LABORATORY MANUAL

ESL130 ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP

SEMESTER 1&2

COMMON TO ALL BRANCHES

SYLLABUS – KTU 2019 SHEME

Prepared By: Verified By: Approved By:

Lab in-charge HOD Principal
Signature:
Date:

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 KMEA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGNIEERING

VISION OF THE INSTITUTE

To be a center of excellence in academics and research for moulding students to become competent
engineering professionals with innovative ideas and dedicated to the upliftment of the deprived socio-
economic sections of the society through effective teaching learningprocess.

MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE

• To transform budding engineers into employable quality professionals.
• To inculcate the need of pursuing higher education among the graduate students so as to
create a society of highly educated professionals.
• To impart ethical values and social consciousness among the students so as to create
responsible and socially committed engineers.
• To create an excellent academic ambiance which encourages creative thinking,
innovations and research.

VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT

To mould academically excellent, socially committed and ethically strong professionals with innovative
ideas in the growing technical world by providing a high quality education in the field of Electronics and
Communication Engineering.

MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

• To provide an environment for multifaceted education rooted in science and updated
technology.
• To support research and development leading to innovations in the field of electronics and
communication.
• To produce technologists by enhancing problem solving skills, team-spirit, social
responsibilities, ethics and entrepreneurship skills.

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 PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO)
• Recognize and apply the acquired knowledge in mathematical, scientific, electronics and
communication engineering to solve different engineering problems.

• Inculcate the habit of team work and skills for software tools and hardware to create novel
products and solutions to real life problems.

• Equip the students with good communication skill, leadership qualities, professional conduct
and ethics.

PROGRAMME SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO)

• The ability to apply fundamental knowledge of core Electronics and Communication

Engineering subjects in the analysis, design, and development of various types of integrated
electronic systems as well as to interpret and synthesize the experimental data leading to valid
conclusions.

• Competence in using electronic modern IT tools (both software and hardware) for the design
and analysis of complex electronics, wired and wireless communication systems.

• An ability to make use of acquired technical knowledge for a successful career and qualifying
in competitive examinations with excellent adaptability to changing work environments, good
interpersonal skills as a leader in a team in appreciation of professional ethics and societal
responsibilities.

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 INDEX

Serial No. Experiment / Exercise Name Page No.

1 Familiarize and identify electronic components with specification 5

Familiarization / Application of testing instruments and commonly

2 25
used tools

3 Testing of electronic components using multimeter 35

4 Inter-connection methods and soldering practice 41

Printed circuit boards (PCB) - Design and fabrication of a single

5 47
sided PCB for a simple circuit with manual etching

Drawing of electronic circuit diagrams using BIS/IEEE symbols

6 51
and introduction to EDA tools

Assembling of electronic circuits using SMT (Surface Mount

7 54
Technology) stations

Assembling of electronic circuit/system on general purpose PCB,

8 59
test and show the functioning

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 1

FAMILIARIZE AND IDENTIFY ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS WITH

SPECIFICATION
AIM
To familiarize and identify electronic components with specification. (Active, Passive,
Electrical, Electronic, Electro- mechanical, Wires, Cables, Connectors, Fuses, Switches, Relays,
Crystals, Displays, Fasteners, Heat sink etc.)

COMPONENTS & EQUIPMENTS LIST

Table 1.1 components & equipment list for familiarization

Equipment and Type Quantity

Components
Resistors 10 KΩ ¼ Watt, 10 KΩ ½ Watt,
4.7 MΩ 1 Watt, 6.8 KΩ 2 Watt, 1 each
10 KΩ pot
Capacitors 0.1µf Disc Type, 0.01nf Ceramic
Type, 470µf Electrolytic type, 1 each
1µf Mica type

Inductors 1 mH 1

Diodes 1N4007, OA79, SZ5.6, LED 1 each

Transistors BC107, BFW10, 2N2646 1 each

THEORY
Basic electronic components are divided into 2 categories:

Passive components: do not increase the power of a signal. They often cause power to be lost.
Resistors, capacitors and inductors are examples of passive components.

Active components: increase the power of a signal and must be supplied with the signal and a
source of power. Examples are bipolar transistors, field effect transistors etc.

Resistors: It is an electronic component that functions precisely as the name implies – it resists
alternating or direct current. Resistors come in many sizes, shapes, power ratings and tolerances.
Some have the value stamped on the case, while others have a group of color bands that help us
to learn the resistance value.

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 Resistors can be of two types: Fixed value resistors and variable resistors.

Fig.1.1 fixed resistors and variable resistors

The formula for resistance is given by:

R=ρl/A

where ρ is resistivity, l is length and A is area of cross section.

