript 4 indicates the number of
The chemical formula of a compound is a humans held by the octopus.
symbolic representation of its composition. The The valencies of some common ions are
chemical formulae of different compounds can given in Table 3.6. We will learn more about
be written easily. For this exercise, we need to valency in the next chapter.

Table 3.6: Names and symbols of some ions

Vale- Name of Symbol Non- Symbol Polyatomic Symbol

ncy ion metallic ions
element
1. Sodium Na+ Hydrogen H+ Ammonium NH4+
Potassium K+ Hydride H- Hydroxide OH–
Silver Ag + Chloride Cl- Nitrate NO3–
Copper (I)* Cu+ Bromide Br- Hydrogen
Iodide I– carbonate HCO3–

2. Magnesium Mg2+ Oxide O2- Carbonate CO32–

Calcium Ca2+ Sulphide S2- Sulphite SO32–
Zinc Zn2+ Sulphate SO42–
Iron (II)* Fe2+
Copper (II)* Cu2+

3. Aluminium Al3+ Nitride N3- Phosphate PO43–

Iron (III)* Fe3+

* Some elements show more than one valency. A Roman numeral shows their valency in a
bracket.
64 ATOMS AND MOLECULES
 Cl-

O
H
OH4

1. Na+ H+ NH4+
K+ H- OH–
Ag + Cl- NO3–
(I)* Cu+ Br-
I– HCO3–
2. Mg2+ O2- CO32–
Ca2+ S2- SO32–
Zn2+ SO42–
(II)* Fe2+
(II)* Cu2+
3. Al3+ N3- PO43–
(III)* Fe3+
*

65
The rules that you have to follow while writing 3. Formula of carbon tetrachloride
a chemical formula are as follows:
the valencies or charges on the ion
must balance.
when a compound consists of a metal and
a non-metal, the name or symbol of the
metal is written first. For example: calcium
oxide (CaO), sodium chloride (NaCl), iron
sulphide (FeS), copper oxide (CuO), etc.,
where oxygen, chlorine, sulphur are non- For magnesium chloride, we write the
metals and are written on the right, symbol of cation (Mg2+) first followed by the
whereas calcium, sodium, iron and symbol of anion (Cl-). Then their charges are
copper are metals, and are written on criss-crossed to get the formula.
the left.
in compounds formed with polyatomic ions, 4. Formula of magnesium chloride
the number of ions present in the
compound is indicated by enclosing the
formula of ion in a bracket and writing the
number of ions outside the bracket. For
example, Mg (OH)2. In case the number of
polyatomic ion is one, the bracket is not Formula : MgCl2
required. For example, NaOH.
Thus, in magnesium chloride, there are two
3.4.1 FORMULAE OF SIMPLE COMPOUNDS chloride ions (Cl-) for each magnesium ion
The simplest compounds, which are made up (Mg2+). The positive and negative charges must
of two different elements are called binary balance each other and the overall structure
compounds. Valencies of some ions are given
must be neutral. Note that in the formula, the
in Table 3.6. You can use these to write
formulae for compounds. ch ar ges on the ion s are
While writing the chemical formulae for not indicated.
compounds, we write the constituent elements
and their valencies as shown below. Then we Some more examples
must cro ssover the valen cies o f th e (a) Formula for aluminium oxide:
combining atoms.
Al
Examples
3
1. Formula of hydrogen chloride
Formula : Al2O3

(b) Formula for calcium oxide:

Formula of the compound would be HCl.

2. Formula of hydrogen sulphide

Here, the valencies of the two elements

are the same. You may arrive at the formula
Ca2O2. But we simplify the formula as CaO.

66 ATOMS AND MOLECULES

CaO NaCl FeS
CuO
(Mg2+)
(Cl-).

Mg (OH)2.
Formula : MgCl2

NaOH.

(Mg2+) (Cl-)

(a)

Al

3
Formula : Al2O3

(b)

HCl.

Ca2O2
CaO

67
 (c) Formula of sodium nitrate:
following formulae:
(i) Al2(SO4)3
(ii) CaCl2
(iii) K2SO4
(iv) KNO3
Formula : NaNO3 (v) CaCO3.
3. What is meant by the term
(d) Formula of calcium hydroxide: chemical formula?
4. How many atoms are present in a
(i) H2S molecule and
(ii) PO43– ion?

Formula : Ca(OH)2 3.5 Molecular Mass

Note that the formula of calcium hydroxide
is Ca(OH)2 and not CaOH2. We use brackets
3.5.1 MOLECULAR MASS
when we have two or more of the same ions in In section 3.2.2 we discussed the concept of
the formula. Here, the bracket around OH with atomic mass. This concept can be extended to
a subscript 2 indicates that there are two calculate molecular masses. The molecular
hydroxyl (OH) groups joined to one calcium mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic
atom. In other words, there are two atoms each masses of all the atoms in a molecule of the
of oxygen and hydrogen in calcium hydroxide. substance. It is therefore the relative mass of a
molecule expressed in atomic mass units (u).
(e) Formula of sodium carbonate:
Example 3.1 (a) Calculate the relative
molecular mass of water (H2O). (b)
Calculate the molecular mass of HNO3.
Solution:
Formula : Na2CO3
(a) Atomic mass of hydrogen = 1u,
In the above example, brackets are not needed
oxygen = 16 u
if there is only one ion present.
So the molecular mass of water, which
(f) Formula of ammonium sulphate: contains two atoms of hydrogen and one
atom of oxygen is = 2 1+ 1 16
= 18 u
(b) The molecular mass of HNO3 = the atomic
mass of H + the atomic mass of N+ 3
Formula : (NH4)2SO4 the atomic mass of O

Q
= 1 + 14 + 48 = 63 u
uestions
1. Write down the formulae of
3.5.2 FORMULA UNIT MASS
(i) sodium oxide The formula unit mass of a substance is a sum
(ii) aluminium chloride of the atomic masses of all atoms in a formula
(iii) sodium suphide unit of a compound. Formula unit mass is
(iv) magnesium hydroxide calculated in the same manner as we calculate
2. Write down the names of the molecular mass. The only difference is that
compounds represented by the we use the word formula unit for those

68 ATOMS AND MOLECULES

 (c)
(i) Al2(SO4)3
(ii) CaCl2
(iii) K2SO4
(iv) KNO3
(v) CaCO3.
Formula : NaNO3

(d)

(i) H2S
(ii) PO43–

Formula : Ca(OH)2
CaOH2
Ca(OH)2

OH
(OH)

u
(e)
(H2O)
HNO3

Formula : Na2CO3 =1 u.
=16u

(f)
= (2 1)+(1 16)=18u.
HNO3
+ + 3x
Formula : (NH4)2SO4 (O)
= 1 + 14 + 48 = 63u

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

69
 Q
substances whose constituent particles are
ions. For example, sodium chloride as
uestions
discussed above, has a formula unit NaCl. Its 1. Calculate the molecular masses
formula unit mass can be calculated as– of H2, O2, Cl2, CO2, CH4, C2H6,
1 23 + 1 35.5 = 58.5 u C2H4, NH3, CH3OH.
2. Ca lculate the formula unit
Example 3.2 Calculate the formula unit masses of ZnO, Na2O, K2CO3,
mass of CaCl2. given atomic masses of Zn = 65 u,
Solution: Na = 23 u, K = 39 u, C = 12 u,
and O = 16 u.
Atomic mass of Ca
+ (2 atomic mass of Cl)
= 40 + 2 35.5 = 40 + 71 = 111 u

What
you have
learnt
• During a chemical reaction, the sum of the masses of the
reactants and products remains unchanged. This is known
as the Law of Conservation of Mass.
• In a pure chemical compound, elements are always present
in a definite proportion by mass. This is known as the Law of
Definite Proportions.
• An atom is the smallest particle of the element that cannot
usually exist independently and retain all its chemical
properties.
• A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or a
compound capable of independent existence under ordinary
conditions. It shows all the properties of the substance.
• A chemical formula of a compound shows its constituent
elements and the number of atoms of each combining
element.
• Clusters of atoms that act as an ion are called polyatomic
ions. They carry a fixed charge on them.
• The chemical formula of a molecular compound is determined
by the valency of each element.
• In ionic compounds, the charge on each ion is used to
determine the chemical formula of the compound.

