Technical Writing

Lecture 1

Introduction to Technical Writing

• Objectives
• Main Learning Outcomes
• Textbook
• Gradings
• General Rules
• Course description
• Reasons for this Course
• Definition
• Features of Technical Writing
• Engineers and Writing 1
Objectives (1/2)

▪ Demonstrate improved competence in Standard

Written English:

▪ Grammar, sentence and paragraph structure, and

document design (including the use of the visual);

▪ Analyze a variety of professional situations and

produce appropriate texts in response.
2
Objectives (2/2)

▪ Identify and practice the stages required to produce competent,

professional writing through planning, drafting, revising, and editing;

▪ Determine and implement the appropriate research methods for

each writing task;

3
Main Learning Outcomes

▪ Providing students with background and guidelines to write systematic

technical engineering and scientific documents (ABET #3).

▪ Apply the basic standards components of communication via

memoranda, letters, resume, and Emails (ABET #3).

▪ Learning systematic writing process, how to use suitable referencing

software, to revise and to paraphrase technical documents (ABET
#4).

4
Sources: Textbook

Technical Writing: A practical Guide

Title/ Publisher
for Engineers and scientits

Author/Year Philip Laplante

5
 Sources: References
▪ Pocket Book of Technical Writing for
Engineers & Scientists by Leo Finkelstein

▪ Technical Writing: A Resource for Technical

Writers at All Levels, Second Edition 2010,
Kaplan Publishing

▪ Handbook of technical writing, ninth edition,

Gerald J. Alred, Charles T. Brusaw, Walter E.
Oliu
▪ Engineers’ Guide to Technical Writing,
Kenneth G. Budinski, 2001 6
Grading

Class activities 20%

Mid-term
25%
(Week 8)
Quizzes 15%

Final exam 40%

7
 GENERAL RULES

▪ Each student must submit his own hand-written solution of the

homework and assignments. Copying of the solutions from other
student(s) or other resources will be considered as plagiarism.

▪ Attendance is mandatory; 25% is the maximum absence (with excuse)

limit allowed by the rules.

▪ Students should obey the rules of Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal

University (IAU) regarding the attendance and discipline during classes
and exams.
8
Course Contents

Introduction to Technical Writing

The Nature of Technical Writing

Technical Writing Basics and writing process

Eliminating Noise in Writing

Advanced Grammar

Punctuation in Depth

9
Course Contents

Writing Mechanics

Business Communications: Email and Memoranda

Job Applications: CV, Letters

Technical Reporting: Formal and informal report

Referencing

Using Graphical Elements

Engineering Your Online Reputation

10
Reason for this Course

▪ When our students are employed and have to write on the job, will
they write essays?

▪ No, but many of the writing skills already

teach are applicable to technical writing.

▪ What takes the place of the essay?

▪ Technical writing—memos, letters, reports, e-mail, proposals,

instructions, even web pages.
11
Reason for this Course
▪ Is technical writing a necessary component of every employee’s professional
skill?
▪ Yes, the employers prefer to hire people who can communicate effectively, both
in writing and orally.

The time writing increase when the

responsibilities
increase

Employee will spend 20% of time writing

Managers spend up to 50% of their time writing. 12
 Reasons for this course
What is the purpose of technical writing?
Technical writing is intended to communicate something to a specific
audience, for a specific purpose.
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&

The delivery of technical information to readers in a manner that is

adapted to their needs, level of understanding, and background.
13
Technical writing: A definition (1)

▪ Technical writing is not literature; it’s neither prose which recounts

the fictional tales of characters nor poetry which expresses deeply
felt.
▪ Technical writing is neither an expressive essay narrating an
occurrence nor an expository essay analyzing a topic.
▪ Technical writing is not journalism, written to report the news.
▪ Technical writing serves valuable purposes in the workplace and it is
often involving a teamwork.
▪ It is a style of writing used in many fields.

14
Technical writing: A definition (2)

Technical writing transfers specific information about a technical subject to a

specific audience for a specific purpose.

&
The delivery of technical information to readers in a manner that is adapted to
their needs, level of understanding, and background.

The term “technical” refers to knowledge that is not widespread, that is for experts
and specialists.

Therefore, Technical Writing is an essential communication skill for all

professionals.
15
Who Writes Technical Documentation?

▪ Engineers, scientists, architects, physicians, lab technicians, nurses,

farmers, lawyers, and experts of all types.

Everyone is a technical
writer, at least
occasionally
16
Technical Writing is employed to:
▪ Provide; information without necessarily expecting any action on
the part of reader(s).
▪ Request; permission, information, approval, help, or funding.
▪ Instruct; information in the form of directions, instructions,
procedures (so that the readers will be able to do something).
▪ Propose; a plan of action or respond to a request for a proposal.
▪ Recommend; an action or series of actions based on alternative
possibilities that I have evaluated.
▪ Persuade; convince the readers or change their behaviors.
▪ Record; documents for something was researched, tested,
altered, or repaired. 17
Features of technical writing

Technical writing has form and style requirements.

Technical writing does not employ humor.

Technical writing is objective oriented*.

Technical writing does not blame people.

Technical writing requires facts or data**.

Technical writing never hides facts.

18
 Engineers And Writing

▪ Communication skills are of extreme importance.

▪ No matter how excellent engineering skills and knowledge you

have.

▪ You are not going to see benefits of your ideas without writing
and publishing them.

▪ Poor communication skills is a main problem for many

engineers, both young and experienced. Also, it can be a career
showstopper.
19
Engineers And Writing

▪ To be a successful engineer you must be able to Write and Speak

effectively.

▪ Many engineers and engineering students dislike writing.

▪ They thought that they go into engineering because they want to

work with machines, instruments and numbers rather than words.

▪ They thought that they left writing behind them on English

composition!!

20
Engineers And Writing

▪ In the engineering field, you are rarely judged solely by the

quality of your technical information or knowledge you carry

BUT

▪ People also form opinions of you by what you say and write.
21
Why Engineers Write?

▪ Throughout their careers, engineers write a lot and many kinds of

documents in various contexts and with different purpose and
audiences.

▪ Throughout your careers, you will interact with a variety of other

engineering and non-engineering colleagues, officials and public.

▪ Even if you do not do actual engineering work, you may have to explain
how something was done, should be done, needs to be changed, and
must be investigated, etc…..

22
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What Engineers Write?

Some of documents you might be involved in your engineering career:

Studies: efficiency, market, environmental impact, analytical, etc…

Guides: procedures, tutorials, training aids, safety instructions, etc…

Manuals: user’s handbook, maintenance, repair, instructions, product support, etc…

Standard Reports: weekly, annual, progress, lab, inspection, implementation, etc…

Special Reports: formal, recommendation, investigation, incident, etc…

Technical Reports: evaluation, test methods, feasibility, troubleshooting,

specification, etc….
23
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What Engineers Write?

Corporate: proposals, executive summaries, abstracts, contracts, patents,
statement of work, policy statements, etc…

Publications: articles, textbooks, newsletters, news releases, flyers, literature

reviews, marketing brochures, catalogue, etc…

Interoffice: memos, letters, updates, announcement, minutes, bulletins,

warnings, workshop reports, etc…
24
 Technical Writing
Lecture 2

Nature of Technical Writing

• Taxonomy of Technical Writing

• Benefits of Technical Writing
• Technical Writing Process

1
Taxonomy of Technical Writing

Taxonomy described by Montgomery and Plung [1988] 2

Spectrum of technical writing

3
Engineers' Guide to Technical Writing by Kenneth G. Budinski
Benefits of Technical Writing

▪ The boss wants a report.

▪ Forces analysis of work.

▪ Completes a job.

▪ Unreported work can be lost forever.

▪ Necessary in global businesses.

▪ Career advantages.

4
The Boss Wants a Report

▪ Most common reason for writing a report is that it is an expectation

of the job.

▪ Many organizations use effective report writing as a performance

measure.

5
Forces Analysis of Work

▪ Report writing forces a systematic analysis of data and organization

of one’s thoughts on a project.

▪ Collecting and organizing data into reports is a very useful tool.

▪ Writing a report is the best way to find out if you are done with a technical
study.

There are may be many things that you may not see until you put pen
to paper. 6
Completes a Job

▪ Reports can be used to end a project.

▪ Reports tells others what to do about a problem.

▪ Future work may also be based on what you did.

7
Unreported Work

▪ Unreported Work Can Be Lost Forever.

▪ If a report is not written on what was done, the work may be
unnecessarily repeated by others, or, worse yet, it may be lost
forever.

▪ If a project is completed, work not documented may be repeated by

others who did not know the work was done.

▪ Enormous sums of money and significant lead time can be lost to

reports that are not written in industry. 8
Necessary in Global Businesses

▪ Written documentation for contracts, procedures, specifications is

more important when dealing with nonnative speakers of any
language.

▪ Being an effective writer is a must for doing business on an

international basis.

▪ English is an acceptable language for business communications*. 9

Career Advantages

▪ Lack of communication skills can have a negative effect on career

because it is an expectation of most jobs and a lack of these skills can

have bad connotations regarding personality traits.

▪ Effective writing skills are necessary for career success in most fields.
10
Technical Writing Process
Planning Drafting Revision

Purpose Mechanics

Grammar
Readers

Research Style

Initial
Draft
Outline Content
11
11
Five Steps to Successful Writing

5. Revision

4. Writing/drafting
3. Organization

2. Research

1. Preparation/Planning

12
12
1. Preparation/Planning

A. Establish your primary purpose

A. Establish your primary purpose.

B. Identify your audience (readers) and their expectations

B. Identify your audience (readers) and

B. Identify your audience (readers) and their expectations

their expectations
C. Determine the scope of your coverage.