Different value resistors can be manufactured by changing the length and area of the cross
section of the material itself which changes the resistivity. Materials generally used for
fabrication of resistors are nichrome (80 % Ni and 20 % Cr), constantan (55% cu and 45 % Ni )
and Manganin (85 % Cu and 10 % Mn and < 5 % Ni). Metals are not used as they have a very
high temperature coefficient of resistance. Three main methods of fabrication are (i) a slab or a
rod of suitable resistivity, (ii) Material using thinner cross section and longer length. The length
is doubled and then wound in such a way that inductance effects are cancelled out. (iii) Thin
films of material on insulating substrates. Each resistor has a current carrying capacity. Current
more than the prescribed wattage may damage the resistor.

Fixed resistors are of two types. Carbon film resistors (CFR) and metal film resistors (MFR).

Carbon film Resistors

Fig.1.2 Carbon film resistors

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 A carbon film is deposited on an insulating substrate, and a helix is cut in it to create a long,
narrow resistive path. Varying shapes, coupled with the resistivity of amorphous carbon
(ranging from 500 to 800 Ω), can provide a variety of resistances. Compared to carbon
composition they feature low noise, because of the precise distribution of the pure graphite
without binding. Carbon film resistors feature a power rating range of 0.125W to 5 W at 70°C.
Resistances available range from 1 ohm to 10 megohm. The carbon film resistor has an
operating temperature range of −55°C to 155°C. It has 200 to 600 volts maximum working
voltage range. Special carbon film resistors are used in applications requiring high pulse
stability.

Metal film Resistors

Metal film resistors have a thin metal layer as a resistive element on a non-conducting body.
They are amongst the most common types of axial resistors. Other film type resistors are carbon
film and thick and thin film resistors. In most literature referrals to metal film, usually it is a
cylindrical axial resistor. However, thin film chip resistors use the same manufacturing principle
for the metal layer. The appearance of metal film resistors is similar to carbon film resistors, but
their properties for stability, accuracy and reliability are considerably better.

Fig.1.3 Metal film resistors

Variable resistors:

Wire-Wound Resistor - A wire wound resistor is an electrical passive component that limits
current. The resistive element exists out of an insulated metallic wire that is winded around a
core of non-conductive material. The wire material has a high resistivity, and is usually made
of an alloy such as Nickel-chromium (Nichrome) or a copper-nickel-manganese alloy called
Manganin. Common core materials include ceramic, plastic and glass. Wire wound resistors are
the oldest type of resistors that are still manufactured today. They can be produced very
accurately, and have excellent properties for low resistance values and high power ratings.

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 Fig.1.4 wire-wound resistors

Potentiometer
An instrument for measuring an electromotive force by balancing it against the potential
difference produced by passing a known current through a known variable resistance. A variable
resistor with a third adjustable terminal. The potential at the third terminal can be adjusted to
give any fraction of the potential across the ends of the resistor. A potentiometer is a simple
knob that provides a variable resistance, which we can read into the board as an analog value.

Fig.1.5 Various Potentiometers

Colour Code for Resistors

Fig.1.6 A resistor with 4 color bands

The first two bands near an end indicate first 2 digits, digit corresponding to 3rd band is the
power of 10 to be multiplied and fourth band indicates tolerance. Refer fig 1.6, where brown
=1, black =0, red =2 and silver = 10% tolerance. Hence its value is 10 x 10 2 Ω =1 k Ω.

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 Fig. 1.7 A 5-Band Resistor

The first 3 bands indicate first 3 digits, digit corresponding to 4th band is the power of 10 to be
multiplied and fifth band indicates tolerance.

Most commonly used resistors in lab are fixed value resistors which exist for standard values
according to E12. Other ranges are E24 and E48 Ranges.

E12 Range: Table 1 is for the values of resistors of E12 range. Topmost row defines the basic
value units of resistors in ohms. Every following row is 10-fold of the upper row.

Table 1.2 Table for E12 range values of resistors

1.0 Ω 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.9 4. 5.6 6.8 8.2Ω

10 Ω 12 68 82 Ω

100 Ω 680 820Ω

1k 1.2k 6.8k 8.2k

10k 82k

100k 820k

1M 1.2M 6.8M` 8.2M

10M 12M 68M 82M

Wattage Ratings of Resistors

When a current is passed through a resistor, heat is developed within the resistor. The resistor
must be capable of dissipating this heat into the surrounding air; otherwise, the temperature of
the The ability of the resistor to dissipate heat depends upon the design of the resistor itself.
This ability to dissipate heat depends on the amount of surface area which is exposed to the air.
A resistor designed to dissipate a large amount of heat must therefore have a large physical size.
The heat dissipating capability of a resistor is measured in WATTS. Some of the more common
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 wattage ratings of carbon resistors are: one-eighth watt, one-fourth watt, one-half watt, one watt,
and two watts. In some of the newer state-of-the-art circuits of today, much smaller wattage
resistors are used. Generally, the type that you will be able to physically work with is of the
values given. The higher the wattage rating of the resistor the larger is the physical size.
Resistors that dissipate very large amounts of power (watts) are usually wire wound resistors.
Wire wound resistors with wattage ratings up to 50 watts are not uncommon. The illustration
shows some resistors which have different wattage ratings. Notice the relative sizes of the
resistors.