70 ATOMS AND MOLECULES

 NaCl.
1. H2, O2, Cl 2, CO 2, CH 4, C2H6,
= (1 23) + (1 35.5) = 58.5u C 2 H 4 , NH 3 , CH 3 OH

CaCl2 ZnO, Na 2O, K2CO3

Zn = 65 u, Na = 23 u, K = 39 u,
Ca C = 12 u O = 16 u.
+ (2 Cl
= 40 + 2 35.5 = 40 + 71 = 111 u

71
 Exercises
1. A 0.24 g sample of compound of oxygen and boron was found
by analysis to contain 0.096 g of boron and 0.144 g of oxygen.
Calculate the percentage composition of the compound by
weight.
2. When 3.0 g of carbon is burnt in 8.00 g oxygen, 11.00 g of
carbon dioxide is produced. What mass of carbon dioxide will
be formed when 3.00 g of carbon is burnt in 50.00 g of
oxygen? Which law of chemical combination will govern your
answer?
3. What are polyatomic ions? Give examples.
4. Write the chemical formulae of the following.
(a) Magnesium chloride
(b) Calcium oxide
(c) Copper nitrate
(d) Aluminium chloride
(e) Calcium carbonate.
5. Give the names of the elements present in the following
compounds.
(a) Quick lime
(b) Hydrogen bromide
(c) Baking powder
(d) Potassium sulphate.
6. Calculate the molar mass of the following substances.
(a) Ethyne, C2H2
(b) Sulphur molecule, S8
(c) Phosphorus molecule, P4 (Atomic mass of phosphorus
= 31)
(d) Hydrochloric acid, HCl
(e) Nitric acid, HNO3

Group Activity
Play a game for writing formulae.
Example1 : Make placards with symbols and valencies of the
elements separately. Each student should hold two
placards, one with the symbol in the right hand and
the other with the valency in the left hand. Keeping
the symbols in place, students should criss-cross
their valencies to form the formula of a compound.

72 ATOMS AND MOLECULES

 C2H2
( ) S8
P4
HCl
HNO3

73
 Example 2: A low cost model for writing formulae: Take empty
blister packs of medicines. Cut them in groups,
according to the valency of the element, as shown in
the figure. Now, you can make formulae by fixing
one type of ion into other.

For example:

Na+ SO 42- P043-

Formula for sodium sulphate:

2 sodium ions can be fixed on one sulphate ion.
Hence, the formula will be: Na2SO4
Do it yourself :
Now, write the formula of sodium phosphate.

74 ATOMS AND MOLECULES

Na+ SO 42- P043-

Na2SO4

75
C hapter 4
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
In Chapter 3, we have learnt that atoms and From these activities, can we conclude that
molecules are the fundamental building blocks on rubbing two objects together, they become
of matter. The existence of different kinds of electrically charged? Where does this charge
matter is due to different atoms constituting come from? This question can be answered by
them. Now the questions arise: (i) What makes knowing that an atom is divisible and consists
the atom of one element different from the atom
of charged particles.
of another element? and (ii) Are atoms really
Many scientists contributed in revealing
indivisible, as proposed by Dalton, or are there
smaller constituents inside the atom? We shall the presence of charged particles in an atom.
find out the answers to these questions in this It was known by 1900 that the atom was
chapter. We will learn about sub-atomic indivisible particle but contained at least one
particles and the various models that have sub-atomic particle – the electron identified by
been proposed to explain how these particles J.J. Thomson. Even before the electron was
are arranged within the atom. identified, E. Goldstein in 1886 discovered the
A major challenge before the scientists at presence of new radiations in a gas discharge
the end of the 19th century was to reveal the and called them canal rays. These rays were
structure of the atom as well as to explain its positively charged radiations which ultimately
important properties. The elucidation of the led to the discovery of another sub-atomic
structure of atoms is based on a series of
particle. This sub-atomic particle had a charge,
experiments.
equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to that
One of the first indications that atoms are
not indivisible, comes from studying static of the electron. Its mass was approximately
electricity and the condition under which 2000 times as that of the electron. It was given
electr icity is con ducted by differen t the name of proton. In general, an electron is
substances. represented as ‘e–’ and a proton as ‘p+’. The
mass of a proton is taken as one unit and its
4.1 Charged Particles in Matter charge as plus one. The mass of an electron is
considered to be negligible and its charge is
For understanding the nature of charged minus one.
particles in matter, let us carry out the It seemed that an atom was composed of
following activities:
protons and electrons, mutually balancing
Activity _______________ 4.1 their charges. It also appeared that the protons
were in the interior of the atom, for whereas
A. Comb dry hair. Does the comb then electrons could easily be removed off but
attract small pieces of paper?
B. Rub a glass rod with a silk cloth and
not protons. Now the big question was:
bring the rod near an inflated balloon. what sort of structure did these particles of
Observe what happens. the atom form? We will find the answer to
this question below.

76 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

 4

E.

‘e–’
‘p+’
+1

77
Q
uestions J.J. Thomson (1856–
1. What are canal rays? 1940), a British
2. If an atom contains one electron physicist, was born in
and one proton, will it carry any Cheetham Hill, a suburb
charge or not? of Manchester, on
18 December 1856. He
was awarded the Nobel
prize in Physics in 1906
for his work on th e
4.2 The Structure of an Atom discovery of electrons. He
directed the Cavendish Laboratory at
We have learnt Dalton’s atomic theory in Cambridge for 35 years and seven of his
Chapter 3, which suggested that the atom was research assistants subsequently won
indivisible and indestructible. But the Nobel prizes.
discovery of two fundamental particles
(electrons and protons) inside the atom, led to Thomson proposed that:
the failure of this aspect of Dalton’s atomic (i) An atom consists of a positively charged
theory. It was then considered necessary to sphere and the electrons are embedded
know how electrons and protons are arranged in it.
within an atom. For explaining this, many (ii) The negative and positive charges are
scientists proposed various atomic models. equal in magnitude. So, the atom as a
J.J. Thomson was the first one to propose a whole is electrically neutral.
model for the structure of an atom.
Although Thomson’s model explained that
atoms are electrically neutral, the results of
4.2.1 THOMSON’S MODEL OF AN ATOM experiments carried out by other scientists
Thomson proposed the model of an atom to could not be explained by this model, as we
be similar to that of a Christmas pudding. The will see below.
electrons, in a sphere of positive charge, were 4.2.2 RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF AN ATOM
like currants (dry fruits) in a spherical
Christmas pudding. We can also think of a Ernest Rutherford was interested in knowing
watermelon, the positive charge in the atom is how the electrons are arranged within an atom.
spread all over like the red edible part of the Rutherford designed an experiment for this.
watermelon, while the electrons are studded In this experiment, fast moving alpha -
in the positively charged sphere, like the seeds particles were made to fall on a thin gold
in the watermelon (Fig. 4.1). foil.
He selected a gold foil because he wanted
as thin a layer as possible. This gold foil
was about 1000 atoms thick.
-particles are doubly-charged helium
ions. Since they have a mass of 4 u, the
fast-moving -particles h ave a
considerable amount of energy.
It was expected that -particles would be
deflected by the sub-atomic particles in
the gold atoms. Since the -particles were
much heavier than the protons, he did not
Fig.4.1: Thomson’s model of an atom expect to see large deflections.

78 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

 (i)

(ii)

- -

79
 He will hear a sound when each stone strikes
the wall. If he repeats this ten times, he will
hear the sound ten times. But if a blind-folded
child were to throw stones at a barbed-wire
fence, most of the stones would not hit the
fencing and no sound would be heard. This is
because there are lots of gaps in the fence
which allow the stone to pass through them.
Following a similar reasoning, Rutherford
concluded from the -particle scattering
experiment that—
(i) Most of the space inside the atom is
empty because most of the -particles
passed through the gold foil without
getting deflected.
(ii) Very few particles were deflected from
their path, indicating that the positive
charge of the atom occupies very little
Fig. 4.2: Scattering of -particles by a gold foil
space.
(iii) A very small fraction of -particles were
But, the -particle scattering experiment deflected by 1800, indicating that all the
gave totally unexpected results (Fig. 4.2). The positive charge and mass of the gold
following observations were made: atom were concentrated in a very small
(i) Most of the fast moving -particles volume within the atom.
passed straight through the gold foil. From the data he also calculated that the
(ii) Some of the -particles were deflected radius of the nucleus is about 105 times less
by the foil by small angles. than the radius of the atom.
(iii) Surprisingly one out of every 12000 On the basis of his experiment, Rutherford
particles appeared to rebound. put forward the nuclear model of an atom,
In the words of Rutherford, “This result which had the following features:
was almost as incredible as if you fire a 15- (i) There is a positively charged centre in
inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it an atom called the nucleus. Nearly all
comes back and hits you”. the mass of an atom resides in the
nucleus.
E. Rutherford (1871–1937) (ii) The electrons revolve around the
was born at Spring Grove on nucleus in circular paths.
30 August 1871. He was (iii) The size of the nucleus is very small as
known as the ‘Father’ of compared to the size of the atom.
nuclear physics. He is Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of
famous for his work on the atom
r ad ioa ct ivity an d th e
discovery of the nucleus of an atom with The revolution of the electron in a circular orbit
the gold foil experiment. He got the Nobel is not expected to be stable. Any particle in a
prize in chemistry in 1908. circular orbit would undergo acceleration.
During acceleration, charged particles would
radiate energy. Thus, the revolving electron
Let us think of an activity in an open field would lose energy and finally fall into the
to understand the implications of this nucleus. If this were so, the atom should be
experiment. Let a child stand in front of a highly unstable and hence matter would not
wall with his eyes closed. Let him throw exist in the form that we know. We know that
ston es at th e wall fro m a distan ce. atoms are quite stable.