C. Determine the scope of your

C. Determine the scope of your coverage.

coverage.

D. Select the appropriate medium

D. Select the appropriate medium.

13
13
A. Establishing Your Purpose (1/3)

▪ To establish your primary purpose simply ask yourself:

✓What you want your readers to know or to be able to do after

they have finished reading what you have written.

✓Be precise. Why? Often a writer states a purpose so broadly

that it is almost useless.

14
14
A. Establishing Your Purpose: Example (2/3)

▪ Example: A purpose such as “to report on possible locations for

a new research facility” is too general. However, “to compare
the relative advantages of Paris, Singapore, and San Francisco
as possible locations for a new research facility so that top
management can choose the best location” is a purpose
statement that can guide you throughout the writing process.

15
15
A. Establishing Your Purpose (3/3)

• Consider possible secondary purposes for your document.

▪ For example, a secondary purpose of the research-facilities

report might be to make corporate executive readers aware of

the staffing needs of the new facility so that they can ensure its

smooth operation regardless of the location selected. 16

16
B. Identifying Your Audience (Readers) (1/2)

▪ The next task is to assess your audience. Again, be precise and

ask key questions.

✓Who exactly is your reader?

✓Do you have multiple readers?

✓Who needs to see or to use the document?

✓What are your readers’ needs in relation to your subject?

17
B. Identifying Your Audience (Readers) (2/2)

✓What are their attitudes about the subject? (Skeptical?

Supportive? Anxious? Bored?)

✓What do your readers already know about the subject?

✓Should you define basic terminology, or will such definitions

merely bore, or even impede, your readers?
✓Are you communicating with international readers and therefore
dealing with issues inherent in global communication?
18
C. Determine the scope of your coverage.

▪ Decide what to include and what not to include in your writing.

Those decisions establish the scope of your writing project.

▪ If you do not clearly define the scope, you will spend needless
hours on research because you will not be sure what kind of
information you need or even how much.

19
19
D. Selecting the Medium

▪ You need to determine the most appropriate medium for

communicating your message. Professionals on the job face a wide
array of options—from: e-mail, fax, voice mail, video-conferencing,
and Web sites to more traditional means like letters, memos,
reports, telephone calls, and face-to-face meetings.

▪ The most important considerations in selecting the appropriate

medium are the audience and the purpose of the communication.
20
2. Research (1/3)

▪ The only way to be sure that you can write about a complex
subject is to thoroughly understand it.
A.Methods of Research:

▪ Researchers frequently distinguish between primary and

secondary research, depending on the types of sources consulted

and the method of gathering information.

21
2. Research (2/3)

▪ Primary research refers to the gathering of raw data compiled from

interviews, direct observation, surveys, experiments, questionnaires,
and audio and video Recordings, among other.

▪ Secondary research refers to gathering information that has been

analyzed, assessed, evaluated, compiled, or otherwise organized into
accessible form. Such forms or sources include books, articles,
reports, Web documents, e-mail discussions, and brochures.
22
2. Research (3/3)
▪ B. Source of Information:
▪ As you conduct research, numerous sources of information are available to you,
including the following:
✓ Your own knowledge and that of your colleagues.

✓ The knowledge of people outside your workplace, gathered through interviewing

for information.

✓ Internet sources, including Web sites, directories, archives, and discussion groups

✓ Library resources, including databases and indexes of articles as well as books

and reference works

✓ Printed and electronic sources in the workplace. 23

3. Organization

▪ Choose the method that best suits your subject, your readers’ needs, and
your purpose.
A. Methods of organizing your writing
✓ Sequential method of organizing
▪ For example, if you were writing instructions for assembling office equipment,
you would naturally present the steps of the process in the order readers
should perform them.

✓ Chronological method of organizing

▪ If you were writing about the history of an organization, your account would
most naturally go from the beginning to the present.
24
3. Organization

▪ B. Outlining
✓ It breaks large or complex subjects into manageable parts
✓ It also enables you to emphasize key points by placing them in the
positions of greatest importance.
✓ It ensures that your document will be complete and logically
organized, allowing you to focus exclusively on writing when you
begin the rough draft.
✓ It can be especially helpful for maintaining a collaborative-writing
team’s focus throughout a large project.
25
4. Writing/Drafting
✓Concentrating entirely on converting your outline into sentences and
paragraphs. You might try writing as though you were explaining
your subject to a reader sitting across from you.

✓Do not worry about a good opening. Just start.

✓Do not be concerned in the rough draft about exact word choice
unless it comes quickly and easily—concentrate instead on ideas.

✓Consider writing an introduction last because then you will know

more precisely what is in the body of the draft. 26
4. Writing/Drafting

✓Finally, you will need to write a conclusion that ties the main ideas
together and emphatically makes a final significant point. The final
point may be to:

➢recommend a course of action,

➢make a prediction or a judgment, or

➢merely summarize your main points—the way you conclude

depends on the purpose of your writing and your readers’ needs.
27
 5. Revision
✓Be eager to find and correct faults and be honest. Be hard on yourself for
the benefit of your readers.
✓Read and evaluate the draft as if you were a reader seeing it for the first
time.
✓Check your draft for accuracy, completeness, and effectiveness in
achieving your purpose and meeting your readers’ needs and expectations.
✓Trim extraneous information: Your writing should give readers exactly what
they need.
✓Concentrate first on larger issues, such as unity and coherence; save
mechanical corrections, like spelling and punctuation.
✓Consider having others review your writing and make suggestions for
improvement 28
Case study

29
 Edit the following paragraph
This text is the first draft of the second section of a paper omitted by Don.

30
 first draft

Don made numerous

changes to the first draft,
and here is the resulting
second section after his
edits, which are identified.

31
 final draft

Note there are errors in the

revision (for example,
“many fold” was replaced
by “manifold”). In any case,
editing by a professional
copyeditor yielded the
following result (changes
are tracked):.

32
Conclusion
▪ You can see the stepwise refinement with each new draft. There are both major
and subtle improvements in the version edited by the professional editor.

▪ For example, notice how “utilize” is replaced by “use.” There is no loss of

meaning, and a more compact word is employed.

▪ Notice how the phrase “This situation is entirely due to the lack of” is replaced
by the much shorter, but equivalent “because the industry lacks.” The
copyeditor made several such replacements and other improvements, thus
making the final version more concise.

33
To remember…

▪ No time to write is never a valid excuse. A motivated person will find

time for anything.

▪ People want written documentation on work of interest to them. They

save them for future reference.

▪ Writing skills are acquired just like other skills—by practice.

▪ Writing enhances job security by increasing your value to your

employer. People with demonstrated writing skills are preferred in
hiring. 34
To remember…

▪ Computer mail is usually not the appropriate medium for a technical

report or document. E-mail is usually not archival.

▪ Writing technical reports and documents is the most effective means

for concluding a project and transferring new information or
knowledge.

▪ If technical work is not documented in writing in a timely manner, the

work is often lost and may be repeated by others.

35
 Technical Writing
Lecture 3

Technical Writing Basics

• Five Traits of Technical Writing:
• Clarity
• Conciseness
• Accessible document Design
• Audience recognition
• Accuracy
• Check list for Effective Technical Style

1
Five Traits of Technical Writing

Clarity

Conciseness

Audience recognition

Accessible document Design

Accuracy

2
Clarity

The most
important criteria
for effective
technical writing
:

Clarity 3
Clarity

Document is not
clearly
understood

Reader call the

writer for further
clarification

Writer's time is Reader’s time is

Message is lost
wasted wasted

4
Clarity
Focus on Why You Are Writing:
▪ Before starting to write, You should have a good idea of precisely
what you want to communicate to your audience.

▪ You can’t really expect your readers to get a clear message if

your goals aren’t first defined in your own mind.

▪ Writing without a clear goal will almost certainly result in Poor

Communication.
5
Clarity

▪ Whether your have to write a short Memo or a lengthy technical

report, you should start with a firm sense of purpose so you can:
(1) Present appropriate supporting data.
(2) Test it’s adequacy.
(3) Discard Anything that is not needed.
▪ To present information or to persuade people to act or think in a
certain way, Your documents will have to be both informative and
persuasive.

6
Clarity : Example

Use report’s questions checklist to clarify this

email: when, what, where, who, why, how, 7
Clarity : Example

8
Conciseness

▪ Anyone reading your document (Memo, letters, reports, etc, …) is

likely to be in a hurry.

▪ Your documents need to have the most important information at

the beginning. This means moving from the general to the specific.

▪ Readers would much rather know your key points, complaints,

requests, conclusions or recommendations before they read
supporting details.

9
Conciseness

▪ For instance, if you did a series of tests to determine whether

some equipment should be replaced, your supervisor will want to
know what you have found out and what you recommend.

▪ A complete and detailed description of your test procedures may

be necessary to support your main points and likely be verified by
others.

▪ On the other hand, It could go unread by those in the management

department who are only interested in bottom lines.
10
 Conciseness

▪ Where you tell your readers what they most need to know depends
on the kind of document.
▪ In a letter, it will be in the opening sentences. In a MEMO, you
should provide a subject line making more than just a vague
reference to the overall topic.
Example (1):
Vague: SUBJECT: Employee safety
Better: SUBJECT: Need for employees to wear hard hats and
safety glasses.
Example (2):
Vague: SUBJECT: Emergency requisitions
Better: SUBJECT: Recommendations to change the procedures
for making emergency requisitions.
11
Conciseness
▪ Most MEMOS are now sent by Emails, which may limit the number
of characters for your subject heading.