Special purpose resistors

Light dependent resistors (LDR) and thermistors are examples of special purpose resistors.
Thermistor is a resistor whose value depends on its temperature. It is also called a heat sensor.
LDR is a resistance whose resistance depends upon the amount of light falling on it.

Capacitors

Capacitors are capable of storing charges. They are used for coupling ac signals from one circuit
to another and for frequency selection etc. A capacitor consists of 2 metallic plates separated by
a dielectric. The capacitance is defined as:

C = Єo Єr A / d , where A is the area of plates, d is plates separation, Єo is permittivity of free

space and Єr is relative permittivity. An important parameter for capacitors is its voltage
handling capacity beyond which the capacitor dielectric breaks down.

The value of a capacitor depends upon the dielectric constant (K = ЄoЄr.) of the material. There
are three main classes of capacitors: (i) Non electrolytic or normal capacitors and (ii) electrolytic
capacitors and (iii) variable capacitors. Normal capacitors or Non electrolytic capacitors are
mostly of parallel plate type and can have mica, paper, ceramic or polymer as dielectric. In the
paper capacitors two rectangular metal foils are interleaved between thin sheets of waxed paper
and the whole system is rolled to form a compact structure. Each metal foil is connected to an
electrode. In mica capacitors alternate layers of mica and metal are clamped tightly together.

In electrolytic capacitor mostly a thin metal-oxide film is deposited by means of electrolysis on

axial electrode. That’s how it derives its name. Two types of electrolytic capacitors. Aluminum
electrolytic capacitor and tantalum electrolytic capacitor.

Besides these fixed value capacitors, we also have variable capacitors whose value depends
upon the area of cross section. They have a fixed set of plates and a movable set of plates which
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 can be moved through a shaft. This movement changes the area of overlap of the two sets of
plates which changes its capacity. Examples are trimmers and padders.

Fig. 1.8 Types of capacitors

Colour and Number code of capacitors Electrolytic Capacitors

There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors: (i) Axial where the leads are attached to each
end (220µF in picture) and (ii) Radial where both leads are at the same end (10µF in picture).

Fig. 1.9 Axial and radial electrolytic capacitor

(iii) Non-polarised capacitors ( < 1µF): Small value capacitors have their values printed but
without a multiplier. For example 0.1 means 0.1µF = 100nF. Sometimes the unit is placed in
between 2 digits indicating a decimal point. For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.

Fig. 1.10 Examples of number coded capacitors

Capacitor Number Code:
A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult: the 1st number is
the 1st digit, the 2nd number is the 2nd digit, the 3rd number is the power of ten to be multiplied.,
to give the capacitance in pF. Any letters just indicate tolerance and voltage rating. For example:
102 means 10 X 10 2 pF = 1nF and 472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance).

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 Capacitor Colour Code:
Sometimes capacitors just show bands like resistors when printing is tough on them. The colours
should be read like the resistor code, the top three colour bands giving the value inpF. The 4th
band and 5th band are for tolerance and voltage rating respectively. For example: brown, black,
orange means 10000pF = 10nF = 0.01µF.

Fig. 1.11 capacitor with color bands and no printed values

Available Values of Capacitors: Like resistors capacitors are also available for only particular
values. Following are 2 series defined for capacitors. The E3 series (3 values for each multiple
of ten) 10, 22, 47, then it continues 1to100, 220, 470, 1000, 2200, 4700, 10000 etc. The E6
series (6 values for each multiple of ten) 10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68, ... then it continues 100, 150,
220, 330, 470, 680, 1000 etc.

Inductors
Inductor is a component made by a coil of wire which is wound on a core. It is used to vary the
impedance of a circuit or for frequency tuning. The value of an inductor depends upon the total
number of turns (N), area of crossection of the core (A) and length of the core (l). The formula
is L = μoμr N2 A / l. Its unit is in Henry.
Types of inductors
While there are several types of inductors the most common to the mobile electronics installer
is the fixed inductor. Variable inductors are also used in some industries; however, these devices
are not typically used in mobile electronics. Fixed inductors come in many shapes and sizes.
One of the main differences in inductor types is that of the core material around which the
conductor is wound. While some inductors use a center core material other do not and are simply
windings of wire.