80 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

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 Q
4.2.3 BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM uestions
1. On the basis of Thomson’s model
In order to overcome the objections raised of an atom, explain how the atom
against Rutherford’s model of the atom, Neils is neutral as a whole.
Bohr put forward the following postulates 2. On the basis of Rutherford’s
about the model of an atom: model of an atom, which sub-
(i) Only certain special orbits known as atomic particle is present in the
discrete orbits of electrons, are allowed nucleus of an atom?
inside the atom. 3. Draw a sketch of Bohr’s model of
(ii) While revolving in discrete orbits the an atom with three shells.
electrons do not radiate energy. 4. What do you think would be the
observation if the -particle
scattering experiment is carried
Neils Bohr (1885–1962) out using a foil of a metal other
was born in Copenhagen on than gold?
7 October 1885. He was
ap poin ted professor of 4.2.4 NEUTRONS
physics at Copenhagen
University in 1916. He got In 1932, J. Chadwick discovered another sub-
the Nobel prize for his work atomic particle which had no charge and a
on the structure of atom in mass nearly equal to that of a proton. It was
1922. Among Professor eventually named as neutron. Neutrons are
Bohr’s numerous writings, three appearing present in the nucleus of all atoms, except
as books are: hydrogen. In general, a neutron is represented
(i) The Theory of Spectra and Atomic as ‘n’. The mass of an atom is therefore given
Constitution, (ii) Atomic Theory and, (iii) by the sum of the masses of protons and
The Description of Nature. neutrons present in the nucleus.

Q
uestions
These orbits or shells are called energy
1. Name the three sub-atomic
levels. Energy levels in an atom are shown in
particles of an atom.
Fig. 4.3.
2. Helium atom has an atomic mass
of 4 u and two protons in its
nucleus. How many neutrons
does it have?

4.3 How are Electrons Distributed

in Different Orbits (Shells)?
The distribution of electrons into different
orbits of an atom was suggested by Bohr
and Bury.
Fig. 4.3: A few energy levels in an atom The following rules are followed for writing
the number of electrons in different energy
These orbits or shells are represented by levels or shells:
the letters K,L,M,N,… or the numbers, (i) The maximum number of electrons
n=1,2,3,4,…. present in a shell is given by the

82 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

 ‘n’

K, L, M, N ..... (i)
n n n.=

83
 formula 2n 2, where ‘n’ is the orbit The composition of atoms of the first

Q
number or energy level index, 1,2,3,…. eighteen elements is given in Table
4.1.
Hence the maximum number of
electrons in different shells are as
follows: uestions
first orbit or K-shell will be = 2 12 = 2, 1. Write the distribution of electrons
second orbit or L-shell will be= 2 22 = 8, in carbon and sodium atoms.
third orbit or M-shell will be= 2 32 = 18, 2. If K and L shells of an atom are
fourth orbit or N-shell will be= 2 42 full, then what would be the total
= 32, and so on. number of electrons in the atom?
(ii) The maximum number of electrons that
can be accommodated in the outermost
orbit is 8. 4.4 Valency
(iii) Electrons are not accommodated in a
We have learnt how the electrons in an atom
given shell, unless the inner shells are are arranged in different shells/orbits. The
filled. That is, the shells are filled in a electrons present in the outermost shell of an
step-wise manner. atom are known as the valence electrons.
Atomic structure of the first eighteen From the Bohr-Bury scheme, we also know
elements is shown schematically in Fig. 4.4. that the outermost shell of an atom can

Fig.4.4: Schematic atomic structure of the first eighteen elements

Activity _______________4.2 accommodate a maximum of 8 electrons. It

was observed that the atoms of elements,
completely filled with 8 electrons in the
Make a static atomic model displaying
outermost shell show little chemical activity.
electronic configuration of the first
In other words, their combining capacity or
eighteen elements.
valency is zero. Of these inert elements, the

84 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

 K- =2 12 = 2,
L - = 2 22 = 8,
M- =2 32 = 18,
N- =2 42= 32 K L

(ii)
8.
(iii)

85
 Table 4.1: Composition of Atoms of the First Eighteen Elements
with Electron Distribution in Various Shells
Name of Symbol Atomic Number Number Number Distribution of Vale-
Element Number of of of Elect rons ncy
Protons Neutrons Electrons K L M N

Hydrogen H 1 1 - 1 1 - - - 1
Helium He 2 2 2 2 2 - - - 0
Lithium Li 3 3 4 3 2 1 - - 1
Beryllium Be 4 4 5 4 2 2 - - 2
Boron B 5 5 6 5 2 3 - - 3
Carbon C 6 6 6 6 2 4 - - 4
Nitrogen N 7 7 7 7 2 5 - - 3
Oxygen O 8 8 8 8 2 6 - - 2
Fluorine F 9 9 10 9 2 7 - - 1
Neon Ne 10 10 10 10 2 8 - - 0
Sodium Na 11 11 12 11 2 8 1 - 1
Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 12 2 8 2 - 2
Aluminium Al 13 13 14 13 2 8 3 - 3
Silicon Si 14 14 14 14 2 8 4 - 4
Phosphorus P 15 15 16 15 2 8 5 - 3,5
Sulphur S 16 16 16 16 2 8 6 - 2
Chlorine Cl 17 17 18 17 2 8 7 - 1
Argon Ar 18 18 22 18 2 8 8 0

helium atom has two electrons in its outermost element, that is, the valency discussed in the
shell and all other elements have atoms with previous chapter. For example, hydrogen/
eight electrons in the outermost shell. lithium/sodium atoms contain one electron
The combining capacity of the atoms of each in their outermost shell, therefore each
elements, that is, their tendency to react and one of them can lose one electron. So, they are
form molecules with atoms of the same or said to have valency of one. Can you tell, what
is valency of magnesium and aluminium? It
different elements, was thus explained as an
is two and three, respectively, because
attempt to attain a fully-filled outermost shell.
magnesium has two electrons in its outermost
An outermost-shell, which had eight electrons shell and aluminium has three electrons in its
was said to possess an octet. Atoms would outermost shell.
thus react, so as to achieve an octet in the If the number of electrons in the outermost
outermost shell. This was done by sharing, shell of an atom is close to its full capacity,
gaining or losing electrons. The number of then valency is determined in a different way.
electrons gained, lost or shared so as to make For example, the fluorine atom has 7 electrons
the octet of electrons in the outermost shell, in the outermost shell, and its valency could
gives us directly the combining capacity of the be 7. But it is easier for

86 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

 K L M N

H 1 1 - 1 1 - - - 1
He 2 2 2 2 2 - - - 0
Li 3 3 4 3 2 1 - - 1
Be 4 4 5 4 2 2 - - 2
B 5 5 6 5 2 3 - - 3
C 6 6 6 6 2 4 - - 4
N 7 7 7 7 2 5 - - 3
O 8 8 8 8 2 6 - - 2
F 9 9 10 9 2 7 - - 1
Ne 10 10 10 10 2 8 - - 0
Na 11 11 12 11 2 8 1 - 1
Mg 12 12 12 12 2 8 2 - 2
Al 13 13 14 13 2 8 3 - 3
Si 14 14 14 14 2 8 4 - 4
P 15 15 16 15 2 8 5 - 3,5
S 16 16 16 16 2 8 6 - 2
Cl 17 17 18 17 2 8 7 - 1
Ar 18 18 22 18 2 8 8 0

87
fluorine to gain one electron instead of losing 6 neutrons, 6 u + 6 u = 12 u. Similarly, the
seven electrons. Hence, its valency is determined mass of aluminium is 27 u (13 protons+14
by subtracting seven electrons from the octet neutrons). The mass number is defined as the
and this gives you a valency of one for fluorine. sum of the total number of protons and
Valency can be calculated in a similar manner neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom. It
for oxygen. What is the valency of oxygen that is denoted by ‘A’. In the notation for an atom,
you get from this calculation? the atomic number, mass number and symbol
Therefore, an atom of each element has a of the element are to be written as:
definite combining capacity, called its valency.
Valency of the first eighteen elements is given Mass Number
A
in the last column of Table 4.1. Symbol of

Q
element X

uestion Atomic Number

Z

1. How will you find the valency 14

of chlorine, sulphur and For example, nitrogen is written as 7 N .

Q
magnesium?
uestions
1. If number of electrons in an atom
is 8 and number of protons is also
4.5 Atomic Number and Mass 8, then (i) what is the atomic
Number number of the atom? and (ii) what
is the charge on the atom?
2. With the help of Table 4.1, find
4.5.1 ATOMIC NUMBER out the mass number of oxygen
We know that protons are present in the and sulphur atom.
nucleus of an atom. It is the number of protons 4.6 Isotopes
of an atom, which determines its atomic
number. It is denoted by ‘Z’. All atoms of an In nature, a number of atoms of some
element have the same atomic number, Z. In elements have been identified, which have the
fact, elements are defined by the number of same atomic number but different mass
protons they possess. For hydrogen, Z = 1, numbers. For example, take the case of
because in hydrogen atom, only one proton is hydrogen atom, it has three atomic species,
present in the nucleus. Similarly, for carbon, namely protium ( 11 H), deuterium ( 12 H or D) and
Z = 6. Therefore, the atomic number is defined
3
as the total number of protons present in the tritium ( 1 H or T). The atomic number of each
nucleus of an atom. one is 1, but the mass number is 1, 2 and 3,
respectively. Other such examples are (i)
4.5.2 MASS NUMBER 12 14 35
carbon, 6 C and 6 C, (ii) chlorine, 17
Cl and
After studying the properties of the sub-
37
atomic particles of an atom, we can conclude 17
Cl, etc.
that mass of an atom is practically due to On the basis of these examples, isotopes
protons and neutrons alone. These are are defined as the atoms of the same element,
present in the nucleus of an atom. Hence having the same atomic number but different
protons and neutrons are also called mass numbers. Therefore, we can say that
nucleons. Therefore, the mass of an atom there are three isotopes of hydrogen atom,
resides in its nucleus. For example, mass of namely protium, deuterium and tritium.
carbon is 12 u because it has 6 protons and

88 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

 u+ u= u.
u
+

‘A’

A
X
Z

14
1. 7 N .

