CHAPTER 8

COORDINATION
COORDINATION:
NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Nervous System
◦ To coordinate the activities of the body
◦ Sensory function
◦ Carry information into the brain and spinal cord
◦ Integration function: information processing
◦ Perception = awareness of sensory input
◦ Analyzing and storing information to help lead to appropriate
responses
◦ Motor function: efferent nerves
◦ Signals to muscles and glands (effectors)
Structures of the Nervous System
◦ Brain: neurons enclosed within the skull
◦ Spinal cord: connects to the brain and is
enclosed within the spinal cavity
◦ Nerves: bundles of many axons of neurons
◦ Cranial nerves (12 pairs) emerge from the brain
◦ Spinal nerves (31 pairs) emerge from the spinal cord
◦ Ganglia: groups of neuron cell bodies
located outside of the brain and spinal cord
◦ Sensory receptors: monitor changes in
internal or external environments
Structures of the Nervous System
Organization of the Nervous
System

◦ Central Nervous System (CNS)

◦ Brain and spinal cord
◦ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
◦ All nervous system structures outside of the CNS
◦ Cranial nerves and branches
◦ Spinal nerves and branches
◦ Ganglia
◦ Sensory receptors
 Cells of the Nervous System
◦ Neurons
◦ Can respond to stimuli and convert stimuli to
electrical signals (nerve impulses) that travel along
neurons
◦ Neuroglia cells: support, nourish and protect neurons
◦ Neuroglia critical for homeostasis of interstitial fluid
around neurons

Schwann
Oligodendrocytes ependymal cells

Satellite
astrocytes microglia
Neuronal Structure
◦ Cell body: nucleus, cytoplasm with typical organelles
◦ Dendrites: highly branched structures that carry
impulses to the cell body
◦ Axon: conducts away from the cell body toward
another neuron, muscle or gland
◦ Emerges at the cone-shaped axon
hillock
◦ Axon terminals: contain
synaptic vesicles that can
release neurotransmitters
Neuronal
Structure
Resting potential
◦ Most of the cells maintain a potential difference across the membrane
◦ The outside of most cell membranes is positively charged compared to
the inside
◦ The charge difference across membrane = resting potential
◦ The axon membrane is partially permeable
◦ ECF is reach with Na+ and CI-
◦ The membrane has more K+ channels, thus is more permeable to K+
 Resting potential
◦ Potassium ions that diffuse out of the cell into ECF is greater than the
number of sodium ions that diffuse from ECF into the cell
◦ Hence, the inside of the cell becomes more negative
◦ Nerve cell is actively transporting ions across its membrane even when the
cell not conducting any impulse
◦ By actively transporting sodium and potassium ions against the
concentration and electrochemical gradient – Na+ K+ pump
◦ Thus, reducing the sodium ions inside the axon (maintaining resting
potential)
Generation of action potential
◦ Action potential (AP) or impulse is a sequence of rapidly occurring
events that decrease and reverse the membrane potential back to
resting
◦ At rest, the membrane potential is -70 mV
◦ Stimulation of neuron cause an increase in the permeability of its axon
membrane to sodium ions
Generation of action potential
◦ When depolarization reaches a threshold level, an AP or impulse is
initiated. The membrane potential now is -50 mV
◦ The negative membrane potential becomes less negative (reaches
zero) and becomes positive - depolarization
◦ The depolarization opens more sodium channel gates and makes
membrane more permeable to sodium ions
Generation of action potential
◦ At the end of the depolarization, the voltage-gated Na+ channel close
◦ The voltage-gated K+ channel opens allowing K+ to flow out
◦ Membrane potential is restored to the resting state of -70 mV- repolarization
◦ The voltage-gated K+ channel remains open and the membrane potential
becomes even more negative (-90 mV)
◦ As the voltage-gated K+ channel close, the membrane potential return to the
resting level of -70 mV
◦ During this process, there is a refractory period, when the first AP begin, the
cell cannot generate the second AP
Impulse along an axon
◦ To communicate information from one part of the body to
another, an impulse must travel from the axon hillock → along
the axon → terminal = propagation
◦ Depolarization to the axon hillock opens the voltage-gated
Na+ channel
◦ The resulting inflow of sodium ions depolarizes the adjacent
membrane to the threshold
◦ Thus, open even more voltage-gated Na+ channels and nerve
impulse self-conduct along the axon
Impulse along an axon
◦ AP conduction in unmyelinated axons is called continuous
conduction
◦ Each segment is depolarized to the threshold and generates AP
Impulse along an axon
◦ In myelinated axons, conduction is different
◦ The voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels are located primarily
at the nodes of Ranvier (gaps in the myelin sheath)
◦ Current carried by Na+ and K+ flows through the interstitial
fluid surrounding the myelin sheath and through the cytosol
from one node to the next
◦ Impulse at the first node generates ionic currents that open
Na+ channels at the second node, trigger a nerve impulse,
and so on.
◦ Each node depolarizes and repolarize
◦ Impulse travel is more rapid along myelinated axons as it leap
from one node to another – saltatory conduction
Impulse along an axon
◦ Each node depolarizes and repolarize
◦ Impulse travel is more rapid along myelinated axons as it leap
from one node to another – saltatory conduction