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 Fig.1.12 Inductor types

Iron Core Fixed Inductors (Ceramic Inductors)

One of the most common inductor types, iron core inductors, utilize a core material made of
iron around which the conductor wire is wound. The iron material reacts with the magnetic field
or magnetic flux created by the current passing through the wire. The iron core plays in integral
part in the amount of inductance which the inductor possesses.

Ferrite Core Fixed Inductors (Torroid Inductors)

Similar to Iron Core Inductors, the ferrite core inductor incorporates a center core made of a
ferrite material. Ferrite is a material consisting of molded metal particles.

Air Core Fixed Inductors

Air core inductors do not incorporate a core material. The air core inductor is simply a winding
of conductor material (wire). Often considered the inductor of choice for crossover applications,
air core inductors are known for their accuracy and performance. With this increased
performance comes a higher price tag. Air core inductors are typically the most expensive. This
price increase is due to the fact that air core inductors utilize more copper wire in lieu of the
iron or ferrite core materials.

Variable inductance

Probably the most common type of variable inductor today is one with a moveable ferrite
magnetic core, which can be slid or screwed in or out of the coil. Moving the core farther into
the coil increases the permeability, increasing the magnetic field and the inductance. Many
inductors used in radio applications (usually less than 100MHz) use adjustable cores in order to
tune such inductors to their desired value, since manufacturing processes have certain tolerances

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 (inaccuracy). Sometimes such cores for frequencies above 100MHz are made from highly
conductive non-magnetic material such as aluminum. They decrease the inductance because the
magnetic field must bypass them.

Fig.1.13 Variable inductors

Diode

A diode is a single junction device made of p and n type materials. Its main function is to rectify
an ac signal although other special purpose diodes like zener and LED’s are used for other
purposes. If the junction is made between a metal and semiconductor then it is called a Schottky
diode whose application is in rectifying and non-rectifying contacts and Schottky devices. If the
pn junction is made between very heavily doped materials then it forms a Zener diode. These
are used for voltage regulation in power supplies. and have breakdown voltages which are very
low. The normal diode has a breakdown voltage of greater than 100 V.

Some of the diode specifications are: Maximum reverse voltage (Vbr), rated forward current
(If) , maximum forward voltage drop (Vf) and package style. Table 3 gives some of the most
commonly used diodes with their specifications.

Table 1.3 Some specifications of diodes

Device Material
IF (mA) VF(V) VBR(V)
Number used.
OA91 Ge 50 2.1 115

In 4148 Si 100 1.0 75

In 4149 Si 100 1.0 75

IN 4007 Si 1000 1.6 1000

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 Fig. 1.14 Silicon diode (1N 4007) and Germanium diode (OA 79)

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Fig. 1.15 LED

LED’s are PN junction devices which emit light radiation when biased in the forward direction.
The semiconductor material used for these junctions is a compound semiconductor like AlGaAs
whose band gap corresponds to a particular wavelength according to equation Eg = 1.24 / λ
where Eg is the band gap in ev and λ is the wavelength in microns. (e.g. red ~ 0.7 μ hence
corresponding E g = 1.24 / 0.7 = 1.77 ev). When the pn junction is forward biased, the electrons
are excited to conduction band and when they fall to the valence band, they give out energy in
the form of radiation corresponding to the example of the material Conventional LED’s are
made from the materials like AlGaAs, GaAlP, GaAsP, GaP and GaN which emit Red, green,
orange, yellow and blue colours respectively. Dual colour LED’s are also available where two
junctions are encapsulated on the same chip. It has three leads where cathode is common
whereas normal LED’s have two leads one for cathode and other for anode. A very important
precaution while using an led is the amount of current being passed through it. For most LEDs
the maximum allowable current is 20 mA beyond which the led can burn out. Hence in most of
the circuits a resistor is used to limit the current. Some important specifications before using an
LED are: LED colour, peak wavelength, viewing angle, optical power output, luminous
intensity, forward current and forward voltage.
Zener Diode
A Zener diode is a diode which allows current to flow in the forward direction in the same
manner as an ideal diode, but also permits it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is
above a certain value known as the breakdown voltage, "Zener knee voltage", "Zener voltage",
"avalanche point", or "peak inverse voltage".

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 Fig. 1.16 Zener Diode

Transistors

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and
electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's
terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output)
power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal.
Transistors are semiconductor devices used for applications like amplification of voltages,
current and are also used in oscillator circuits and switches. It’s a two junction and 3 terminal
devices made of three layers of n and p type materials.
Different types of transistors are bipolar junction transistor, field effect transistor and
unijunction transistor.