2.

‘Z’

Z=

( 11 H),
Z=
( 12 H or D)) 3
( 1 H or T).

12
6 C
14 35 37
6 C 17
Cl 17
Cl,

89
 Many elements consist of a mixture of Applications
isotopes. Each isotope of an element is a pure Since the chemical properties of all the
substance. The chemical properties of isotopes isotopes of an element are the same,
are similar but their physical properties are normally we are not concerned about
different. taking a mixture. But some isotopes have
Chlorine occurs in nature in two isotopic special properties which find them useful
forms, with masses 35 u and 37 u in the ratio in various fields. Some of them are :
of 3:1. Obviously, the question arises: what (i) An isotope of uranium is used as a fuel
should we take as the mass of chlorine atom? in nuclear reactors.
Let us find out. (ii) An isotope of cobalt is used in the
The average atomic mass of chlorine atom, treatment of cancer.
on the basis of above data, will be (iii) An isotope of iodine is used in the
treatment of goitre.
75 25
35 37
100 100 4.6.1 ISOBARS
Let us consider two elements — calcium,
105 37 142 atomic number 20, and argon, atomic number
35.5 u
4 4 4 18. The number of protons in these atoms is
different, but the mass number of both these
The mass of an atom of any natural element elements is 40. That is, the total number of
nucleons is the same in the atoms of this pair
is taken as the average mass of all the naturally
of elements. Atoms of different elements with
occuring atoms of that element. If an element
different atomic numbers, which have the same
has no isotopes, then the mass of its atom
mass number, are known as isobars.
would be the same as the sum of protons and

Q
neutrons in it. But if an element occurs in
isotopic forms, then we have to know the uestions
percentage of each isotopic form and then the 1. For the symbol H,D and T
average mass is calculated. ta bulate t hree sub-a tomic
This does not mean that any one atom of particles found in each of them.
chlorine has a fractional mass of 35.5 u. It 2. Write the electronic configuration
means that if you take a certain amount of of any one pair of isotopes and
chlorine, it will contain both isotopes of isobars.
chlorine and the average mass is 35.5 u.

What
you have
learnt
• Credit for the discovery of electron and proton goes to J.J.
Thomson and E.Goldstein, respectively.
• J.J. Thomson proposed that electrons are embedded in a
positive sphere.

90 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

 75 25
35 37
100 100

105 37 142
35.5 u
4 4 4

H,D T

•
E. .
•

91
 • Rutherford’s alpha-particle scattering experiment led to the
discovery of the atomic nucleus.
• Rutherford’s model of the atom proposed that a very tiny
nucleus is present inside the atom and electrons revolve
around this nucleus. The stability of the atom could not be
explained by this model.
• Neils Bohr’s model of the atom was more successful. He
proposed that electrons are distributed in different shells
with discrete energy around the nucleus. If the atomic shells
are complete, then the atom will be stable and less reactive.
• J. Chadwick discovered presence of neutrons in the nucleus
of an atom. So, the three sub-atomic particles of an atom
are: (i) electrons, (ii) protons and (iii) neutrons. Electrons
are negatively charged, protons are positively charged and
neutrons have no charges. The mass of an electron is about
1
times the mass of an hydrogen atom. The mass of a
2000
proton and a neutron is taken as one unit each.
• Shells of an atom are designated as K,L,M,N,….
• Valency is the combining capacity of an atom.
• The atomic number of an element is the same as the number
of protons in the nucleus of its atom.
• The mass number of an atom is equal to the number of
nucleons in its nucleus.
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element, which have different
mass numbers.
• Isobars are atoms having the same mass number but
different atomic numbers.
• Elements are defined by the number of protons they possess.

Exercises
1. Compare the properties of electrons, protons and neutrons.
2. What are the limitations of J.J. Thomson’s model of the atom?
3. What are the limitations of Rutherford’s model of the atom?
4. Describe Bohr’s model of the atom.
5. Compare all the proposed models of an atom given in this
chapter.
6. Summarise the rules for writing of distribution of electrons
in various shells for the first eighteen elements.
7. Define valency by taking examples of silicon and oxygen.

92 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

•

1
2000

• K, L, M, N,….
•
•

•
•

1.

93
 8. Explain with examples (i) Atomic number, (ii) Mass number,
(iii) Isotopes and iv) Isobars. Give any two uses of isotopes.
9. Na+ has completely filled K and L shells. Explain.
10. If bromine atom is available in the form of, say, two isotopes
79 81
35 Br (49.7%) and 35 Br (50.3%), calculate the average atomic
mass of bromine atom.
11. The average atomic mass of a sample of an element X is 16.2
16 18
u. What are the percentages of isotopes 8 X and 8 X in
the sample?
12. If Z = 3, what would be the valency of the element? Also,
name the element.
13. Composition of the nuclei of two atomic species X and Y are
given as under
X Y
Protons = 6 6
Neutrons = 6 8
Give the mass numbers of X and Y. What is the relation
between the two species?
14. For the following statements, write T for True and F for
False.
(a) J.J. Thomson proposed that the nucleus of an atom
contains only nucleons.
(b) A neutron is formed by an electron and a proton
combining together. Therefore, it is neutral.
1
(c) The mass of an electron is about times that of
2000
proton.
(d) An isotope of iodine is used for making tincture iodine,
which is used as a medicine.
Put tick ( ) against correct choice and cross ( ) against
wrong choice in questions 15, 16 and 17
15. Rutherford’s alpha-particle scattering experiment was
responsible for the discovery of
(a) Atomic Nucleus (b) Electron
(c) Proton (d) Neutron
16. Isotopes of an element have
(a) the same physical properties
(b) different chemical properties
(c) different number of neutrons
(d) different atomic numbers.

94 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

Na+ K L
79 81
35 Br (49.7%) 35 Br (50.3%).

X
16 18
8 X 8 X

Z=3

X Y
X Y

X Y

T F

1
2000

( )
( )

95
 17. Number of valence electrons in Cl– ion are:
(a) 16 (b) 8 (c) 17 (d) 18
18. Which one of the following is a correct electronic configuration
of sodium?
(a) 2,8 (b) 8,2,1 (c) 2,1,8 (d) 2,8,1
19. Complete the following table.

Atomic Mass Number Number Number Name of

Number Number of of of the Atomic
Neutrons Protons Electrons Species

9 - 10 - - -

16 32 - - - Sulphur

- 24 - 12 - -

- 2 - 1 - -

- 1 0 1 0 -

96 STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

 Cl–

9 - 10 - - -

16 32 - - -

- 24 - 12 - -

- 2 - 1 - -

- 1 0 1 0 -

97
C hapter 7
MOTION
In everyday life, we see some objects at rest Activity ______________ 7.1
and others in motion. Birds fly, fish swim,
• Discuss whether the walls of your
blood flows through veins and arteries, and
classroom are at rest or in motion.
cars move. Atoms, molecules, planets, stars
and galaxies are all in motion. We often Activity ______________ 7.2
perceive an object to be in motion when its
• Have you ever experienced that the
position changes with time. However, there train in which you are sitting appears
are situations where the motion is inferred to move while it is at rest?
through indirect evidences. For example, we • Discuss and share your experience.
infer the motion of air by observing the
movement of dust and the movement of leaves Think and Act
and branches of trees. What causes the
We sometimes are endangered by the
phenomena of sunrise, sunset and changing
motion of objects around us, especially
of seasons? Is it due to the motion of the
if tha t motion is erra tic and
earth? If it is true, why don’t we directly uncontrolled as observed in a flooded
perceive the motion of the earth? river, a hurricane or a tsunami. On the
An object may appear to be moving for other hand, controlled motion can be a
one person and stationary for some other. For service to human beings such as in the
the passengers in a moving bus, the roadside generation of hydro-electric power. Do
trees appear to be moving backwards. A you feel the necessity to study the
person standing on the road–side perceives erratic motion of some objects and
the bus alongwith the passengers as moving. learn to control them?
However, a passenger inside the bus sees his
fellow passengers to be at rest. What do these 7.1 Describing Motion
observations indicate? We describe the location of an object by
Most motions are complex. Some objects specifyin g a reference poin t. L et us
may move in a straight line, others may take understand this by an example. Let us
a circular path. Some may rotate and a few assume that a school in a village is 2 km north
others may vibrate. There may be situations of the railway station. We have specified the
involving a combination of these. In this position of the school with respect to the
chapter, we shall first learn to describe the railway station. In this example, the railway
motion of objects along a straight line. We station is the reference point. We could have
shall also learn to express such motions also chosen other reference points according
through simple equations and graphs. Later, to our convenience. Therefore, to describe the
we shall discuss w ays of describin g position of an object we need to specify a
circular motion. reference point called the origin.