◦
Synaptic Transmission
◦ Process of how neurons communicate with each
other.
◦ Triggered by action potential (nerve impulse)
◦ Components of synapse:
◦ Sending neuron: presynaptic neuron (releases
neurotransmitter)
◦ Space between neurons: synaptic cleft
◦ Receiving neuron: postsynaptic neuron
Synaptic Transmission
Action potential arrives at presynaptic
neuron’s end bulb

Opens voltage gated Ca2+ channels →

Ca2+ flows into presynaptic cytosol

Increased Ca2+ concentration →

exocytosis of synaptic vesicles

Neurotransmitter (NT) released into cleft

NT diffuses across cleft and binds to

receptors in postsynaptic cell membrane
Synaptic Transmission
Binding of neurotransmitter open ion
channels, which allows certain ions to flow
across membrane

Ion flow cause voltage changes that

caused post synaptic to be depolarized or
hyperpolarization

If depolarization occurs, post synaptic will

reach it threshold, and eventually trigger
nerve impulse
Signal Transmission at the Chemical
Synapse

23
Synaptic Transmission
◦ One-way transmission only because
◦ Only presynaptic cells release NT
◦ Only postsynaptic cells have receptors for NT
binding
◦ Finally, NT must be removed from the cleft. Three
possible mechanisms
◦ Diffusion out of cleft
◦ Destruction by enzymes (such as ACh-ase) in
cleft
◦ Transport back (recycling) into presynaptic cell
Neurotransmitters
◦ Acetylcholine (ACh): common in PNS
◦ Stimulatory (on skeletal muscles)
◦ Inhibitory (on cardiac muscle)
◦ Amino acids
◦ Glutamate, aspartate, gamma aminobutyric acid
(GABA), glycine
◦ Modified amino acids
◦ Norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA), serotonin
◦ Neuropeptides such as endorphins
◦ Nitric oxide (NO)
COORDINATION:
MECHANISM OF
MUSCULAR CONTROL
Neuromuscular junction
◦ Before a skeletal muscle fibre can contract, it must be stimulated by an electrical
signal called a muscle action potential
◦ Coming from motor neuron
◦ Axon of a motor neuron enter a skeletal muscle, it divides into branches- axon terminal
◦ This structure located at the indentions of muscle fiber – sarcolemma
◦ The end of axon terminal enlarge into swelling – synaptic end bulbs
◦ Contain synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitter
◦ The space between axon terminal and sarcolemma is synaptic cleft
◦ Communication of motor neurons with muscles (synapse) is called neuromuscular
junction (NMJ)
Neuromuscular junction
Structure of sarcomere and
muscular contraction
• Skeletal muscle tissue is made up of

i. Muscle fiber/myocytes

ii. Connective tissue

iii. Blood Vessels

iv. Nerves
Structure of sarcomere and
muscular contraction
Myofibrils
◦ Consist of small protein called as filaments @ myofilaments

◦ There are 2 types of filaments :

• Thin Filament (diameter: 8 nm ; long: 1-2 μm; Composed of actin)
• Thick Filament (diameter: 16 nm ; long: 1-2 μm; Composed of
myosin)

◦ Filaments are arranged in compartment called as “ sarcomere”