Fig. 1.17 Different Transistors

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

The three regions are emitter, base and collector. They are of 2 types (i) pnp and (ii) npn. Their
most important specifications are Ic, Vce, hfe and Power rating. They come in different casings
like TO18, TO92C, and TO39 etc.Figure gives some of the transistors with the symbols for npn
and pnp and some of the casings with the configurations for emitter, base and collector leads.

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 Fig. 1.18 Different types of transistors with its terminals

Field Effect Transistor

The field-effect transistor (FET) is a transistor that uses an electric field to control the shape and
hence the electrical conductivity of a channel of one type of charge carrier in a semiconductor
material. FETs are also known as unipolar transistors as they involve single-carrier-type
operation. The FET has several forms, but all have high input impedance.

Fig. 1.19 Field effect transistors

Unijunction Transistor
A unijunction transistor (UJT) is a three-lead electronic semiconductor device with only one
junction that acts exclusively as an electrically controlled switch.The UJT is not used as a linear
amplifier. It is used in free-running oscillators, synchronized or triggered oscillators, and pulse
generation circuits at low to moderate frequencies (hundreds of kilohertz). It is widely used in
the triggering circuits for silicon controlled rectifiers. The low cost per unit, combined with its
unique characteristic, have warranted its use in a wide variety of applications like oscillators,

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 pulse generators, saw-tooth generators, triggering circuits, phase control, timing circuits, and
voltage- or current-regulated supplies

Fig. 1.20 Unijunction Transistors

Integrated Circuit (IC)

Today all electrical, electronic and computer parts have IC’s in them. Integrated circuit is a
name given to a package which can hold more than 10 and up to millions of electronic
components. They can give various functions like: (i) the function of a full microprocessor
circuit (eg 8085), (ii) a memory chip, (iii) a voltage regulator (LM 7805) or (iv) Can contain
just 10 AND gates (eg LS7400). They come in a black bench like casing with a notch on one
side and with electrical legs for connections, which are called pins. The size is usually around 1
cm2 X 1 cm2. Refer to the picture. Its name is always written on top which contains a few letters
with numerals, according to its type, make and company. For example an IC with name LS 7400
would mean LS series with And gates, LM741C - mA741C is an operational amplifier (opamp).
Datasheets can be referred to, to know the details of pin configurations and make etc. The pins
are usually read starting from left of notch and going anticlockwise as shown in picture for 555
timer IC.

Fig. 1.21 Several ICs a) a 24 pin chip, b) a 28 pin IC, c) 8 pin 555 timer IC, d) 555 timer IC
pin configuration

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 Cables
An electrical cable comprises two or more wires running side by side and bonded, twisted, or
braided together to form a single assembly, the ends of which can be connected to two devices,
enabling the transfer of electrical signals from one device to the other. Cables are used
extensively in electronic devices for power and signal circuits. Power cables are used for bulk
transmission of alternating and direct current power, especially using high voltage cable.
Electrical cables are extensively used in building wiring for lighting, power and control circuits
permanently installed in buildings.
Connectors
Connectors constitute a link which can easily be broken. This provides flexibility in a system.
Connectors are generally made in accordance with some standard or specification, such as BS
(British Standard), CCTU(French standard), DIN(German standard), IEC(European standard),
MIL (U.S.military standard), etc. This standardisation is extremely important as regards the
potential to switch between different manufacture of the same connector, so that the connector
fulfils the same environmental requirements, lifetime etc.
When selecting connectors, it is important to have a clear idea of what demands are to be placed
on the connector in terms of current, voltage, lifetime and environment. There is no connector
which can be used universally.
An electrical connector is an electro-mechanical device for joining electrical circuits as an
interface using a mechanical assembly. Connectors consist of plugs (male-ended) and jacks
(female-ended). The connection may be temporary, as for portable equipment, require a tool for
assembly and removal, or serve as a permanent electrical joint between two wires or devices.
An adapter can be used to effectively bring together dissimilar connectors.
There are hundreds of types of electrical connectors. Connectors may join two lengths of
flexible copper wire or cable, or connect a wire or cable to an electrical terminal.
Fuses
The fuse is a security and protection component that cuts the power. More commonly it means
a component that senses the current consumption in a circuit and cuts the power if the
consumption gets to large, like at short-circuits or overload. The rated voltage is the greatest
extended working voltage and the type of voltage (AC voltage or DC voltage) at which the fuse
may be used.
The current rating is the working current at which the fuse is designed to be used. The current
rating is somewhat lower than the current which is able to flow for a next ended period without
tripping the fuse. The difference between these two currents varies for different standards.