98 MOTION
7

99
7.1.1 MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE magnitude of displacement = 35 km. Thus, the
magnitude of displacement (35 km) is not
The simplest type of motion is the motion equal to the path length (85 km). Further, we
along a straight line. We shall first learn to will notice that the magnitude of the
describe this by an example. Consider the displacement for a course of motion may be
motion of an object moving along a straight zero but the corresponding distance covered
path. The object starts its journey from O is not zero. If we consider the object to travel
which is treated as its reference point back to O, the final position coincides with
(Fig. 7.1). Let A, B and C represent the position the initial position, and therefore, the
of the object at different instants. At first, the displacement is zero. However, the distance
object moves through C and B and reaches A. covered in this journey is OA + AO = 60 km +
Then it moves back along the same path and 60 km = 120 km. Thus, two different physical
reaches C through B. quantities—the distance and the displacement,

Fig. 7.1: Positions of an object on a straight line path

The total path length covered by the object are used to describe the overall motion of an
is OA + AC, that is 60 km + 35 km = 95 km. object and to locate its final position with
This is the distance covered by the object. To reference to its initial position at a given time.
describe distance we need to specify only the
numerical value and not the direction of Activity ______________ 7.3
motion. There are certain quantities which • Take a metre scale and a long rope.
are described by specifying only their • Walk from one corner of a basket-ball
numerical values. The numerical value of a court to its oppposite corner along its
physical quantity is its magnitude. From this sides.
example, can you find out the distance of the • Measure the distance covered by you
final position C of the object from the initial and magnitude of the displacement.
position O? This difference will give you the • What difference would you notice
numerical value of the displacement of the between the two in this case?
object from O to C through A. The shortest
distance measured from the initial to the final
Activity ______________ 7.4
position of an object is known as • Automobiles are fitted with a device
the displacement. that shows the distance travelled. Such
Can the magnitude of the displacement be a device is known as an odometer. A
equal to the distance travelled by an object? car is driven from Bhubaneshwar to
Consider the example given in (Fig. 7.1). For New Delhi. The difference between the
final reading and the initial reading of
motion of the object from O to A, the distance the odometer is 1850 km.
covered is 60 km and the magnitude of • Find the magnitude of the displacement
displacement is also 60 km. During its motion between Bhubaneshwar and New Delhi
from O to A and back to B, the distance covered by using the Road Map of India.
= 60 km + 25 km = 85 km while the

100 MOTION
 O
O
A, B C
OA + AO =
C B
A
B C

OA + AC,

•
•

O •
C
A O C •

O A

•
O A
B

101
Q
uestions Table 7.1
1. An object has moved through a T ime Distance Distance
dista nce. C an it ha ve zero travelled by travelled by
displacement? If yes, support object A in m object B in m
your answer with an example. 9:30 am 10 12
2. A farmer moves along the
9:45 am 20 19
boundary of a square field of side
10:00 am 30 23
10 m in 40 s. What will be the
magnitude of displacement of the 10:15 am 40 35
farmer at the end of 2 minutes 20 10:30 am 50 37
seconds from his initial position? 10:45 am 60 41
3. Which of the following is true for 11:00 am 70 44
displacement?
(a) It cannot be zero.
(b) Its magnitude is greater than 7.2 Measuring the Rate of Motion
the distance travelled by the
object.

7.1.2 U N IF OR M M OTION AN D NON -

UNIFORM MOTION

Consider an object moving along a straight

line. Let it travel 5 m in the first second,
5 m more in the next second, 5 m in the
third second and 5 m in the fourth second.
In this case, the object covers 5 m in each
second. As the object covers equal distances
(a)
in equal intervals of time, it is said to be in
uniform motion. The time interval in this
motion should be small. In our day-to-day
life, we come across motions where objects
cover unequal distances in equal intervals
of time, for example, when a car is moving
on a crowded street or a person is jogging
in a park. These are some instances of
non-uniform motion.

Activity ______________ 7.5

• The data regarding the motion of two
different objects A and B are given in
Table 7.1.
• Examine them carefully and state
whether the motion of the objects is
(b)
uniform or non-uniform.
Fig. 7.2

102 MOTION
 7.1
A B

9:30 am 10 12
9:45 am 20 19
10:00 am 30 23
10:15 am 40 35
10:30 am 50 37
10:45 am 60 41
11:00 am 70 44

• A B

103
 Look at the situations given in Fig. 7.2. Total distance travelled
If the bowling speed is 143 km h–1 in Fig. Average speed = Total time taken
7.2(a) what does it mean? What do you
understand from the signboard in Fig. 7.2(b)? 32 m
Different objects may take different = 6 s = 5.33 m s
–1

amounts of time to cover a given distance.

Some of them move fast and some move Therefore, the average speed of the object
is 5.33 m s–1.
slowly. The rate at which objects move can
be different. Also, different objects can move
at the same rate. One of the ways of 7.2.1 SPEED WITH DIRECTION
measuring the rate of motion of an object is
to find out the distance travelled by the object The rate of motion of an object can be more
in unit time. This quantity is referred to as comprehensive if we specify its direction of
speed. The SI unit of speed is metre per motion along with its speed. The quantity that
second. This is represented by the symbol specifies both these aspects is called velocity.
m s–1 or m/s. The other units of speed include Velocity is the speed of an object moving in a
centimetre per second (cm s–1) and kilometre definite direction. The velocity of an object
per hour (km h–1). To specify the speed of an can be uniform or variable. It can be changed
object, we require only its magnitude. The by changing the object’s speed, direction of
speed of an object need not be constant. In motion or both. When an object is moving
most cases, objects will be in non-uniform along a straight line at a variable speed, we
motion. Therefore, we describe the rate of can express the magnitude of its rate of
motion of such objects in terms of their motion in terms of average velocity. It is
average speed. The average speed of an object calculated in the same way as we calculate
is obtained by dividing the total distance average speed.
travelled by the total time taken. That is, In case the velocity of the object is
Total distance travelled changing at a uniform rate, then average
average speed =
Total time taken velocity is given by the arithmetic mean of
initial velocity and final velocity for a given
If an object travels a distance s in time t then
period of time. That is,
its speed v is,
initial velocity + final velocity
s average velocity =
v= (7.1) 2
t
Let us understand this by an example. A u+v
car travels a distance of 100 km in 2 h. Its Mathematically, v av = (7.2)
average speed is 50 km h–1. The car might 2
not have travelled at 50 km h–1 all the time. where vav is the average velocity, u is the initial
Sometimes it might have travelled faster and velocity and v is the final velocity of the object.
sometimes slower than this. Speed and velocity have the same units,
that is, m s–1 or m/s.
Example 7.1 An object travels 16 m in 4 s
and then another 16 m in 2 s. What is Activity ______________ 7.6
the average speed of the object? • Measure the time it takes you to walk
Solution: from your house to your bus stop or
the school. If you consider that your
Total distance travelled by the object = average walking speed is 4 km h–1,
16 m + 16 m = 32 m estimate the distance of the bus stop
Total time taken = 4 s + 2 s = 6 s or school from your house.

104 MOTION
 32
= 6 =

SI

t s
v
s
v= (7.1)
t
u+v
v av = (7.2)
2
vav u
v

105
 Activity _______________ 7.7 km 1000 m 1h
= 50
• At a time when it is cloudy, there may h 1km 3600 s
be frequent thunder and lightning. The
sound of thunder takes some time to = 13.9 m s –1

reach you after you see the lightning. The average speed of the car is
• Can you answer why this happens? 50 km h–1 or 13.9 m s–1.
• Measure this time interval using a
digital wrist watch or a stop watch.
• Calculate the distance of the nearest Example 7.3 Usha swims in a 90 m long
point of lightning. (Speed of sound in pool. She covers 180 m in one minute

Q
air = 346 m s-1.) by swimming from one end to the other
and back along the same straight path.
uestions Find the average speed and average
velocity of Usha.
1. Distinguish between speed and Solution:
velocity. Total distance covered by Usha in 1 min
2. Under what condition(s) is the is 180 m.
magnitude of average velocity of Displacement of Usha in 1 min = 0 m
an object equal to its average
speed? Total distance covered
Average speed =
3. What does the odometer of an Total time taken
automobile measure?
4. What does the path of an object 180 m 180 m 1 min
= =
look like when it is in uniform 1min 1min 60 s
motion? = 3 m s-1
5. During an experiment, a signal
from a spaceship reached the Displacement
ground station in five minutes. Average velocity =
Total time taken
What was the distance of the
spaceship from the gro und 0m
station? The signal travels at the =
60 s
speed of light, that is, 3 108
m s–1. = 0 m s–1
The average speed of Usha is 3 m s–1
and her average velocity is 0 m s–1.
Example 7.2 The odometer of a car reads
2000 km at the start of a trip and
2400 km at the end of the trip. If the 7.3 Rate of Change of Velocity
trip took 8 h, calculate the average
speed of the car in km h–1 and m s–1. During uniform motion of an object along a
straight line, the velocity remains constant
Solution: with time. In this case, the change in velocity
Distance covered by the car, of the object for any time interval is zero.
s = 2400 km – 2000 km = 400 km However, in non-uniform motion, velocity
Time elapsed, t = 8 h varies with time. It has different values at
Average speed of the car is, different instants and at different points of
the path. Thus, the change in velocity of the
s 400 km
vav = object during any time interval is not zero.
t 8h Can we now express the change in velocity of
= 50 km h–1 an object?