▪ The challenge is to get as much meaning as possible into a small

space and to clearly state your key point.

▪ No matter what kind of document you are writing, first determine

your audience and purpose, and then give your readers the
information they most need in the place they can most efficiently
access it, say, at the beginning of the paper, rather than buried
somewhere in the middle or at the end.
12
 Conciseness ( summary)

▪ Successful technical writing should help the reader understand the

text.

▪ Technical writing had to be written concisely enough to fit inside a

specific-sized box (give me an example*).

▪ Successful technical writing tries to avoid multisyllabic words. How?

13
Conciseness: Example

14
Audience recognition

▪ Audience is classified in three levels traits:

High Tech Peers

Low Tech Peers

Lay Readers
15
Audience levels
▪ High Tech Peers:
▪ Know as much about a subject matter as you.

▪ Style of writing: Abbreviations/ Acronyms OK.

▪ Low Tech Peers:

▪ who work in your company know something about the subject
matter.

▪ Style of writing: (Abbreviations/ Acronyms need parenthetical

definitions.) 16
 Audience levels

▪ Lay Readers:

▪ Are the customers.

▪ Style of writing: No abbreviations/ acronyms. Explanations
instead.

Writing successfully to these three types of audiences

Requires different techniques.

17
Audience recognition

Focus on Your Readers:

▪ If you found yourself in a remote region and met people who had
never seen anything electronic, You wouldn't hand them iPad,
iPhone, or MP3 player and expect them to use it!!
▪ Before that, a great deal of technology transfer would have to
take place.
▪ You would have to teach your “audience” how to use your
gadget assuming that they are interested in that.
▪ This looks naïve, but a lot of technical writing fails because
writers make inaccurate assumptions regarding the people who
read their documents.
18
Audience recognition
▪ Engineers often write without taking adequate time initially to
consider the nature, needs, interests, level of expertise or possible
reactions of those who must read their work.

▪ Since YOU will be writing for many different audiences (Marketing,

Lawyers, Engineers in other fields, Non-technical and non-
specialized staff, Customers, Managers, Owners, Production,
Journals, Promotions, Technicians, etc … , it is worthy to take
sometime to think about your audience before editing to them!!??
19
Audience recognition
▪ Analysis of audience is not just a question of being polite, or
sensitive.
▪ Your goal is to send a clear message through your document to your
audience.
▪ Then, you must consider their abilities and expectations as you plan,
write and revise.
▪ To get results, your communication must bridge a gap between you
and your target audience.
▪ Practically, this gap is likely to be caused by variations in
Knowledge, Ability, or Interest.
▪ Before putting you pencil on a paper, you must identify who your
audience is and then ask yourself the following questions??: 20
 Knowledge

▪ Are my readers engineers in my field or expertise who are searching for technical information,
and will they be bored by elementary details?

▪ Are they engineers from a different field who will need some general technical background first?

▪ Are they managers or supervisors who may be less knowledgeable in my field but who need to
make executive decisions based on what I write?

▪ Are they technicians or others without my expertise and training but with a strong practical
knowledge of the field?

▪ Are they non experts from marketing, sales, finance, or other fields who lack engineering or
technical background but who are interested in the subject for non engineering reasons?
▪ Are they a mixed audience, such as a panel or committee made up of experts and laypeople?
21
Accessible document design

Use highlighting techniques (tables, headings and

subheadings,
different font sizes, column lines, and white space) 22
Satisfy Document Specifications
▪ You should be aware of any specifications your document must meet, before
writing.

▪ Many audience expect documents they receive to be within certain

parameters.

▪ Various document specifications exist. Such specifications may require you to

provide sections addressing certain topics in your report, like: experimental
problems, environmental impact, budget estimation.

▪ The editors of an engineering journal may put limits on the number of words
and the number of graphics your technical paper can include.
23
Satisfy Document Specifications

▪ A word limit is frequently placed on the length of an Abstract or

Summary as well as on other sections of a document.
▪ Many reports have specifications that include requirements not only
for their length but also for such matters as headings, spacing, and
margin width.

Example:
Each research proposal shall consist of not more than five single spaced pages
plus a cover page, a budget page, a summary page of no more than 300 words,
and a page detailing current research funding. All text shall be printed in single-
column format on 7.5 x 11-inch paper with margins of at least 1 inch on all sides.
24
Accessible document
▪ Without even reading a word, one can look at the pages of a
document and get a good idea of how efficiently the material is
presented.

▪ Structure of the material is important: how well the material is laid

out in accessible format for the reader.

▪ Most important factors are:

▪ The subdivision of material into sections and subsections with hierarchical
headings and Paragraph length.
25
Use lists for some information
▪ A well-organised list is sometimes the most efficient way to
communicate information.

▪ There are three main types of lists:

1. Numbered: used to indicate when a set of data follows a certain order. It
can also be used to indicate an order of importance in your data, such as
list of priorities or needed equipment.

1. Checklist: can be used to indicate that all the items on your list must be
tended to, usually in the order presented. When checklists get longer than
10 boxes, try to break them down into smaller more manageable sections
and give each section its own subheading.
26
Use lists for some information

▪ 3. Bulleted: lists are commonly used when items in the list are in no specific
order. Lengthy bulleted lists – over 7 items – are hard for reader to refer to, so
use numbers for longer lists even if no order of priority is intended.

27
Example (numbered)

First of all, set the dual power supply to + 12 V and -12 V. Next, set the op-amp
up as shown in figure 1. Use a 1 Vpp sinewave at 1 kHz and then plot the output
waveform on digital scope. Then obtain a Bode plot for the gain from 200 Hz to
20 kHz.

You could present this information more efficiently in list form:

1. Set the dual power supply to + 12 V and -12 V.

2. Set the op-amp up as shown in Figure 1.
3. Use a 1 Vpp sinewave at 1 kHz.
4. Plot the output waveform on the digital scope.
5. Obtain a Bode plot for the gain from 200 Hz to 20 kHz.
28
Example ( checklist)

Example:
❑Connect the monitor to the computer through the monitor port.
❑Connect the keyboard and mouse to the computer through the
assigned port.
❑Connect the power supply to the computer.
❑Connect the printer to the printer port.
❑Connect the modem to the modem port.
These instructions could also be presented as follows:

1. Connect the monitor to the computer through the monitor port. □

2. Connect the keyboard and mouse to the computer through the
assigned port. □
3. Connect the power supply to the computer. □
4. Connect the printer to the printer port. □
5. Connect the modem to the modem port. □ 29
Example (bulleted)

Example:
Some of the main concerns of environmental engineering are:
• Air pollution control.
• Public water supply.
• Wastewater treatment.
• Solid waste management and disposal.
• Industrial hygiene.
• Hazardous wastes.

30
Accuracy
✓ Provide accurate information:
▪ Even the clearest writing is useless when the information it
conveys is WRONG!
▪ If you refer to data in Appendix B of your report when you mean
Appendix D, the error could stump your reader and cause them to
lose confidence in your report.
▪ Inaccurate references to the work of others also will cause your
readers to be highly suspicious of the reliability of your entire
report and even of your honesty as a writer.
▪ Another kind of inaccuracy might be a claim that is true sometimes
but not always and under all conditions.
31
Accuracy

▪ Example:
o
▪ Water always boils at 100 C. What about purity and variations in atmospheric
pressure?

32
Check list for Effective Technical Style

33
 Technical Writing
Lecture 4

Eliminating Noise in Writing

1. Create Text Flow

2. What to Use and What to Avoid in Technical Writing?
3. Affectation

1
What to Use and What to Avoid in Technical
Writing?

Use: Avoid:
Coherent paragraphs
Affectation
Transitional words

Varied sentence length

Redundancy

Familiar words
Prepositional
Parallel structure phrases

2
Create Text Flow

o Select an appropriate style and tone, and then simply write down ideas and
facts without concern for quality or format under each heading and subheading.
o Then edit, wait, and edit again, eliminating irrelevant information, emotion,
unsupported opinions, and judgments.
o Organize the ideas into smooth flowing text by developing:
- Coherent paragraphs
- Using transitional words
- Incorporating sentence variety

o Use numbers or bullets to convey lists of information.

3
 Coherent Paragraphs
Definition: Coherence is the quality of “order” and “flow”.
▪ Create paragraphs with a single topic and include supporting details. Each
paragraph usually contains around five sentences (although this is not a rule).
✓ To improve comprehension, place the key topic at the beginning of a sentence
and new information at the end.

✓ All of the ideas contained within a paragraph must relate to one central thought.

✓ Arrange factual sentences in a logical order from general to specific.

✓ Take ideas from the beginning paragraph (i.e. abstract in a research project)
and expand it into subsequent paragraphs.

✓ Link paragraphs together by stating what will appear in the next paragraph. 4
Begin Most Paragraphs with Topic Sentence

▪ Unity—paragraph discusses one idea; a mark of good writing

▪ Topic sentence—states main idea

▪ Tells what paragraph is about
▪ Forecasts paragraph’s structure
▪ Helps readers remember points

5
Use Transitions to Link Ideas

▪ Transition— Connect one idea to the next, one sentence to

another, one paragraph to another

▪ Tells if next sentence continues or starts new idea

▪ Tells if next sentence is more or less important than previous

6
 Use Transitional Words
o Forms of transitional words include:
- Indicators for time order (earlier, later)
- Position in time (rarely)
- Sequence (next)
- Occurrences that happen again (to explain)
- Conclusions (in conclusion)
- The end of an idea (finally)
- Compare/contrast (also/but)
- Causality (because, as a result, therefore);
- Other connectors (or, nor, but, subsequently, then, besides, furthermore).

