Unit-I

Introduction to FACTS

1.1 FLOW OF POWER IN AN AC SYSTEM:

The power flow in AC systems is influenced by the topology of the network. Here are
key insights into how power flows in various topologies as discussed in the document:

a) Power Flow in Parallel Paths:

In a system where power flows through parallel paths, the flow is determined by
the impedances of each path. Power takes the path of least impedance, often leading to
unequal distribution of power among the paths, with the lower impedance path possibly
becoming overloaded. This imbalance in power flow can limit the total transfer capacity,
even if one of the paths is not fully utilized. The introduction of technologies like HVDC
(High-Voltage Direct Current) or FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) controllers
can alleviate this by controlling the power flow in individual lines to balance loads and
prevent overloading.
 b) Power Flow in Meshed Systems:
In meshed systems, where multiple generators send power to a load center via
several interconnected lines, power flows according to the relative impedances of the
various paths. In this type of system, power distribution becomes more complex, and
individual lines may be overloaded depending on the impedances. Series compensation
(e.g., with capacitors) can reduce the effective impedance and redirect power flows to
better utilize the network capacity.

For example:
Series Capacitors: These reduce the effective impedance of a line, increasing the amount
of power flowing through that line. This method allows power to be redistributed more
evenly across the network.
Series Inductors: In contrast to capacitors, these can be inserted to increase the impedance
of certain lines, reducing power flow through those lines and redistributing it elsewhere.

1.2 RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF CONTROLLABLE PARAMETERS:

The relative importance of controllable parameters in AC systems is critical to
managing power flow, maintaining stability, and optimizing the capacity of transmission
networks. The document outlines the following key controllable parameters and their
relative significance:
a) Impedance (X) Control:
Controlling the series impedance of a transmission line is one of the most powerful
ways to regulate the current and power flow in an AC system. For example, using series
compensation techniques like Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) reduces the
effective impedance, which increases power transfer capability.
 Impact on Power Flow: When the transmission angle (δ) between two buses is not
large (typically the case in most AC systems), impedance control has a significant
effect on the active power flow.
Dynamic Stability: By dynamically adjusting the impedance, the system can respond
to changing load conditions and maintain power transfer without overloading specific
lines.

b) Voltage Magnitude (V) Control:

Controlling the voltage magnitude at the sending and receiving ends of a transmission
line (e.g., through Shunt Controllers like SVCs or Static Synchronous Compensators
(STATCOM)) can effectively regulate the reactive power flow.
Voltage Regulation: Adjusting the voltage magnitude helps stabilize the voltage profile
along the transmission line, which is critical for preventing voltage collapse during high-
load or contingency conditions. Voltage control also helps maintain the required voltage
levels for efficient power transfer.
Reactive Power Flow: Changes in voltage magnitude have a larger influence on reactive
power flow than on active power flow, making this parameter crucial for voltage stability
rather than for controlling active power directly.

c) Phase Angle (δ) Control:

The phase angle difference between the sending and receiving ends of a transmission
line (δ) is a direct indicator of the active power flow. Controlling this angle via devices such
as Phase Angle Regulators (PAR) or Unified Power Flow Controllers (UPFC) allows fine-
tuning of the power flow between buses.
Active Power Control: When the angle is small, controlling the phase angle can effectively
manage the active power flow in a transmission system. It is particularly useful for
maintaining system stability and preventing large power swings between interconnected
regions.
Damping Oscillations: Modifying the phase angle can also help in damping power
oscillations, which improves the transient stability of the system following disturbances.

d) Series Voltage Injection:

Injecting a series voltage into the transmission line, especially when this voltage is in
quadrature with the current, can directly influence the power flow. Devices like Static
Synchronous Series Compensators (SSSC) are used to inject such voltages, altering the
current flow and enhancing the control of both active and reactive power.
Power Flow Control: Injecting a voltage in quadrature to the current influences active
power flow, while varying the phase angle and magnitude of the injected voltage can
influence both active and reactive power.
Enhanced Stability: Series voltage injection also enhances system stability by quickly
adjusting to changes in load conditions.

e) Combination of Series and Shunt Control

Using both series and shunt controllers together can offer comprehensive control over
both active and reactive power flows. This is the core principle behind devices like the
Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC), which can regulate voltage, impedance, and phase
angle simultaneously.
 Active and Reactive Power Management: This combination allows for independent
control of the active power flow (through series control) and reactive power flow (through
shunt control), offering greater flexibility and reliability in system operation.

1.3 BASIC TYPES OF FACTS CONTROLLERS

In general, FACTS Controllers can be divided into four categories:
a) Series Controllers
b) Shunt Controllers
c) Combined series-series Controllers
d) Combined series-shunt Controllers
Figure 1.3 shows the general symbol for a FACTS Controller: a thyristor arrow inside a
box.

Series Controllers:
Figure l.3 (b)] The series Controller could be a variable impedance, such as capacitor,
reactor, etc. In principle, all series Controllers inject voltage in series with the line. Even a
variable impedance multiplied by the current flow through it, represents an injected series
voltage in the line. As long as the voltage is in phase quadrature with the line current, the
series controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other phase
relationship will involve handling of real power as well.
Shunt Controllers:
[Figure 1.3(c)] As in the case of series controllers, the shunt controllers may be variable
impedance, variable source, or a combination of these. In principle, all shunt controllers
inject current into the system at the point of connection. Even a variable shunt impedance
connected to the line voltage causes a variable current flow and hence represents injection
of current into the line. As long as the injected current is in phase quadrature with the line
voltage, the shunt Controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other
phase relationship will involve handling of real power as well.

Combined series-series Controllers:

[Figure 1.3(d)] This could be a combination of separate series controllers, which are
controlled in a coordinated manner, in a multiline transmission system. Or it could be a
unified Controller, Figure 1.4(d), in which series Controllers provide independent series
reactive compensation for each line but also transfer real power among the lines via the
power link. The real power transfer capability of the unified series-series Controller,
referred to as Interline Power Flow Controller, makes it possible to balance both the real
and reactive power flow in the lines and thereby maximize the utilization of the
transmission system. Note that the term "unified" here means that the dc terminals of all
Controller converters are all connected together for real power transfer.

Combined series-shunt Controllers:

[Figures 1.3(e) and 1.3(f)] This could be a combination of separate shunt and series
Controllers, which are controlled in a coordinated manner [Figure 1.3(e)], or a Unified
Power Flow Controller with series and shunt elements [Figure 1.3(f)]. In principle,
combined shunt and series Controllers inject current into the system with the shunt part of
the Controller and voltage in series in the line with the series part of the Controller.
However, when the shunt and series Controllers are unified, there can be a real power
exchange between the series and shunt Controllers via the power link.