106 MOTION
 1000 1
50
• 1 3600

•
•

180 180 1
=
1 1 60

0
60
3 108

s=
t=

s 400
vav =
t 8

107
 To answer such a question, we have to attain a velocity of 6 m s–1 in 30 s. Then
introduce another physical quantity called he applies brakes such that the velocity
acceleration, which is a measure of the of the bicycle comes down to 4 m s-1 in
change in the velocity of an object per unit the next 5 s. Calculate the acceleration
time. That is, of the bicycle in both the cases.
change in velocity Solution:
acceleration =
time taken In the first case:
If the velocity of an object changes from initial velocity, u = 0 ;
an initial value u to the final value v in time t, final velocity, v = 6 m s–1 ;
the acceleration a is, time, t = 30 s .
From Eq. (7.3), we have
v–u
a= (7.3) v–u
t a=
t
Th is kin d of motion is known as
accelerated motion. The acceleration is taken Substituting the given values of u,v and
to be positive if it is in the direction of velocity t in the above equation, we get
and negative when it is opposite to the 6m s
–1
– 0m s
–1

direction of velocity. The S I un it of a =

acceleration is m s–2 . 30 s
If an object travels in a straight line and
= 0.2 m s–2
its velocity increases or decreases by equal
amounts in equal intervals of time, then the In the second case:
acceleration of the object is said to be initial velocity, u = 6 m s–1;
uniform. The motion of a freely falling body final velocity, v = 4 m s–1;
is an example of uniformly accelerated time, t = 5 s.
motion. On the other hand, an object can 4m s
–1
– 6m s
–1

travel with non-uniform acceleration if its Then, a =

velocity changes at a non-uniform rate. For 5s
example, if a car travelling along a straight
= –0.4 m s–2 .
road increases its speed by unequal amounts
The acceleration of the bicycle in the
in equal intervals of time, then the car is said
first case is 0.2 m s–2 and in the second
to be moving with non-uniform acceleration.
case, it is –0.4 m s–2.

Q
Activity ______________ 7.8
In your everyday life you come across uestions
a range of motions in which
(a) acceleration is in the direction of 1. When will you say a body is in
motion, (i) uniform acceleration? (ii) non-
(b) ac celeration i s a gainst the uniform acceleration?
direction of motion, 2. A bus decreases its speed from
(c) acceleration is uniform, 80 km h–1 to 60 km h–1 in 5 s.
(d) acceleration is non-uniform. Find the acceleration of the bus.
Can you identify one example each 3. A train starting from a railway
for the above type of motion?
station and moving with uniform
acceleration attains a speed
Example 7.4 Starting from a stationary 40 km h–1 in 10 minutes. Find its
position, Rahul paddles his bicycle to acceleration.

108 MOTION
 u=0;
v=
t u
t=
v
v–u
a= (7.3) v–u
t a=
t
u,v t

(6 0 )
a
SI 30

u=
v=
t=

(4 6 )
a
5

i
ii

109
 distance travelled by the object is directly
7.4 Graphical Representation of proportional to time taken. Thus, for uniform
Motion speed, a graph of distance travelled against
time is a straight line, as shown in Fig. 7.3.
Graphs provide a convenient method to The portion OB of the graph shows that the
present basic information about a variety of distance is increasing at a uniform rate. Note
events. For example, in the telecast of a that, you can also use the term uniform
one-day cricket match, vertical bar graphs velocity in place of uniform speed if you take
show the run rate of a team in each over. As the magnitude of displacement equal to the
you have studied in mathematics, a straight distance travelled by the object along the
line graph helps in solving a linear equation y-axis.
having two variables. We can use the distance-time graph to
To describe the motion of an object, we determine the speed of an object. To do so,
can use line graphs. In this case, line graphs consider a small part AB of the distance-time
show dependence of one physical quantity, graph shown in Fig 7.3. Draw a line parallel
such as distance or velocity, on another to the x-axis from point A and another line
quantity, such as time. parallel to the y-axis from point B. These two
lines meet each other at point C to form a
7.4.1 DISTANCE–TIME GRAPHS triangle ABC. Now, on the graph, AC denotes
the time interval (t2 – t1) while BC corresponds
The change in the position of an object with
to the distance (s2 – s1). We can see from the
time can be represented on the distance-time
graph that as the object moves from the point
graph adopting a convenient scale of choice.
A to B, it covers a distance (s2 – s1) in time
In this graph, time is taken along the x–axis
(t2 – t1). The speed, v of the object, therefore
and distance is taken along the y-axis.
can be represented as
Distance-time graphs can be employed under
various conditions where objects move with s 2 – s1
uniform speed, non-uniform speed, remain v= (7.4)
t 2 – t1
at rest etc.
We can also plot the distance-time graph
for accelerated motion. Table 7.2 shows the
distance travelled by a car in a time interval
of two seconds.

Table 7.2: Distance travelled by a

car at regular time intervals
Time in seconds Distance in metres

0 0
2 1
4 4
Fig. 7.3: Distance-time graph of an object moving 6 9
with uniform speed
8 16
We know that when an object travels equal 10 25
distances in equal intervals of time, it moves
with uniform speed. This shows that the 12 36

110 MOTION
 OB
y

AB
A x
B y -
ABC
C
AC
(t2 - t1 ) BC (s 2- s1 )
A B
x (t2 - t1) (s2 -
s1 )
y
v
s 2 – s1
v= (7.4)
t 2 – t1

0 0
2 1
4 4
:
6 9
8 16
10 25
12 36

111
 is represented along the y-axis. If the object
moves at uniform velocity, the height of its
velocity-time graph will not change with time
(Fig. 7.5). It will be a straight line parallel to
the x-axis. Fig. 7.5 shows the velocity-time
graph for a car moving with uniform velocity
of 40 km h–1.
We know that the product of velocity and
time give displacement of an object moving
with uniform velocity. The area enclosed by
velocity-time graph and the time axis will be
equal to the magnitude of the displacement.
To know the distance moved by the car
between time t1 and t2 using Fig. 7.5, draw
perpendiculars from the points corresponding
to the time t1 and t2 on the graph. The velocity
of 40 km h–1 is represented by the height AC
or BD and the time (t2 – t1) is represented by
Fig. 7.4: Distance-time graph for a car moving with the length AB.
non-uniform speed So, the distance s moved by the car in
time (t2 – t1) can be expressed as
s = AC × CD
The distance-time graph for the motion = [(40 km h–1) × (t2 – t1) h]
of the car is shown in Fig. 7.4. Note that the = 40 (t2– t1) km
shape of this graph is different from the earlier = area of the rectangle ABDC (shaded
distance-time graph (Fig. 7.3) for uniform in Fig. 7.5).
motion. The nature of this graph shows non- We can also study about uniformly
linear variation of the distance travelled by accelerated motion by plotting its velocity–
the car with time. Thus, the graph shown in time graph. Consider a car being driven along
Fig 7.4 represents motion with non-uniform a straight road for testing its engine. Suppose
speed. a person sitting next to the driver records its
velocity after every 5 seconds by noting the
7.4.2 VELOCITY-TIME GRAPHS reading of the speedometer of the car. The
The variation in velocity with time for an object velocity of the car, in km h–1 as well as in
moving in a straight line can be represented m s–1, at different instants of time is shown
by a velocity-time graph. In this graph, time is in table 7.3.
represented along the x-axis and the velocity
Table 7.3: Velocity of a car at
regular instants of time
Time Velocity of the car
–1
(s) (m s–1) (km h )
0 0 0
5 2.5 9
10 5.0 18
15 7.5 27
20 10.0 36
Fig. 7.5: Velocity-time graph for uniform motion 25 12.5 45
of a car
30 15.0 54

112 MOTION
 x

t t
t t
AC
BD
t t AB
: t t
s = AC × CD
= [(40 ) × (t2 – t1) ]
= 40 (t2– t1)
= ABDC

x
y
km s–1

0 0 0
5 2.5 9
10 5.0 18
15 7.5 27
20 10.0 36
:
25 12.5 45
30 15.0 54

113
 In this case, the velocity-time graph for
the motion of the car is shown in Fig. 7.6.
The nature of the graph shows that velocity
changes by equal amounts in equal intervals
of time. Thus, for all uniformly accelerated
motion, the velocity-time graph is a
straight line.
Velocity (km h )
–1

Fig. 7.7: Velocity-time graphs of an object in non-

uniformly accelerated motion.