7
Linking phrase or Words

8
Sentences

What is a sentence?
▪ Starts with a capital letter and includes an end mark (full
stop [.], question mark [?], exclamation mark [!])
▪ A complete sentence must contain at least on main clause
▪ Each main clause contains a subject and a verb and completes
a thought
Example: The squirrels are busy storing nuts for the winter

Subject: squirrels
Verb: storing 9
Vary Sentence Length & Structure

▪ Varying sentence length and structure helps keep audience interest

▪ Use short sentences when subject matter is complicated
• Avoid ‘it is’, ‘there is’ constructions
– Pour concrete when it is 40° F.
– Pour concrete when temperature reaches 40° F.

▪ Use longer sentences to

▪ Show how ideas link to each other
▪ Avoid choppy copy
▪ Reduce repetition

10
 Vary Sentence Length & Structure
o Use a long sentence only when it consists of more than one clause and both the
meaning and logical relationships between the clauses are clear.

o Avoid using phrases with more than three nouns in a row by dividing the phrase
into a shorter noun phrase with a relative clause.

▪ Examples:

- The nanotechnology enhanced iron foam column contactor removes phosphorus….

(six nouns in a row)

- The column contactor uses nanotechnology-enhanced iron foam to remove phosphorus…..

11
Long sentence to short sentence

Here is an unsuccessful example of technical writing:

“In order to successfully accomplish their job functions, the team has
been needing more work space for some time now.”

“The team needs more work space to do its jobs.”

12
 Subjects and Verbs (1/3)
o It is important for text to flow smoothly. To ensure the reader understands the
intended meaning, abide by the subject and verb rules.

▪ Some of subject and verb rules:

i. Subjects and verbs must agree in person and number (singular with
singular, plural with plural).

ii. A verb must agree with its subject, not with the words that come between
the two.

▪ The president, along with the officers, is going to the conference.

13
 Subjects and Verbs (2/3)
Subjects joined by “and” usually take a plural verb.
- Platinum, gold, and lead are available in the laboratory.
When subjects are joined by “or” or “nor”, the verb agrees with the subject
closest to it.
- Oranges or two apple varieties have been used in the study.
A verb agrees with the subject, even though in many cases the subject will
follow the verb.
- Educating the committee is difficult.
Indefinite pronouns such as some, none, all, more, and most may be singular or
plural, depending on whether they are used with a mass noun or with a count noun.
▪ Most of the oil has been used. (has/have)
▪ Most of the drivers know why they are here. (know/knows) 14
 Subjects and Verbs (3/3)
Other words, such as type, part, series, and portion, take singular
verbs even if they precede a plural noun.
▪ A series of meetings was held to improve the product design.

Relative pronouns (who, which, ..) may take either singular or plural
verbs, depending on whether the antecedent is singular or plural.
▪ Steel is one of those industries that are most affected by global competition.
▪ She is one of those employees who are rarely absent.
▪ He is a manager who seeks the views of others. (seek/seeks)
▪ He is one of those managers who seek the views of others.

15
 Verbs

Like pronouns, the tenses of verbs should not be mixed in a sentence (or even in a
series of sentences, if possible).

Verbs with factual statements:

• Determined • Broke Verbs with nonfactual

• Solved • Approved statements:
• Built • Cancelled
• Invented • Think
• Accepted
• Designed • May be
• Rejected
• Developed • Suggest
• Completed • Discovered • Appear
• Passed • Uncovered
• Suppose…
• Failed • Deduced
• Studied 16
Use Verbs to Carry Weight

Replace this phrase with a verb

▪ make an adjustment = adjust

▪ make a decision = decide
▪ perform an examination = examine
▪ take into consideration = consider

17
Verbs for
Phrases

18
 Pronouns
▪ Use of first person pronouns is usually discouraged in technical
writing.
▪ Inappropriate to use names* of people and/or trade names unless
there is no other way to describe the item.
▪ Make sure that you use the same person throughout a sentence
and a related sequence of sentences.

▪ Example:
▪ Mixed Person: I have been conducting these tests for many years, and we
feel that the drum test is most appropriate.
▪ Person Agreement: I have been conducting these tests for many years, and I
feel that the drum test is most appropriate. 19
Use Familiar Words

▪ Words most people know

▪ Words that best convey your meaning

▪ Specific, concrete words

20
Long Words to Short Words (1/2)
Example
Long words Short words
Cognizant Know
Endeavor Try
Domicile Home
Morbidity Death
Terminate End
Some multisyllabic words can not be changed.
We can not replace engineer, telecommunications, or
Internet.
21
Long Words to Short Words (2/2)

Example
Long words Short words
Reside Live
Commence Begin
Enumerate List
Finalize Finish, Complete
Utilize Use

22
Long Words to Short Words (2/2)

Example
Long words Short words
Reside Live
Commence Begin
Enumerate List
Finalize Finish, Complete
Utilize Use

23
Use Parallel Structure: Example

Parallelism in a sentence means that words and sentences should have similar
forms if they are dealing with the same subject.

▪ During the interview, job candidates will

▪ Take a skills test.
▪ The supervisor will interview the prospective employee.
▪ A meeting with recently hired workers will be held.

▪ During the interview, job candidates will

▪ Take a skills test.
▪ Interview with the supervisor.
▪ Meet with recently hired workers. 24
Affectation

Affectation is the use of language that is more formal, technical, or showy than
necessary to communicate information to the reader.

Examples:
utilization for use
Aforesaid for above-said
Perseverant for Persistent

Affected writing forces readers to work harder to understand the writer’s meaning.

25
Affectation

✓ Sometimes, some writers try to avoid repeating the same word in a

paragraph, so they resort to using an unnecessary pretentious
synonym.
Example:
▪ The use of modules in the assembly process has increased production. Modular
utilization has also cut costs.

• But this can be avoided by using a pronoun, as follows:

▪ The use of modules in the assembly process has increased production, and it
has cut costs. 26
Avoiding redundancy

▪ Redundancy is when you use more words than necessary to express

something, especially words and/or phrases in the same sentence
that mean the same thing

▪ Wordy—idea can be said in fewer words

▪ Omit words that say nothing

▪ Put the meaning in subject and verb

27
Example (1/3)

▪ The reason we are recommending the computerization of this process

is because it will reduce the time required to obtain data and will give
us more accurate data.

▪ Computerizing the process will give us more accurate data more

quickly.

28
Example (2/3)

Ideally, it would be best to put the. . .

If possible, put the…
There are three reasons for our success…
Three reasons explain the…
Redundant Efficient
Alternative choices Alternatives
Actual experience Experience
Completely eliminate Eliminate
Component part Component (or part)
Connected together Connected
Exactly identical Identical
12 noon Noon
Rectangular in shape Rectangular

29
Example (3/3)

Wordy sentence Less Wordy Sentence

We collaborated together We collaborated on the
on the projects. project.

This is a brand new This is an innovation.

innovation.
The other alternative is to The alternative is to eat
eat soup. soup.

30
Avoiding prepositional phrases
Example
Wordy sentence Less Wordy Sentence
He drove at a rapid rate. He drove rapidly.

I will see you in the near I will see you soon.

future.
I am in receipt of your e- I received your e-mail
mail message requesting message requesting a
an increase in pay. pay raise.

31
That and Which
o Generally “that” defines and restricts; “which” provides additional
information.
o "That" is used to indicate a specific object, item, person, condition, etc.,
o "which" is used to add information to objects, items, people, situations, etc.
o Which” is used non-restrictively to add some descriptive but incidental
information and is preceded by a comma, a dash, or a parenthesis.
Example:
The article that was printed in the newspaper yesterday is inaccurate.
There are other factors that will affect the funding, which have garnered
little interest in the audience. 32
Active and Passive Voices

▪ Active—subject of sentence does action the verb

describes

▪ Passive—subject is acted upon

▪ Usually includes form of “to be”
▪ Change to active if you can
▪ Direct object becomes subject
33
Passive vs. Active Verbs
▪ It Is recommended to always use active verbs

▪ Active verbs are better because

▪ Shorter

▪ Clearer

▪ More interesting

▪ Passive verbs are better to

▪ Emphasize object receiving action

▪ Adhere to the standards used in more conservative technical publications

▪ Avoid placing blame 34

Active and Passive Voices

o Take responsibility by writing in active voice; use passive voice

only when it is appropriate for emphasis or when you lack
information.
o The passive voice indicates that the subject receives, rather
than performs, the action.

Example:
▪ The team finished the final project. (active)
▪ The final project was finished by the team. (passive)

35
Avoiding passive voice
Passive voice constructions are weak for at least two reasons: wordy and replace
strong verbs with weak verbs.
Example
Passive Voice Active Voice
It is my decision to run I decided to run for
for office. office.
There are sixteen Sixteen people tried out
people who tried out for the basketball team.
for the basketball team.
The computer was Tom purchased the
purchased by Tom. computer.
36
Passive vs. Active Verbs (examples)

▪ Passive: The program will be implemented by the agencies.

▪ Active: The agencies will implement the program.

▪ Passive: These benefits are received by you.

▪ Active: You receive these benefits.

▪ Passive : A video was ordered.

▪ Active: The customer ordered a video.

37
 Activity

Coherent Paragraphs

38
Example : Coherent Paragraphs

Read the following paragraph and underline the stated

main idea. Write down in your own words what you are
able to conclude from the information.