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 The breaking characteristics describe the correlation between how quickly the fuse trips and
how high the current is. The main groups are fast and delayed action fuses. Fast fuses are used
in particular cases when a fuse which trips as quickly as possible is required, e.g.in an instrument
input. Sometimes, these fuses are also necessary from the point of view of safety. It is necessary
to use delayed action fuses when the load exhibits high current during startup, e.g. when a motor
is turned on. Transformers also give increased in rush current, and this applies to a particularly
great extent to toroidal core transformers. The breaking capacity is the greatest current which
the fuse is capable of breaking at a specific voltage without it short-circuiting or reconnecting.
Models
Thermo fuses are available in many different models. Glass tube fuses and ceramic fuses are
the types most commonly used. In European equipment, the fuses commonly used are 5×20mm
in size, while American equipment uses slightly larger fuses, 6.3×32mm. The ceramic models
have greater breaking capacity.
Many variants of special fuses of other sizes and with other properties are available.
Subminiature fuses can be found, for example, at the input of certain measuring instruments in
order to protect them against overloading. They are available in models for mounting in holders
or for permanent mounting, both for hole mounting and surface mounting.
Switches and relays
Switches
The term switch is used to describe a wide range of components, most of them manually
operated, that close or open an electrical circuit or switch it from one line to another. The voltage
being handled by the switch must be known in advance because higher voltages require better
insulation. The strength of current is another important factor.
The current capacity depends on the design of the contact surfaces, the selected material, the
dimensions and the pressure of the contact. It is also different for direct current or alternating
current. This is due, for example, to the arcing which can occur when a switch is opened. To
extinguish the arc, either the distance between the contact surfaces must become sufficiently
large, or the current must be reduced. In alternating currents, the current is regularly reduced to
zero, thereby making it easier to extinguish the arc.
Alternating current also prevents the migration of material from one pole to the other. Some
manufacturers specify plus and minus poles for the connections, in which case one of the
contacts is silver-plated while the other is made of solid silver. The polarity is selected so that
the material migrates from the solid silver contact to the silver-plated contact.

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 The insulation material should be selected on the basis of the intended application of the switch.
The insulation material causes losses that increase as the frequency increases. High frequency
signals require ceramic or PTFE insulation. In the case of very high frequencies, the conducting
paths also have to be impedance- matched to keep losses and signal reflections to a minimum.
From the mechanical point of view, there are several types of switches:
Toggle switches usually require considerable mechanical force and actuator movement, but the
positions are distinct.
Slide switches do not have such distinct switching positions. They are only used with low
voltages, e.g. miniature switches in DIL packages.
Micro gap switches are ideal when a small actuator movement is required together with very
little operating force. Switches of this type contain curved split springs allowing the
moving contact to move to either position. Between these positions, the switch is unstable. The
result is precise and distinct positions, and fast changeover.
Reed switches are sensitive to magnetic fields. A glass tube contains a metal blade which, when
acted on by a magnetic field, closes the electric circuit between the two electrodes in the switch.
Reed switches are available either as standalone components or they form part of reed relays.
Functional descriptions
SP (Single Pole) = 1pole. DP(Double Pole)= 2poles. ST (Single Throw) = two- position contact
with an output for one position only (i.e. make or break). DT (Double Throw), CO (Change
Over) = two- position contact with separate outputs for each of the positions (i.e. change over).
Form A: Make contact. Form B: Break contact. Form C: Change over contact, break- before-
make. Form D: Change over contact, make- before- break. If the name includes a number, this
relates to the number of contacts.
Shorting, make- before- break: When the switch changes from one position to another, the
contact to the new position is made before the previous position is broken. This means that the
connections to the outputs for the old and new positions are short – circuited for an instant
(unless the switch has completely separate contacts for each position).
Non-shorting, break – before - make: When the switch changes from one position to another,
the contact to the old position is broken before the contact to the new position is made. There is
no short circuit between the outputs.
Instantaneous, momentary, (on), (off), normally closed (NC), normally open (NO), opening,
closing are all terms used to describe contacts with a starting position to which they return when
the button is released. The term "spring - return", however, can also mean that just the button
returns to its original position, and not the contacts. The terms "(on)" and "(off)" mean that the

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 contacts return from an on/ off position respectively. The term "normal" refers to the function
in the starting position, and "opening" and "closing" indicate how the position of the contacts
changes from the starting position.
Latching action means that the contact position changes the first time the button is pressed, and
the position does not revert to the starting position until the button is pressed a second time.
Group actuation means that a number of switches are interconnected in a group in such a way
that when one of the switches is actuated, any switches already actuated revert to their starting
position.