Fig. 7.7(a) shows a velocity-time graph that

Fig. 7.6: Velocity-time graph for a car moving with represents the motion of an object whose
uniform accelerations. velocity is decreasing with time while
Fig. 7.7 (b) shows the velocity-time graph
You can also determine the distance representing the non-uniform variation of
moved by the car from its velocity-time graph. velocity of the object with time. Try to interpret
The area under the velocity-time graph gives these graphs.
the distance (magnitude of displacement)
moved by the car in a given interval of time.
Activity ______________ 7.9
If the car would have been moving with The times of arrival and departure of
uniform velocity, the distance travelled by it a train at three stations A, B and C
would be represented by the area ABCD and the distance of stations B and C
under the graph (Fig. 7.6). Since the from station A are given in Table 7.4.
magnitude of the velocity of the car is Table 7.4: Distances of stations B
changing due to acceleration, the distance s and C from A and times of arrival
travelled by the car will be given by the area
and departure of the train
ABCDE under the velocity-time graph
(Fig. 7.6). Station Distance Time of Time of
That is, from A arrival departure
s = area ABCDE (km) (hours) (hours)
= area of the rectangle ABCD + area of
A 0 08:00 08:15
the triangle ADE
B 120 11:15 11:30
1 C 180 13:00 13:15
= AB × BC + (AD × DE)
2
Plot and interpret the distance-time
In the case of non-uniformly accelerated graph for the train assuming that its
motion, velocity-time graphs can have any motion between any two stations is
shape. uniform.

114 MOTION
 A, B C

ABCD A B C

A B C

ABCDE

A
S = ABCDE
ABCD ADE
A 0 08:00 08:15
B 120 11:15 11:30
1 C 180 13:00 13:15
= AB × BC + (AD × DE)
2

115
 Activity _____________ 7.10 4. What is the quantity which is
measured by the area occupied
Feroz and his sister Sania go to school below the velocity-time graph?
on their bicycles. Both of them start at
the same time from their home but take
different times to reach the school 7.5 Equations of Motion
although they follow the same route.
When an object moves along a straight line
Table 7.5 shows the distance travelled
by them in different times with uniform acceleration, it is possible to
relate its velocity, acceleration during motion
and the distance covered by it in a certain
Table 7.5: Distance covered by time interval by a set of equations known as
Feroz and Sania at different the equations of motion. For convenience, a
times on their bicycles set of three such equations are given below:
v = u + at (7.5)
Time Distance Distance s = ut + ½ at2 (7.6)
travelled travelled 2 a s = v2 – u 2 (7.7)
where u is the initial velocity of the object which
by Feroz by Sania
moves with uniform acceleration a for time t,
(km) (km)
v is the final velocity, and s is the distance
travelled by the object in time t. Eq. (7.5)
8:00 am 0 0
describes the velocity-time relation and Eq.
8:05 am 1.0 0.8 (7.6) represents the position-time relation. Eq.
(7.7), which represents the relation between the
8:10 am 1.9 1.6 position and the velocity, can be obtained from
8:15 am 2.8 2.3 Eqs. (7.5) and (7.6) by eliminating t. These
three equations can be derived by graphical
8:20 am 3.6 3.0 method.
8:25 am – 3.6
Example 7.5 A train starting from rest
attains a velocity of 72 km h–1 in 5
Plot the distance-time graph for their
minutes. Assuming that the acceleration
motions on the same scale and
is uniform, find (i) the acceleration and

Q
interpret.
(ii) the distance travelled by the train for
attaining this velocity.
uestions Solution:
1. What is the nature of the
We have been given
distance-time graphs for uniform
u = 0 ; v = 72 km h–1 = 20 m s-1 and
and non-uniform motion of an
t = 5 minutes = 300 s.
object?
(i) From Eq. (7.5) we know that
2. What can you say about the
motion of an object whose v–u
a=
distance-time graph is a straight t
line parallel to the time axis?
3. What can you say about the 20 m s –1 – 0 m s –1
=
motion of an object if its speed- 300 s
time graph is a straight line 1
parallel to the time axis? = m s –2
15

116 MOTION
 v = u + at (7.5)
s = ut + ½ at2 (7.6)
2 a s = v2 – u 2 (7.7)
u t
0
0 v
s t
8:00 am 0 0
8:05 am 1.0 0.8
8:10 am 1.9 1.6
8:15 am 2.8 2.3 t
8:20 am 3.6 3.0
8:25 am – 3.6

i
ii

u= v=
t=
v–u
(i) a=
t

20 0
300

1 2

15

117
 (ii) From Eq. (7.7) we have Example 7.7 The brakes applied to a car
2 a s = v 2 – u2 = v 2 – 0
produce an acceleration of 6 m s-2 in the
Thus,
opposite direction to the motion. If the
2 car takes 2 s to stop after the application
v
s= of brakes, calculate the distance it
2a travels during this time.
–1 2
(20 m s ) Solution:
=
–2
2×(1/15) m s We have been given
a = – 6 m s–2 ; t = 2 s and v = 0 m s–1.
= 3000 m From Eq. (7.5) we know that
= 3 km
v = u + at
1 0 = u + (– 6 m s–2) × 2 s
The acceleration of the train is m s– 2
15 or u = 12 m s–1 .
and the distance travelled is 3 km. From Eq. (7.6) we get
1
s=ut+ at2
Example 7.6 A car accelerates uniformly 2
–1 –1
from 18 km h to 36 km h in 5 s. 1
Calculate (i) the acceleration and (ii) the = (12 m s–1 ) (2 s) + (–6 m s–2 ) (2 s)2
2
distance covered by the car in that time. = 24 m – 12 m
= 12 m
Solution: Thus, the car will move 12 m before it
We are given that stops after the application of brakes. Can
u = 18 km h–1 = 5 m s–1 you now appreciate why drivers are
v = 36 km h–1 = 10 m s–1 and cautioned to maintain some distance
t = 5s. between vehicles while travelling on the

Q
road?
(i) From Eq. (7.5) we have

a=
v–u
t
uestions
1. A bus starting from rest moves
10 m s-1 – 5 m s-1
= with a uniform acceleration of
5s
0.1 m s-2 for 2 minutes. Find (a)
= 1 m s–2 the speed acquired, (b) the
(ii) From Eq. (7.6) we have distance travelled.
1 2. A train is travelling at a speed
s=ut+ at 2
2 of 90 km h–1. Brakes are applied
so as to produce a uniform
1 acceleration of – 0.5 m s-2. Find
= 5 m s–1 5 s + 1 m s–2 (5 s)2
2 how far the train will go before it
= 25 m + 12.5 m is brought to rest.
3. A trolley, while going down an
= 37.5 m
–2 inclined plane, has an
The acceleration of the car is 1 m s and
acceleration of 2 cm s-2. What will
the distance covered is 37.5 m. be its velocity 3 s after the start?

118 MOTION
ii
2 a s = v 2 – u2 = v 2 – 0

v2
s
2a

(20 )2 a=– t=2 v=

2
2(1/15)
v = u + at
– t=
u=
1
15
1
s=ut+ at2
2

1
(–
2

i ii

u=
v=
t=
i
v–u
a=
t

10 5
5

ii
1
s=ut+ at 2
2
1
2

119
 4. A racing car has a uniform In order to keep himself on track, he quickly
acceleration of 4 m s-2. What changes his speed at the corners. How many
distance will it cover in 10 s after times will the athlete have to change his
start? direction of motion, while he completes one
5. A stone is thrown in a vertically round? It is clear that to move in a rectangular
upward direction with a velocity
track once, he has to change his direction of
of 5 m s-1. If the acceleration of
the stone during its motion is 10 motion four times.
m s–2 in the downward direction, Now, suppose instead of a rectangular
what will be the height attained track, the athlete is running along a
by the stone and how much time hexagonal shaped path ABCDEF, as shown
will it take to reach there? in Fig. 7.8(b). In this situation, the athlete will
have to change his direction six times while
7.6 Uniform Circular Motion he completes one round. What if the track
When the velocity of an object changes, we say was not a hexagon but a regular octagon,
that the object is accelerating. The change in with eigh t equal sides as sh own by
the velocity could be due to change in its ABCDEFGH in Fig. 7.8(c)? It is observed that
magnitude or the direction of the motion or as the number of sides of the track increases
both. Can you think of an example when an the athelete has to take turns more and more
object does not change its magnitude of often. What would happen to the shape of the
velocity but only its direction of motion? track as we go on increasing the number of
sides indefinitely? If you do this you will
notice that the shape of the track approaches
the shape of a circle and the length of each of
the sides will decrease to a point. If the athlete
moves with a velocity of constant magnitude
along the circular path, the only change in
(a) Rectangular track (b) Hexagonal track
his velocity is due to the change in the
direction of motion. The motion of the athlete
moving along a circular path is, therefore, an
example of an accelerated motion.
We know that the circumference of a circle
of radius r is given by 2 r . If the athlete takes
t seconds to go once around the circular path
of radius r, the speed v is given by
(c) Octagonal shaped track (d) A circular track
2 r
Fig. 7.8: The motion of an athlete along closed tracks v= (7.8)
of different shapes. t

Let us consider an example of the motion When an object moves in a circular path
of a body along a closed path. Fig 8.9 (a) with uniform speed, its motion is called
shows the path of an athlete along a uniform circular motion.
rectangular track ABCD. Let us assume that
the athlete runs at a uniform speed on the
straight parts AB, BC, CD and DA of the track.