The rules of conduct during an examination are clear. No

books, calculators or papers are allowed in the test room.
Proctors will not allow anyone with such items to take the test.
Anyone caught cheating will be asked to leave the room. His or
her test sheet will be taken. The incident will be reported to the
proper authority. At the end of the test period, all materials will
be returned to the proctor. Failure to abide by these rules will
result in a failing grade for this test.
39
Example : Coherent Paragraphs

Answer:
You should have underlined the first sentence in the
paragraph - this is the stated main idea. What can be
concluded from the information is: If you do not
follow the rules, you will automatically fail the test.
This concluding information is found in the last
sentence.

40
 Technical Writing
Lecture 5

Advanced Grammars
1. Sentence Construction (In Details)
A. Compound Sentences
i. With Coordinating Conjunctions (FANBOYS)
ii. With Semicolons
iii. With Semicolons & Conjunctive Adverbs
B. Complex Sentences with Subordinating Conjunctions
C. Compound-Complex Sentences
2. Correlative Conjunctions
3. Causative verbs
1
1. Sentence Construction

A. Compound Sentences
A compound sentence has at least two independent
clauses that have related ideas and are joined by:

i. Coordinating Conjunctions (FANBOYS)

ii. Semicolons

iii. Conjunctive Adverbs or Transitional Phrases

2
i. With Coordinating Conjunctions (FANBOYS)
The independent clauses of the same importance can be joined by a coordinating conjunction. (there are seven:
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so [FANBOYS]).
• She did not cheat on the test, for it was not the right thing to do.
• They got there early, and they got really good seats.
• There was no ice cream in the freezer, nor did they have money to go to the store.
• I really want to go to work, but I am too sick to drive.
• I think I will buy the red car, or I will lease the blue one.
• I am counting my calories, yet I really want dessert.
• He ran out of money, so he had to stop playing poker.
More Examples:
• Everyone was busy, so I went to the movie alone.
• I would have gotten the promotion, but my attendance wasn't good enough.
• Should we start class now, or should we wait for everyone to get here?
• It was getting dark, and we weren't there yet.
• Cats are good pets, for they are clean and are not noisy.
• We have never been to Asia, nor have we visited Africa.
• He didn't want to go to the dentist, yet he went anyway.
3
ii. With Semicolons

The independent clauses can be joined by a semicolon only when they are related in
thought, yet the coordinating conjunction must be omitted. (Limit the use of this
grammar to the minimal.)
Examples:

• Huda made the sugar cookies; Susan decorated them.

Huda made the sugar cookies, and Susan decorated them.

• The sky is clear; the stars are twinkling.

The sky is clear, so the stars are twinkling.

• The waves were crashing on the shore; it was a lovely sight.

The waves were crashing on the shore, but it was a lovely sight.

• Malls are great places to shop; I can find everything I need under one roof.
Malls are great places to shop, for I can find everything I need under one roof. 4
 iii. With Conjunctive Adverbs or Transitional Phrases

The independent clauses can be joined by a semicolon and a conjunctive

adverb or transitional phrase, followed by a comma. When the job of an
adverb is to connect ideas, we call it a conjunctive adverb.

MAIN CLAUSE + ; + Conjunctive Adverb + , + MAIN CLAUSE .

Some Conjunctive Adverbs

accordingly however nonetheless

also indeed otherwise
besides instead similarly
consequently likewise still
conversely meanwhile subsequently
finally moreover then
furthermore nevertheless therefore
hence next thus 5
Examples:
Lina kept talking in class; therefore, she got in trouble. [Compound Sentence]
Lina kept talking in class. Therefore, she got in trouble. [Two Simple Sentences]
Lina kept talking in class, so she got in trouble. [Compound Sentence]
Lina kept talking in class; she got in trouble. [Confusing Compound Sentences]

She went to the Mall; however, she did not find anything she wanted to buy.
She went to the Mall, but she did not find anything she wanted to buy.

Your dog got into my backyard; in addition, he dug up my flowers.

Your dog got into my backyard, and he dug up my flowers.

You are my friend; nonetheless, I feel like you are taking advantage of me.
You are my friend, yet I feel like you are taking advantage of me.

My care installments are high; on the other hand, I really enjoy driving such a nice vehicle.
My care installments are high, but I really enjoy driving such a nice vehicle.

You need to put more effort into your work; otherwise, you will not get a passing grade.

Rania is a very smart girl; therefore, it is not at all surprising she gets full marks.
6
Rania is a very smart girl, so it is not at all surprising she gets full marks.
B. Complex Sentences

A complex sentence has one independent clause and at least one dependent (or
subordinate) clause, linked by a Subordinating Conjunctions.

S o m e S u b o r d i n at i n g C o n j u n c t i o n s

After Before If
Although By the time In case
As Even if Now that
As soon as Even though Once
Because Every time Since
So that Unless Whenever
Why Until Whether or not
The first time When While
7
which who that
 Examples of Complex Sentences:
▪ As Suad blew out the candles atop her birthday cake, she caught her hair on fire.
▪ Sara begins to sneeze whenever she opens the window to get a breath of fresh air.
▪ When the doorbell rang, my dog Skeeter barked loudly.

1) _________ the basement flooded, we spent all day cleaning up.

A. After
B. Although
C. Before
D. Even if

2) I don’t want to go to the movies _____________ I hate the smell of popcorn.

A. Although
B. Because
C. Whenever
D. So that

3) I paid Sulaf Al-Nasser, ___________ garden design work is top-notch.

A. Whenever
B. Whose
C. After
D. If
8
 More Examples of Complex Sentences:

4) ___________ spring arrives, we have to be prepared for more snow.

A. Because
B. Until
C. Although
D. Now that

5) _____________ the alarm goes off, I hit the snooze button.

A. As soon as
B. Because
C. Before
D. Unless

6) _____________ you do not put more effort into your work, you will not get a passing grade.
A. Unless
B. If
C. Despite
D. Although
9
 C. Compound-Complex Sentences

A compound-complex sentences have at least two independent

clauses and at least one dependent (or subordinate) clauses.

Example:

Ahmad voted against the legislation because he felt that it was not strong
enough; however, he also offered to continue discussions, which we will do
next week.

Note: we have two independent clauses and two dependent clauses

Blue: independent clauses

Green: dependent clauses beginning with “because” & “which”
Pink: conjunctive adverbs linking two independent clauses 10
 2. Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative Conjunctions come in pairs, and you have to use both of

them in a sentence to make them work.

Some Correlative Conjunctions

Both….and Either….or
Neither….nor
Not only….but also Whether….or .. not
Rather….than
as …. As As many …. As
No sooner …. Than
Just as …. So Such …. That
No later …. Than
So …. As Scarcely …. When
No longer …. Than
The more …. The more The more …. The less

11
Examples:
Both….and
❖ Both Zahra and Sally did well on the exam. (two subjects)
❖ Zahra scored high on both the exam and quiz. (two objects)

Not only….but also

❖ Her phone is not only super fast but also very luxurious. (two adjectives)
❖ They need not only food but also shelter. (two objects)
❖ My husband not only took me to the Mall but also bought me some accessories. (two verb
phrases)
❖ My husband took me not only to the Mall but also to my grandma’s house. (shared verb for two
objects)
❖ Not only did my husband take me to the Mall, but he also bought me some accessories. (two
clauses [with comma])
❖ Not only did my husband take me to the Mall, but my friend also took me to the beach. (two
clauses [with comma]) 12
 Examples:

Either….or
❖ We can eat either apple or mango. (two objects)
❖ We can either eat now or watch the movie first – it is up to you. (two verb phrases)
❖ Either the father or the mother should take care of the newly-born baby. (two subjects)
❖ Either we eat now, or I will have my dinner alone. (two clauses)

Neither….nor
❖ He liked neither Toronto nor New York. (two objects)
He did not like Toronto or New York. (alternative)
❖ The restaurant neither have fish nor offer a discount. (two verb phrases)
❖ Neither you nor I speak Spanish. (two subjects)
❖ He neither got to see the castle, nor did we see the cathedral.
He did not get to see the castle, nor did we see the cathedral. 13
Examples:

Whether….or…not
❖ Whether or not my father likes it, I am going out tonight.
❖ Whether my father likes it or not, I am going out tonight.
❖ The instructors were asked whether (if) [or not] they recommended the book to
their classes.
❖ The instructors were asked whether (if) they recommended the book to their
classes [or not].
❖ We cannot see whether tourism is harmful or beneficial.
❖ Whether you agree or not is another issue.
The more …. The more/less
❖ The more you use the credit card, the higher interest rate the bank will earn.
❖ The more you master English grammars, the best you will do on your exam.
❖ The more the temperature rises, the less you need to wear a jacket. 14
3. Causative Verbs
let, make, have, get, help
1. LET = PERMIT something to happen/someone to do something
Let + person/thing + verb (base)
2. MAKE = FORCE/REQUIRE someone to do something
Make + person/thing + verb (base)
3. HAVE = GIVE someone responsibility to do something
Have + person + verb (base)
Have + thing + verb (present participle)
4. GET = CONVINCE someone to do something
Get + person + to + verb (base)
Get + thing + to + + verb (present participle)
5. HELP = ASSIST someone in doing something
Help + person + verb (base)
Help + person + to + verb (base) 15
Examples:
I do not let my kids watch violent movies.
I do not allow my kids to watch violent movies.
I do not permit my kids to watch violent movies.

The instructor made his students re-write their paperwork.

The instructor forced his students to re-write their paperwork.
The instructor required his students to re-write their paperwork.