◦ Each sarcomere is seperated by a narrow, plate-shaped region called a

Z disc
◦ Components of sarcomere are organized into variety of :
• Bands
• Zones
Structure of sarcomere and
muscular contraction
A Band anisotropic bands - dark bands that contain whole thick filaments
(myosin)
I Band Isotropic bands) - light bands that contain only the thin filaments (actin)
and are located between the two thick filaments
M line Marks the middle of the sarcomere and contains the protein called
myomesin
H zone Is the area between the M line and Z disc. The H zone contains only
myosin
Z disc Is an area that traverses the I bands and marks the point of the
connection between the two neighboring actin filaments
Structure of sarcomere and
muscular contraction
o Protein that make up myofibril can be divided
into :

•Generate force during •Help switch the •Contribute to the

contraction contraction process on alignment,stability,
•Actin (Thin filament) & and of elasticity, and
Myosin (Thick filament) •Troponin and extensibility of myofibrils
tropomyosin (both are •titin, α-actinin,
part of thin filament) myomesin, nebulin, and
dystrophin

Contractile Regulatory Structural

protein protein protein
Structure of sarcomere and
muscular contraction
Structure of sarcomere and
muscular contraction
◦ Sliding Filament Mechanism/ Theory
• sequence of events that links excitation (a muscle action
potential) to contraction (sliding of the filaments)
◦ Contraction cycle
• the repeating sequence of events that causes the filaments to
slide—begins
• Consist of 4 steps
Structure of sarcomere and
muscular contraction
Structure of sarcomere and
muscular contraction
COORDINATION:
SKELETAL SYSTEM
Introduction & functions
◦ Skeletal system is one of the most important system for human
body
◦ The entire framework of bones (Osseous tissue) and cartilage
constitute the skeletal system.
◦ Basically, skeletal system have several functions :

Assistance
Support Protection in
movement

Mineral
Blood cells Storage for
Homeostasis
production triglycerides
Bones Types
Bones cells
Bone histology
Division or classification

APPENDICULAR
AXIAL SKELETAL
SKELETAL
SYSTEM
SYSTEM
(80 BONES)
(126 BONES)
Division or classification
 COORDINATION:
HORMONE IN MAMMALS
Endocrine system
o Releases hormones into interstitial fluid → blood →
general circulation
o Effectors: virtually any type of body cell so can
have widespread effects on diverse aspects of
metabolism
o Slower, longer-lasting responses as hormones linger
in blood
Endocrine system
 Hormone action
◦ Hormones are carried in the bloodstream
◦ But only certain cells can be affected by hormones
◦ These target cells have thousands of receptors specific for a
particular hormone.
◦ Response determined by responding cell: different cells may
respond differently to the same hormone.
◦ Cell may have > 1 type of receptor, so can respond to more
than one hormone
 Hormone chemistry
◦ Lipid-soluble
◦ Steroids, such as testosterone, estrogens
◦ Thyroid hormones: T3 and T4
◦ Nitric oxide (NO)
◦ Water-soluble
◦ Amino acid derivatives, such as epinephrine,
norepinephrine
◦ Peptides: antidiuretic hormone (ADH), oxytocin
◦ Proteins: insulin and growth hormone
◦ General action depends on chemistry
 Lipid soluble action
◦ Hormone detaches from carrier in blood stream
◦ Diffuses through interstitial fluid and cell membrane
into cell
◦ Binds to receptor and activates it
◦ Receptor-hormone complex alters gene expression
◦ If new mRNA → protein synthesis
◦ New proteins alter cell activity
Lipid Free hormone Blood capillary

soluble Transport
1 Lipid-soluble

action
hormone
protein diffuses into cell

2 Activated
Nucleus
receptor-hormone Receptor
complex alters
gene expression
DNA
Cytosol
mRNA
3 Newly formed
mRNA directs Ribosome
synthesis of
specific proteins
on ribosomes

Target cell
 Water soluble action
◦ Hormone (first messenger) diffuses from blood and
binds to receptor in plasma membrane
◦ Starts reaction inside cell forming second messenger
◦ Cyclic AMP is a common one
◦ Second messenger causes activation of several
proteins (enzymes)
◦ Activated proteins produce physiological responses
◦ Second messenger is inactivated
 Blood capillary

Water
soluble 1 Binding of hormone (first messenger)
to its receptor activates G protein,

action
Water-soluble which activates adenylate cyclase
hormone
Receptor Adenylate cyclase

Second messenger
G protein
ATP cAMP 2 Activated adenylate
cyclase converts
ATP to cAMP
Protein kinases 6 Phosphodiesterase
inactivates cAMP
3 cAMP serves as a Activated
second messenger protein
to activate protein kinases
kinases
4 Activated protein
Protein kinases
phosphorylate
ATP cellular proteins