Fig. 1.22 Switches

Relays
Relays are switches that can be remote controlled, normally bypassing electric current through
a coil whose magnetic force actuates mechanical contacts. The main differences between relays
consist of their contact function and coil characteristics.
Contact function - Contacts can have a make function (form A), break function (form B) or
change over function (form C). The contacts are designed with a specific maximum power in
mind. This maximum power depends on the contact pressure and on the size and material of the
contact surfaces. Complete relay data includes the maximum voltage, current and power.
Coil data - Relays are manufactured with actuating coils for direct current or alternating current,
usually for voltages between 5−220V. When selecting relays, you may need to take its own
power consumption into account. Ind. c. relays, consumption depends on the resistance of the
relay coil, and the higher the resistance, the lower the power consumption of the relay. You can
use the coil voltage (U) and resistance (R) to calculate the power consumption (P) with the
following formula: P=U2/R

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 Specific relay types
Solid state relays usually consist of one drive stage and one output stage. An isolating
component is normally placed between the stages, for example an opto- isolator or reed relay.
Depending on the type of current and the power, the output stage consists of a transistor, a triac
or two opposing thyristors.

Fig. 1.23 Solid state relay Fig. 1.24 Electromechanical relay

Electromechanical relays
Electromechanical relays are electrically operated switches used to isolate circuits or batteries,
detect faults on transmission and distribution lines, and control a high-powered circuit using a
low power signal. Simple relays consist of a magnetic core wrapped in a wire coil, a movable
armature attached to an iron yoke, and one or more set of contacts. When an electric current
passes through the coil it generates a magnetic field that activates the armature, therefore
moving the contacts to make or break a connection.

Fig. 1.25 working of relay

The diagram above shows the parts of a relay and its operation. The relay on the left is off,
meaning there is no current flowing to the coil. The relay on the right has switched on due to
the energizing of the coil and subsequent movement of the armature and contact.

Department of ECE 23 KMEA Engineering college

 Heat sinks
The amount of heat given off by semiconductors like power transistors and diodes is too great for
the component itself to transfer to the surrounding air satisfactory. To prevent temperatures rising
to unacceptable levels, the components have to be helped to get rid of the excess heat. One way of
doing this is to install a heat sink, which transfers the heat generated by the transistor into the
surrounding air through conduction and radiation. A flat metal panel is the simplest form of heat
sink, but not the most effective. A more complex structure usually makes more sense in terms of
cost, size and weight.

Fig. 1.26 Heat Sink

RESULT
Familiarization of different electronic components are completed.

Department of ECE 24 KMEA Engineering college

 EXPERIMENT NO: 2

FAMILIARIZATION/APPLICATION OF TESTING INSTRUMENTS

AND SOLDERING TOOLS
AIM
To familiarize with the working of cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO), Function generator,
Power supply and Multimeter.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Cathode ray oscilloscope, function generator, multimeter and power supply.

THEORY
CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
The cathode ray oscilloscope is an instrument which we use in laboratory to display, measure
and analyze various waveforms of various electronic circuits. Cathode ray oscilloscope is very
fast X-Y plotter that can display an input signal versus time or another signal. Cathode ray
oscilloscope uses luminous spot which is produced by striking the beam of electrons and this
luminous spot moves in response variation in the input quantity. The general forms of cathode
ray oscilloscope operate on voltages. Nowadays, with the help of transducers it is possible to
convert various physical quantities like current, pressure, acceleration etc to voltage thus it
enables us to have a visual representation of these various quantities on cathode ray
oscilloscope.

Power on/off: Push button switch for supplying power to the instrument.

X5: Switch when pushed forward gives 5 times magnification of X signal.

XY: Switch when pressed cuts off the time base and allows access to the external horizontal
signal to be fed through channel-II (used for X-Y display).

CH-1/CH-II: Select and trigger CH-I and when pressed, selects and trigger CH-II.

Mono/Dual: Switch selects the dual operation.

Alt/CHOP/ADD: Switch selects alternate or chopped in Dual mode. If Mono is selected, then
this switch enables addition/subtraction of channel in CH-I and CH-II.

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 TIME/DIV: Switch selects time base speeds.

AT/NORM: Switch selects Auto/Normal position. Auto is used to get trace when no signal
is fed at the input. In Normal the trigger level can be varied from the positive peak to
negative peak with level control.

CAL/OUT: Socket provided for square wave output 200mV used for providing
compensation and checking vertical sensitivity.

TRIG/INP: Socket provided to feed external trigger signal in EXT mode. LEVEL: Control
the trigger level from peak-to-peak amplitude of signal.