I will have my assistant call you tomorrow.

I had my hair cut yesterday.

We have to get our employees to arrive on time.

We have to convince our employees to arrive on time.
I got my hair cut yesterday.

He helped me carry the boxes.

He helped me to carry the boxes.
He assisted me in carrying the boxes. 16
Technical Writing
Lecture 6

Punctuation in depth

1
Punctuation

Punctuation is used to clarify the

sentence structure and prevent
misreading.

2
Apostrophe (’)
▪ An apostrophe (’) is used to
✓ show possession
✓ indicate the omission of letters
✓ sometimes it is also used to avoid confusion with certain plurals of words, letters, and
abbreviations.
▪ A- Showing Possession
▪ An apostrophe is used with an s to form the possessive case of some nouns.
▪ Example:
▪ Where is the report title?
▪ Where is the report’s title? (Correct)
▪ Whose pen is this?
▪ It is Rana’s pen.
▪ It is Rana’s. (Correct)
▪ It is hers. (Correct if you are pointing at her) 3
Apostrophe (’)

▪ Example:
▪ The man car is there. (Incorrect)
▪ The man’s car is there. (Correct)

▪ She is Ahmed’s wife.

▪ Noura and Hana’s colleague left the college today.
▪ Noura’s and Hana’s colleagues left Dammam yesterday.
▪ Hana’s colleague and Noura left the college today.

▪ Collective nouns:
▪ The boy’s school is not in this neighborhood. (singular)
▪ The boys’ school is not in this neighborhood. (Plural)
▪ The women’s saloon is just next to the supermarket. (Collective)
4
Apostrophe (’)

B- Indicating Omission
▪ An apostrophe is used to mark the omission of letters or numbers in a
contraction or a date. (can’t, I’m, I’ll; the class of ’09)
▪ Example:
▪ Whose pen is this?
▪ It’s Rana’s.

▪ She is Ahmed’s wife.

▪ She’s Ahmed’s wife.

▪ The class of 2018.

▪ The class of ’18.
5
Apostrophe (’)

C- Avoiding confusion with certain plurals of letters, words, and

abbreviations.
▪ Letters
▪ Lowercase: The search program does not find a’s and i’s.
▪ Uppercase: The applicants received As and Bs in their courses. (No apostrophe, and the letters in
italics)
▪ Words
▪ Do not replace all of which’s in the document.
▪ Five ands appear in the first sentence. (No need for ’ if not confusing)
▪ Abbreviations
▪ Lowercase: Check for any c.o.d.’s.
▪ Uppercase: PDFs, Ph.D.s (No apostrophe)

6
Brackets [ ]

The primary use of brackets ([ ]) is to enclose a word or words inserted by

the writer or editor into a quotation.

▪ The text stated, “Hypertext systems can be categorized as either modest

[not modifiable] or robust [modifiable].”

Brackets are used to insert a parenthetical item within parentheses.

▪ We must credit Emanuel Foose (and his brother Emilio [1912–1982]) for
founding the institute.
7
 https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSFdG-tk1am

Colon
▪ A colon links independent clauses to words, phrases, clauses, or lists that identify,
rename, explain, emphasize, amplify, or illustrate the sentence that precedes the colon.
▪ Examples:
▪ Two topics will be discussed: the new lab design and the revised safety procedures.
[phrases that identify]

▪ Any organization is confronted with two separate information problems: It must maintain
an effective internal communication system and an effective external communication
system. [clause to amplify and explain]

▪ Heart patients should make key lifestyle changes: stop smoking, exercise regularly, eat a
low-fat diet, and reduce stress. [list to identify and illustrate] 8
 https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSFdG-tk1am

Punctuation : Colon
Colons (:) with Salutations, Titles, Citations, and Numbers:
▪ Salutations in Business Letters

▪ Dear Professor Jeffers: or Dear Georgia:

▪ Titles
▪ Writing That Works: Communicating Effectively on the Job.

▪ Citations
▪ Genesis 10:16 [chapter 10, verse 16]
▪ Quran 2:20 [Al Imran, verse 20)

▪ Numbers
▪ 9:30 a.m. [9 hours and 30 minutes]
▪ The cement is mixed with water and sand at 5:3:1. [ : means to]
9
Punctuation and Capitalization with Colons

▪ The first word after a colon may be capitalized if the statement following
the colon is a complete sentence and functions as a formal statement or
question. If the element following the colon is subordinate, however, use
a lowercase letter to begin that element.

▪ This was the real meaning of the manager’s “suggestion”: Cooperation

within our department must improve. (A colon always goes outside
quotation marks.)

▪ We have only one way to stay within our present budget: to reduce
expenditures for research and development. 10
 Commas (,)
Linking Independent Clauses
▪ Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, and sometimes so and
yet) that links independent clauses.

▪ The new microwave disinfection system was delivered, but the installation will require an additional
week.

▪ However, if two independent clauses are short and closely related—and there is no
danger of confusing the reader—the comma may be omitted.

▪ The cable snapped and the power failed.

▪ The cable snapped, and the power failed
11
 Commas (,)
Enclosing Elements
▪ Commas are used to enclose non-essential information.
▪ Our new factory, which began operations last month, should add 25 percent to total output.
▪ The technician, working quickly and efficiently, finished early.
▪ An appositive phrase (which re-identifies another expression in the sentence) is enclosed
in commas.
▪ Our company, Envirex Medical Systems, won several awards last year.

Introducing Elements
▪ Generally, place a comma after an introductory clause or phrase, especially if it is long.
▪ In the next week, we will have a quiz.
▪ In the 1910s, Arabs did not get to know Rice.
▪ Because we have not yet contained the new strain of influenza, we recommend vaccination for high-
12
risk patients.
Commas (,)
▪ When an introductory phrase is short and closely related to the main clause, the comma may be omitted.
▪ In two seconds a 5°C temperature rise occurs in the test tube.
▪ Separating Items in a Series
▪ Although the comma before the last item in a series is sometimes omitted, it is generally
clearer to include it.
▪ Random House, Bantam, Doubleday, and Dell were individual publishing companies. [Without the
final comma, “Doubleday and Dell” might refer to one company or two.]

▪ Plants absorb noxious gases, act as receptors of dirt particles, and cleanse the air of other impurities.

▪ The aircraft featured a modern, sleek, swept-wing design.

▪ Our new products include amitriptyline, which has sold very well; and cholestyramine, which was
just introduced.
13
 Commas (,)
Using with Other Punctuation
▪ Conjunctive adverbs (however, nevertheless, consequently, for example, on the other hand) that
join independent clauses are preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma.

▪ The idea is good; however, our budget is not sufficient.

▪ I have reduced my labor costs; therefore, I will easily stay within the original bid.

▪ It is better, however, to avoid such constructions in technical writing.

14
 Commas (,)
Using with Numbers, addresses, and Names
▪ Use commas between the elements of an address written on the same line (but not between the state and
the ZIP Code).
▪ Kristen James, 4119 Mill Road, Dayton, Ohio 45401
▪ A full date that is written in month-day-year format uses a comma preceding and following the year.
▪ November 30, 2020, is the payoff date.
▪ Note that 30 November 2020 is the payoff date. (No comma)
▪ Use commas to separate the elements of Arabic numbers.
▪ 1,528,200 feet
• Use commas to separate the elements of geographical names.
▪ Toronto, Ontario, Canada
• Use a comma to separate names that are reversed
▪ Al-Fakih, Ebrahim

15
 Dashes (-)

• The dash (—) can perform all the punctuation duties of linking, separating, and
enclosing; it indicates more emphasis.
▪ Only one person—the president—can authorize such activity.
▪ Only one person, the president, can authorize such activity.
• Dashes can be used to set off parenthetical elements that contain commas.
▪ Three of the applicants—John Evans, Rosalita Fontiana, and Kyong-Shik
Choi—seem well qualified for the job.
▪ Three of the applicants (John Evans, Rosalita Fontiana, and Kyong-Shik Choi)
seem well qualified for the job. (Alternative)
▪ Three of the applicants; John Evans, Rosalita Fontiana, and Kyong-Shik Choi,
seem well qualified for the job. (Incorrect) 16
Ellipsis (…)

▪ An ellipsis is the omission of words from quoted material; it is indicated

by three spaced periods called ellipsis points (. . .). When you use
ellipsis points, omit original punctuation marks.
ORIGINAL TEXT
▪ “Promotional material sometimes carries a fee, particularly in high-
volume distribution to schools, although prices for these publications are
much lower than the development costs when all factors are considered.”
WITH OMISSION
▪ “Promotional material sometimes carries a fee . . . although prices for
these publications are much lower than the development costs. . . .”
17
Exclamation mark (!)

▪ The exclamation mark (!) indicates strong feeling, urgency, elation,

cautions and warnings, or surprise.
▪ (Hurry! Great! Wow! Danger!).
▪ An exclamation mark can be used after a whole sentence or an element of
a sentence.
▪ This meeting—please note it well!—concerns our budget deficit.
▪ When used with quotation marks, the exclamation mark goes outside,
unless what is quoted is an exclamation.
▪ The paramedic shouted, “Don’t touch the victim!” The bystander then,
according to a witness, “jumped like a kangaroo”!
18
Hyphens (-)
Hyphens with Compound Words
▪ Some compound words are formed with hyphens (able-bodied, over-the-counter, big-
sized, long-haired, up-to-date).
▪ i.e. It was a well-written report.
Hyphens with Prefixes and Suffixes
▪ A hyphen is used with a prefix when the root word is a proper noun. (pre-
Columbian, anti-American, post-Newtonian)
▪ A hyphen may be used when the prefix ends and the root word begins with
the same vowel (re-enter, anti-inflammatory)
▪ A hyphen is used when ex- means “former”(ex-president, ex-spouse).
▪ A hyphen may be used to emphasize a prefix. (“He is anti-change.”) 19
Parentheses ( )

▪ Parentheses are used to enclose explanatory words, phrases, or sentences.