120 MOTION
 ABCDEF

ABCDEFGH

(a)
(b)

r 2 r
r
(c) (d)
t
v

2 r
v= (7.8)
t
ABCD
AB, BC, CD DA

121
Activity ______________ 7.11 If you carefully note, on being released
the stone moves along a straight line
Take a piece of thread and tie a small tangential to the circular path. This is
piece of stone at one of its ends. Move because once the stone is released, it
the stone to describe a circular path
continues to move along the direction it has
with constant speed by holding the
thread at the other end, as shown in been moving at that instant. This shows that
Fig. 7.9. the direction of motion changed at every point
when the stone was moving along the circular
path.
When an athlete throws a hammer or a
discus in a sports meet, he/she holds the
hammer or the discus in his/her hand and
gives it a circular motion by rotating his/
her own body. Once released in the desired
Fig. 7.9: A stone describing a circular path with
direction, the hammer or discus moves in
a velocity of constant magnitude.
the direction in which it was moving at the
Now, let the stone go by releasing the time it was released, just like the piece of
thread. stone in the activity described above. There
Can you tell the direction in which are many more familiar examples of objects
the stone moves after it is released?
moving under uniform circular motion,
By repeating the activity for a few
times and releasing the stone at such as the motion of the moon and the
different positions of the circular earth, a satellite in a circular orbit around
path, check whether the direction in the earth, a cyclist on a circular track at
which the stone moves remains the constant speed and so on.
same or not.

What
you have
learnt
Motion is a change of position; it can be described in terms
of the distance moved or the displacement.
The motion of an object could be uniform or non-uniform
depending on whether its velocity is constant or changing.
The speed of an object is the distance covered per unit time,
and velocity is the displacement per unit time.
The acceleration of an object is the change in velocity per
unit time.
Uniform and non-uniform motions of objects can be shown
through graphs.
The motion of an object moving at uniform acceleration can
be described with the help of the following equations, namely
v = u + at
s = ut + ½ at2
2as = v2 – u2

122 MOTION
v = u + at
s = ut + ½ at2
2as = v2 – u2

123
 where u is initial velocity of the object, which moves with
uniform acceleration a for time t, v is its final velocity and s
is the distance it travelled in time t.
If an object moves in a circular path with uniform speed, its
motion is called uniform circular motion.

Exercises
1. An athlete completes one round of a circular track of diameter
200 m in 40 s. What will be the distance covered and the
displacement at the end of 2 minutes 20 s?
2. Joseph jogs from one end A to the other end B of a straight
300 m road in 2 minutes 30 seconds and then turns around
and jogs 100 m back to point C in another 1 minute. What
are Joseph’s average speeds and velocities in jogging (a)
from A to B and (b) from A to C?
3. Abdul, while driving to school, computes the average speed
for his trip to be 20 km h–1. On his return trip along the
same route, there is less traffic and the average speed is
30 km h–1. What is the average speed for Abdul’s trip?
4. A motorboat starting from rest on a lake accelerates in a
straight line at a constant rate of 3.0 m s–2 for 8.0 s. How
far does the boat travel during this time?
5. A driver of a car travelling at 52 km h–1 applies the brakes.
(a) Shade the area on the graph that represents the distance
travelled by the car during the period.
(b) Which part of the graph represents uniform motion of
the car?
6. Fig 7.10 shows the distance-time graph of three objects A,B
and C. Study the graph and answer the following questions:

Fig. 7.10

124 MOTION
 u t a
v t s.

A
B
C a A
B (b) A C

A, B C

125
 (a) Which of the three is travelling the fastest?
(b) Are all three ever at the same point on the road?
(c) How far has C travelled when B passes A?
(d) How far has B travelled by the time it passes C?
7. Which of the three is travelling the fastest?increases
uniformly at the rate of 10 m s-2, with what velocity will it
strike the ground? After what time will it strike the ground?
8. The speed-time graph for a car is shown is Fig. 7.11.
(a) Find how far does the car travel in the first 4 seconds.

Fig. 7.11

Shade the area on the graph that represents the distance

travelled by the car during the period.
(b) Which part of the graph represents uniform motion of
the car?
9. State which of the following situations are possible and give
an example for each of these:
(a) an object with a constant acceleration but with zero
velocity
(b) an object moving with an acceleration but with uniform
speed.
(c) an object moving in a certain direction with an
acceleration in the perpendicular direction.
10. An artificial satellite is moving in a circular orbit of radius
42250 km. Calculate its speed if it takes 24 hours to revolve
around the earth.

126 MOTION
B, A C
C B

127
 Answers
Chapter 3
4. (a) MgCl2

(b) CaO

(c) Cu (NO3)2

(d) AlCl3

(e) CaCO 3

5. (a) Calcium, Oxygen

(b) Hydrogen, Bromine

(c) Sodium, Hydrogen, Carbon and Oxygen

(d) Potassium, Sulphur and Oxygen

6. (a) 26 g

(b) 256 g

(c) 124 g

(d) 36.5 g

(e) 63 g

Chapter 4

10. 80.006

16 18
11. 8 =90% , 8 10%

12. Valency = 1, Name of the element is lithium,

13. Mass number of X =12, Y=14, Relationship is Isotope.

14. (a) F (b) F (c) T (d) F

15. (a) (b) (c) (d)

16. (a) (b) (c) (d)

17. (a) (b) (c) (d)

18. (a) (b) (c) (d)

128 MOTION
 4. (a) MgCl2

(b) CaO

(c) Cu (NO3)2

(d) AlCl3

(e) CaCO 3

5. (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

6. (a) 26 g

(b) 256 g

(c) 124 g

(d) 36.5 g

(e) 63 g

10. 80.006

16 18
11. 8 =90% , 8 10%

12.

13. X =12 Y=14

14. (a) F (b) F (c) T (d) F

15. (a) (b) (c) (d)

16. (a) (b) (c) (d)

17. (a) (b) (c) (d)

18. (a) (b) (c) (d)

129
19.

Atomic Mass Number Number Number Name of the

Number Number of of of Atomic
Neutrons Protons Electrons Species

9 19 10 9 9 Fluorine

16 32 16 16 16 Sulphur

12 24 12 12 12 Magnesium

01 2 01 1 01 Deuterium

01 1 0 1 0 Protium

Chapter 7

1. (a) distance = 2200 m; displacement = 200 m.

–1
2. (a) average speed = average velocity = 2.00 m s
–1 –1
(b) average speed = 1.90 m s ; average velocity = 0.952 m s
–1
3. average speed = 24 km h

4. distance travelled = 96 m
–1
7. velocity = 20 m s ; time = 2 s
–1
10. speed = 3.07 km s

130 MOTION
19.

9 19 10 9 9

16 32 16 16 16

12 24 12 12 12

01 2 01 1 01

01 1 0 1 0

1. (a) = 2200 ; = 200 .

–1
2. (a) = = 2.00

–1 –1
(b) = 1.90 ; = 0.952

–1
3. = 24

4. = 96

–1
7. = 20 m s ; =2

–1
10. = 3.07

131
 FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES
Fundamental duties: It shall be the duty of every citizen of India-
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National
Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India
transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory
to the dignity of women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to
have compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence.
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation
constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement;
(k) who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to his child or, as the case may
be ward between the age of six and fourteen years;
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009
The RTE Act provides for the right of children to free and Compulsory Education to every child in the
age group of 6 – 14 years which came into force from 1st April 2010 in Andhra Pradesh.
Important provisions of RTE Act
• Ensure availability of schools within the reach of the children. •Improve School infrastructure facilities.
• Enroll children in the class appropriate to his / her age.
• Children have a right to receive special training in order to be at par with other children.
• Providing appropriate facilities for the education of children with special needs on par with other children.
• No child shall be liable to pay any kind of fee or charges or expenses which may prevent him or her from
pursuing and completing the elementary education. No test for admitting the children in schools.
• No removal of name and repetition of the child in the same class.
• No child admitted in a school shall be held back in any class or expel from school till the completion of
elementary education. • No child shall be subjected to physical punishment or mental harassment.
• Admission shall not be denied or delayed on the ground that the transfer and other certificates have not
been provided on time. • Eligible candidates alone shall be appointed as teachers.
• The teaching learning process and evaluation procedures shall promote achievement of appropriate
competencies.
• No board examinations shall be conducted to the children till the completion of elementary education.
• Children can continue in the schools even after 14 years until completion of elementary education.
• No discrimination and related practices towards children belonging to backward and marginalized
communities.
• The curriculum and evaluation procedures must be in conformity with the values enshrined in the constitution
and make the child free of fear and anxiety and help the child to express views freely.
132 MOTION