ADP

Protein— P

5 Millions of phosphorylated
proteins cause reactions that
produce physiological responses

Target cell
Endocrine system
 CHAPTER 8

COORDINATION:
HORMONE IN PLANTS
 Roles of hormones
◦ A plant hormone is an organic
molecules synthesized in tissue of
plant
◦ Provide physiology control on growth
& development as well as responses
to environmental stimuli
◦ There are 5 main naturally occurring
plant hormones
 Auxin
◦ Synthesized mainly in shoot apical meristems, young leaves and
embryos
◦ Most common auxin is indole-3-acetic acid (IAA)
◦ To promote cell elongation- shoot growth
◦ Auxin moves laterally away from light
◦ The greater auxin concentration on the shady side will stimulate
greater cell elongation and result in curvature
◦ Also responsible for the downward growth of root tip. Roots show
a different sensitivity towards auxin
◦ It is possible to propagate a plant vegetatively by obtaining a cut
stem
1 2 A higher auxin concentration causes
Auxin moves downward in
more rapid growth on the lower side.
response to gravity
The tip curves upward
 Gibberellin
◦ Mostly found in young expanding organs: young leaves, buds,
seed and root tips
◦ More than 100 gibberellin reported from different organism such
as fungi and higher plants
◦ Contribute to stem elongation, embryo growth and seed
germination
◦ Also involves in terminating dormancy of certain seeds especially
cereals
◦ GA5 can be used to increase height of a plant
◦ GA3 and GA7 cause apple to elongate and improve their shape,
delay senescence – prolong market period
◦ Allow flowering for long-day plant species (without appropriate
long-day exposure)
 Cytokinins
◦ Synthesized in region where rapid cell division is occurring like
root, developing buds, young fruits
◦ Function in stimulating growth of cells and accelerating the rate
of cell division
◦ Can also change structure of plant tissue : cause root and shoot
formation in plant tissue culture (interact with auxin)
◦ Causing lateral buds to develop
◦ Prevents leaves from yellowing – delay senescene
◦ Stimulate germination
 Abscisic acid
◦ Supress the activity of auxin, cytokinins and gibberellin
◦ Also known as growth-inhibitor in plants
◦ Collected largely from the ovary bases of fruits and its
concentration is highest at the time fruit drop
◦ Also promotes stomatal closure during water stress
 Ethylene (ethene)
◦ Gaseous hormone produced within the body of a plant
◦ Derived from amino acid methionine
◦ Can be found in ripening fruits, aging flowers, leaves and nodes
of stem
◦ Allow plant to respond to mechanical stress and pathogen
attack
◦ Control leaf and flower ageing
◦ Break seed and bud dormancy, initiate germination in peanut
seeds and sprouting of potato tubers
◦ Promotes the production of sugar that increases fruit sweetness
during ripening in some fruit
 Phytochrome and its regulation in
flowering
◦ Is a blue-green-light sensitive pigment
◦ There are 2 forms:
◦ Pfr (phytochrome far-red) or P730
◦ Pr (phytochrome red) or P660
◦ Attached to a protein and concentrated in the growing tips
◦ When exposed to red light, phytochrome is converted rapidly
from Pr to Pfr
◦ When exposed to far red light, photochrome is converted from
Pfr to Pr (the conversion occur in a slow rate during darkness)
◦ Examples:
◦ The germination of lettuce seeds required a light stimulus, and this is
affected by red light and reversed by far-red light
◦ Stem elongation and leaf expansion could be influenced by red
light
 Photoperiodism
◦ Day-length (number of hours of daylight in each 24 hour cycle)
◦ Also called photoperiod
◦ Variation in photoperiod is one of the important ways in which
light exerts its influence on living organism
◦ A physiological response affected by changes in photoperiod is
called photoperiodism : biological response to the relative
lengths of daylight and darkness in 24 hours daily cycle

•Require the night • Require day length •Can flower under any
length or dark period loner for flowering night or day length
longer for flowering • Can flower under •Tomato, cucumber,
•Cannot flower under continuous light cotton
continuous light • wheat., barley,
•Chrysanthemum, spinach
soyabean, potato

Short day Long day Day neutral

plants (SDP) plants (LDP) plants
Thank You