• Parenthetical material does not affect the punctuation of a sentence.
▪ She could not fully extend her knee because of a torn meniscus (or
cartilage), and she suffered pain from a severely bruised tibia (or
shinbone).
• When a complete sentence within parentheses stands independently, the
ending punctuation is placed inside the final parenthesis.
▪ The project director listed the problems her staff faced. (This was the
third time she had complained to the board.)

20
Period ( . )

• A period is ALWAYS placed inside quotation marks.

▪ He stated clearly, “My vote is yes.”
• Place a period outside the final parenthesis when a parenthetical element
ends a sentence.
▪ The institute was founded by Harry Denman (1902–1972).
• Place a period inside the final parenthesis when a complete sentence
stands independently within parentheses.
• The project director listed the problems her staff faced. (This was the third
time she had complained to the board.)

21
Question mark (?)
▪ Where did you put the specifications? [direct question]
▪ He asked me where did I put the specifications? (wrong)
▪ He asked me where I put the specifications. (correct)

• When used with quotations, the placement of the question mark is

important. When the writer is asking a question, the question mark
belongs outside the quotation marks.
▪ Did she actually say, “I don’t think the project should continue”?
• If the quotation itself is a question, the question mark goes inside the
quotation marks.
▪ She asked, “Do we have enough funding?”
22
Quotation Marks “”

▪ Quotation marks (“ ”) are used to enclose a direct quotation of spoken or

written words.

Commas and periods always go inside closing quotation marks.

▪ “Reading Computer World gives me the insider’s view,” he says, adding,

“It’s like a conversation with the top experts.”

Semicolons and colons always go outside closing quotation marks.

▪ He said, “I will pay the full amount”; this statement surprised us.
23
Quotation Marks “”

▪ All other punctuation such as ? And ! follows the logic of the context: If
the punctuation is part of the material quoted, it goes inside the quotation
marks; if the punctuation is not part of the material quoted, it goes outside
the quotation marks.

▪ Direct and Indirect Quotations

▪ She said clearly, “I want the progress report by three o’clock.”

▪ She said that she wanted the progress report by three o’clock.

24
Quotation Marks “”

▪ Use single quotation marks (‘ ’) to enclose a quotation that appears within

a quotation.

▪ John said, “Jane told me that she was going to ‘stay with the project if it
takes all year.’”

▪ Titles of Works

▪ His report, “Effects of Government Regulations on Motorcycle Safety,”

cited the article “No-Fault Insurance and Motorcycles”.
25
 Semicolon (;)

▪ The semicolon (;) links independent clauses when they are not joined by a
comma and a conjunction. It indicates a greater pause between clauses than
does a comma but not as great a pause as a period.

▪ The new web site was a success; every division reported increased online
sales.

▪ Do not use a semicolon between a dependent clause and its main clause.

26
Semicolon (;)

With Strong Connectives

▪ A semicolon should also be used before conjunctive adverbs (therefore,

moreover, consequently, furthermore, indeed, in fact, however) that connect

independent clauses.

▪ The test results are not complete; therefore, I cannot make a

recommendation.
27
Semicolon (;)

For clarity in long sentences

▪ Use a semicolon between two independent clauses connected by a
coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, so, yet) if the clauses are long
and contain other punctuation.

▪ In most cases, these individuals are executives, bankers, or lawyers; but

they do not simply push the button of their economic power to affect local
politics.
28
 slash (/)
▪ Alternatives
David’s telephone numbers are (800) 549-2278/2235.
▪ Combinations
Check the on/off switch before you leave.
▪ Omissions
Miles/hour (miles per hour); w/o (without)
▪ Dates
5/11/2017 (avoid this form in technical writing, especially in international
correspondence)
▪ Alternatives: 5 November 201 / November 5, 2017
29
 Technical Writing
Lecture 7

Writing Mechanics

• Abbreviations
• Ampersand
• Capitalization
1
Abbreviations

▪ Abbreviations are shortened versions of words or combinations of

the first letters of words (Corp./Corporation, URL/Uniform
Resource Locator).

▪ Initialisms: Abbreviations that are formed by combining the initial

letter of each word in a multiword term – can be pronounced as
separate letters (AC or ac/alternating current).

▪ Acronyms: Abbreviations that combine the first letter or letters of

several words—and can be pronounced as a word (PIN/personal
identification number). 2
Other uses of abbreviations
▪ A good rule to follow when you use abbreviations is :
▪ “when in doubt, spell it out.”
▪ The most important consideration in the use of abbreviations is whether they
will be understood by:
✓ your main audience
✓ your secondary audience

▪ Remember that e-mail or reports addressed to specific people may be read by

other people—you must consider those secondary audiences as well.

▪ DO NOT overuse abbreviations in an attempt to make your writing concise or to

show off your strength in writing because it will be considered affectation.
3
1.1. Name of Organizations
▪ A company may include in its name a term such as Brothers, Incorporated,
Corporation, Company, or Limited Liability Company. If the above terms are
abbreviated in the official company name that appears on letterhead
stationery or on its Web site, use the abbreviated forms:

▪ Bros. for Brothers

▪ Inc. for Incorporated
▪ Corp. for Corporation
▪ Co. for Company
▪ LLC for Limited Liability Company

▪ Do not add an additional period at the end of a sentence that ends with an
abbreviation. 4
1.2. Measurement Units

▪ Abbreviations of measurement units do not require periods (yd for

yard, m for meter, and kg for kilograms), except for abbreviations
that may be confused with words (in. for inch and gal. for gallon).

▪ Abbreviations of units of measure are identical in the singular

and plural: 1 cm and 15 cm (not 15 cms).

▪ Some abbreviations can be used in combination with other

symbols (°F for degrees Fahrenheit and ft2 for square feet).

5
1.3. Personal Names and Titles

▪ Personal names generally should not be abbreviated: Thomas (not

Thos.) and William (not Wm.).

▪ An academic, civil, religious, or military title should be spelled out and

in lowercase when it does not precede a name.
▪ The captain wanted to check the orders.
▪ When they precede names, titles are abbreviated (Dr. Smith, Mr. Mills,
Ms. Katz).
▪ Capt. Nasser is sick today.

6
Recommendations for Abbreviations

▪ Generally, use periods for lowercase initialisms (a.k.a., p.m…. etc) but not
for uppercase ones (GDP, UPS, DHL). Exceptions include geographic
names (U.S., U.K., E.U.) and the traditional expression of academic degrees
(B.A., M.B.A., Ph.D.). However, these days the periods can be omitted with
the latter initialisms.

▪ Do NOT follow an abbreviation with a word that repeats the final term in the
abbreviation

▪ (HIV transmission not HIV virus transmission).

7
2. Ampersand (&)

▪ The ampersand (&) is a symbol sometimes used to

represent the word and, especially in the names of
organizations (Kirkwell & Associates).

▪ When you are writing the name of an organization in

sentences, addresses, or references, spell out the word
and unless the ampersand appears in the organization’s
official name on its letterhead stationery or Web site.

8
3. Capitalization
3.1. First words
▪ Examples:
✓ The meeting will address only one issue: What is the
firm’s role in environmental protection?
✓ Albert Einstein stated, “Imagination is more important
than knowledge.”

▪ The first word in the salutation (Dear Mr. Smith:) and

complimentary close (Sincerely yours,) are capitalized, as
are the names of the recipients. 9
3.2. Specific Groups

Capitalize the names of:

✓ Ethnic groups (i.e. Native Americans)

✓ Religions (i.e. Christianity, Islam, Hindus .. etc)

✓ Nationalities (i.e. Saudi Arabian or Mongolian)

10
3.3. Specific Institutions, Events, Concepts

✓ Institutions (IAU)

✓ Events and Concepts (Labor Day, January … etc)

▪ Do NOT capitalize seasons of the year (spring, summer,

autumn, winter).
11
3.4. Titles of Works
▪ Capitalize the initial letters of the first, last, and major words in
the title of a book, an article, a report, a play, or a film.
▪ Do not capitalize articles (a, an, the), coordinating
conjunctions (and, but), or prepositions unless they begin or end
the title (The Lives of a Cell).
▪ Capitalize prepositions within titles when they contain five or
more letters (Between, Within, Until, After), unless you are
following a style that recommends otherwise.
▪ The same rules apply to the subject lines of e-mails, letters, or
memos. 12
3.5. Professional and Personal Titles

▪ Titles preceding proper names are capitalized (Senator

Lieberman, Professor Ahmad).
▪ Appositives following proper names normally are not capitalized.
(Joseph Lieberman, senator from New York, visited the protesters
at the Times Square.) Normally means you can capitalize it too.

▪ Job titles used with personal names are capitalized (Abdul-

Hakeem, Head of Department).
▪ Job titles used without personal names are not capitalized. (The
head of department will meet us tomorrow.)
13
 Technical Writing
Lecture 8

Business Communication – Part 1

• Memoranda
• Definition
• Purposes
• Components
• E-mail
• Formal and informal email
• E-mail Format
• Importance of E-mail
• Emails to communicate matters of work
1
• Problems
Outlines

Memo
Writing

E-mail
Letters
2
Memos

▪ What is the difference between letters and memos?

▪ A memo (or memoranda) is an internal correspondence which

means information is transmitted within an organization.

▪ Whereas letters are external correspondences. They are used

to transmit information to those outside an organization.

▪ The contents of memos and letters can be the same, although

they have different formats. 3
Purposes of Memos

▪ To announce the hiring or departure of personnel

▪ To issue a new policy

▪ To report on certain activities

▪ To give instruction

▪ To remind staff about tasks they must accomplish

4
Memoranda Components
▪ The contents of memos and letters can be the same, although
they have different formats. Memos replace the eight
letter essential components with the following memo
identification lines:
o Memo Format :

▪ Date is the month, day, and year in which you are writing.

▪ To names your reader.

▪ From is your name.

▪ Subject (typed in all capitals) provides your audience two things: a

topic and a focus. 5
Memoranda Components
▪ The contents of memos and letters can be the same, although
they have different formats. Memos replace the eight
letter essential components with the following memo
identification lines:
o Memo Format :

▪ Date is the month, day, and year in which you are writing.

▪ To names your reader.

▪ From is your name.

▪ Subject (typed in all capitals) provides your audience two things: a

topic and a focus. 6
Memo Subject
▪ Example 1:
▪ Subject: Vacation schedule for accountants.
Accountants is the topic of the memo │ Vacation schedule is the focus.
▪ The focus aids communication more than the topic.
▪ The topic, for instance, can stay the same, while the focus changes.
▪ Example 2:
▪ Subject: SALARY INCREASE FOR ACCOUNTANTS
▪ Subject: TERMINATION OF ACCOUNTANTS
▪ In each of these instances, the topic stays the same: Accountants.
▪ Notice, then, how important the focus comments are. We see a huge
difference between salary increases, vacation schedules, and termination.
7
Example

▪ In addition to the identification lines

(Subject), memos differ from letters
in one other subtle way: memos are
initialed next to the From line, rather
than the end

▪ Successful memos, like letters,

have an introduction, body, and
conclusion

8
Outlines

Memo
Writing

E-mail
Letters
9
E-mail

▪ E-mail has the flexibility of

acting as a very informal means
of communication or a much
more formal transmittal. Since
e-mail messages can be so
easily composed and sent,
extreme care should be taken
in what is said.
10
Formal and informal e-mail

▪ Informal :
▪ Written to friends and family

▪ Accuracy and grammar (spelling and punctuation) are not important

▪ You can make up your own rules.

Example: Hi cousin, I miss you so much! Can’t wait to see you on Friday!! We
haven’t hung out in so long! Maybe we can go to the movies or dinner or just
chill and watch TV and catch up...idc, whichever you want. C u.
Jules
11
Formal e-mail
▪ Written to a professor, colleague, boss, etc.
▪ Must always be professional
▪ Accurate grammar, punctuation, and spelling necessary

Example: Dear Professor Johnson,

I was unable to attend class today due to a doctor’s appointment.
When you have a moment, could please let me know what I missed
and what homework I need to have completed for Friday?
Thank you,
Julia Smith
12
Email Format

▪ Salutation:
▪ The salutation of a formal email is similar to the salutation of a letter. When
writing to someone you do not know by name, you put “To Whom it May
Concern.”

▪ When applying for a job, you would address the person by, “Dear Hiring
Manager.” If you do know the recipient’s name, you put “Dear Mr./Ms.
Smith.”

▪ For a formal salutation, you should not use the recipient’s first name or the
informal greetings “Hello” or “Hey.”

13
Email Format
Body Paragraphs:
▪ It is important to remember that an email needs to be concise.

▪ The first sentence, known as the opening sentence, can be a

greeting if the situation allows it.

▪ I hope all is well with you.

▪ Thank you for your prompt response.

▪For most formal emails it is best to get straight to the point.

14
Email Format
Body Paragraphs:
▪ Depending on the subject, you should have a maximum of four
paragraphs
▪ Each paragraph should contain a single point.
▪ It is important to provide questions in order to prompt a response.
▪ At the end of your last paragraph you should provide a “thank
you” or “call to action” depending on the subject of your email.
▪ Thank you for your assistance with...
▪ Thank you for your time and I look forward to hearing back from you.
▪ Please feel free to call or email me if you have any questions.
▪ I would appreciate it if this could be taken care of promptly. 15
Email Format
Closing:
▪ Like the salutation, the closing of a formal email can be the same
as the closing to a letter.
▪ Thank you; Best regards; Sincerely Yours
▪The closing is followed by your Auto-Signature.
▪Make sure your auto-signature contains your name, address of your
institution, and telephone and fax numbers. You may also want to
include such things as the URL of a personal website.
Example:
Sincerely,
Julia Smith
Student Body President
16
Menlo College(555) 555-555
Why is e-mail Important?
Just look at these numbers:​

▪ 140 million people will use e-mail in 2003.​

▪ 80 percent of business employees say that e-mail has

replaced most of their written business communication.​

▪ 45 percent of business employees say that e-mail has

replaced most of their business-related phone calls.​

▪ 66 percent of business employees say that they are e-

mail only communicators.
17
E-mail

▪ Letters are external correspondence; memos are internal

correspondence. E-mail (electronic mail), in contrast, can be both
internal and/or external.

▪ Employees can e-mail each other within a company and/or e-mail

vendors, clients, and colleagues outside a company.

▪ E-mail is similar to memos in that both use identification lines.

18
Emails: Benefits

▪ E-mail is rapidly becoming one of the world’s most important

means of communicating in the business place

▪ The benefits include:

▪ Allowing a writer to instantly communicate with a reader

▪ Can be sent to numerous readers at the same time

▪ Allows the writers and readers to chat with each other online. A real-time
dialogue is possible, whereas memos and letters may require days or
weeks for dialogue to occur.
19
Emails to communicate matters of work

▪ When using email to communicate matters of work, you need to

take into account the following:

▪ Style of writing
▪ Confidentiality
▪ Permanence
▪ Commercial sensitivity
▪ Contractual material
▪ Attachments
▪ Unnecessary messages
▪ Content of auto-signature
20
Email: Style of writing

▪ Take as much care writing an email as you would in writing a

letter. Be careful what you say and how you say it.

▪ Don't use the pop conventions of the email culture. Lower case
letters at the start of sentences, i instead of I, u instead of you, will
make a poor impression.

▪ For people you know, it may be appropriate to start the message

with their name followed by a colon.
21
Email: Style of writing

▪ For someone you don't know or are on formal terms with, start with

the conventional Dear Mr/Mrs/Ms/Dr/Prof. Close with the

corresponding closing.

▪ Structure the content of your message in the same way as you

would a letter.

22
 Email: Confidentiality, permanence,
Commercial sensitivity

1. Assume that mail travelling via the Internet is not confidential. Never

put in a mail message something that you wouldn't want other people

to read.

2. Don't regard your files - sent or received - as in safe keeping.

Networks are not fail-safe. Print out hard copies of anything important.

3. No commercially sensitive material should be sent by email. 23

 Email: Attachment
1. Avoid using email for contractual material unless it is followed by hard

copies.

2. When sending or receiving attachments, scan them for viruses.

3. Check the size of file attachments before you send them. If they are

large, zip the file first; this avoids transmission decoding problems.

4. Any files sent via email must have the permission of the author.
24
Email: Unnecessary message

▪ Don't send unnecessary messages, particularly when forwarding

material to large groups. The minor effort involved in doing it is far

outweighed by the irritation it can cause.

25
 E-mails problems
▪ Instantaneous communication hinders the writer’s ability to double-check facts,
effectively proofread text, and achieve the correct tone.

▪ If we write something that might be offensive, we can set the memo or letter aside
for awhile. Then, at a later date, we could review the original and revise
accordingly.

▪ E-mail, in contrast, can be sent at the push of a button. This speed may hinder
our revision.

▪ People don’t like scrolling endlessly. Instead, e-mail should abide by the
WYSIWYG factor (What You See Is What You Get). One, viewable screen of text
26
 E-mail and computer viruses

▪ Computer viruses, easily spread via e-mail, make readers cautious about
opening e-mail from unknown sources. To avoid this problem, you should use
Sig. Lines in your e-mail.

▪ These signature lines tell readers who you are (since e-mail addresses like

▪ [email protected] or

▪ [email protected] don’t communicate clearly).

▪ Ideal signature lines include your name, your organization/company, contact

information (phone and fax numbers), and your URL and e-mail address.
27
 The biggest problem in e-mail is lack of
professionalism
▪ Students are used to writing IMs—Instant Messages—to their friends. That’s not
what we’re talking about in this lecture. We’re discussing e-mail written in the
workplace, to bosses, co-workers, vendors, and clients. In instant messages, our
students can get away with poor punctuation and spelling.

28
 The biggest problem in e-mail is lack of
professionalism
▪ But for business e-mail, those errors create the wrong image, making
employees and companies look unprofessional.

▪ Stafford continues by stating, “job readiness education is a good thing in

middle schools and high schools…Teach [students] that what’s
acceptable in instant messaging isn’t appropriate for job hunting” (C1:
May 2, 2002).

29
Example
Dear Miss Martha,

With reference to the upcoming review meeting on Thursday the 13 November, I am afraid
that due to personal reasons, I will not be able to attend.

Would you object if we postponed the meeting to next week? If this is appropriate, what
day would be convenient for you?

If you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact me on my mobile, 1902341892.
Allow me to apologise for any inconvenience this may cause.

I look forward to hearing from you.

Yours sincerely,
Dr. Lola
30
E-mails problems

31
Thank you

See you next week 32