Hold off: Controls hold off time between sweeps at normal position (full counter clockwise).
X-POS: Controls horizontal position of the trace.

EXT: Switch when pressed allows external triggering signal to be fed from the socket
marked TRIG-INP.

VAR: Controls the time speed in between two steps of TIME/DIV. Switch for calibration
put this fully anticlockwise.

LINE: Switch when pressed display signal gets synchronised with main/line frequency.
ALT: Selects alternate trigger mode from CH-I and CH-II.

+/-: Switch selects the slope of triggering, whether +ve going or -ve going. INV CH-II:
Switch when pressed invert the CH-I.

INTENS: Controls the brightness of the trace.

TR: Controls the alignment of the trace with graticule.

FOCUS: Controls the sharpness of the trace.

CT: Switch when pressed starts CT operators.

DC/AC/GD: Input for each channel. In AC the signal is coupled through 0.1 MFD
capacitors.

CH-I (Y) and CH-II (X): BNC connectors serve as input connection for CH-I and CH-II
input connector also serves as horizontal external signal.

CT-IN: To test any component in the CT mode, put one test probe in this socket and connect
the other test probe in ground socket.

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 VOLTS/DIV: Switches select the sensitivity of each channel.

Y POS I & II: Controls provided for vertical deflection of trace for each channel.

Fig. 2.1 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

FUNCTION GENERATOR
The function generator is a versatile signal source for most measurements and test
application. A function generator is usually a piece of electronic test equipment used to
generate different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Some of
the most common waveforms produced by the function generator are the sine, square,
triangular and saw tooth shapes. These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot
(which requires an internal or external trigger source).

Fig. 2.2 Function Generator

The control and sockets in front panel of a function generator are the following.
1. Power: push button switch for supplying power to instrument.
2. Digital display (instrument LED): digit frequency /amplitude meter, LED indicator for
KHz, Hz, mv and V
3. Frequency lamp: select display of frequency/amplitude
4. AMP (Adjusting knob): continuous adjustment of the output voltage from 0 to -20 d B
when terminated with 50 Ω

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 5. -20 dB, +20 dB (push button): two fined attenuators, -20dB each. When both are
activated, total attenuation of -40d B results. Includes amplitude control the maximum
attenuation at 60 dB (factor 1000)
6. Output (BNC Connector): short circuit proof signal output of the generator. Output
impedance is 50 Ω. Switch selectable. Maximum output amplitude is 80Vpp(open
circuit)or 15Vpp when transmitted with 50 Ω
7. 50/600 Ω: push button. when pressed, selects 600 Ω else 50 Ω in released position
8. DC(ON), offset (adjusting knob): Adjustment of positive or negative offset voltage. This
DC can be superimposed on the o/p signal. The maximum offset voltage is ±12.5 V(Open
circuit) or ± 6.5 V respectively when terminated with 50 Ω. This voltage is also available
in DC mode
9. Function C4 position push button: Mode selection DC, sine, triangle or square.
10. Over drive (LED’s): when working in the offset mode and the output amplifier is over
drives either in positive or negative direction, the corresponding LED light up.
11. FVAR (adjustable knob): continuous and linear frequency adjustment from 1Hz to 1 MHz
in steps, selected with frequency range.
12. VAK: When trigger output is selected, output can be set with VAK, to approx 15Vpp.
13. Frequency (T position button): frequency course adjustment from 1Hz to 1MHz in several
steps.
14. TRIG output (BNC connector): this short circuit proof output supplies a square signal in
synchronous with the output signal. It has switch selectable TTL/CMOS and duty factor
of approx 50%.
15. TTL/CMOS: switch selects trigger output TTL to CMOS.
16. FMIN (BNC generator): applying a DC voltage to this input will vary the oscillator
frequency to max 1:100. The maximum allowable input voltage is 30 V.
17. AMPC (Adjustable knob): Attenuation of input voltage for FM input. This permits the
user to change the sweep width.

MULTIMETER
Multimeter is a very popular device for measuring and it is an essential equipment to
repair or trouble shoots an electronic circuit. Multimeter as its name indicates is used to
measure various electrical quantities such as voltage current and resistance. Multimeter
works in different modes namely ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter. This mode can be set

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 using selector switch provided in the multimeter. Some multimeter incorporates the
additional facility to measure inductance, capacitance, and resistance of transistors.
Both AC & DC voltages and currents can be measured using the multimeter. These are
available in two types. They are called analog and digital multimeters. Analog multimeter
will have needle moving along the calibrated scale. While the digital are different in the fact
that they provide a digital display of measured quantities. A digital multimeter is made from
the basic digital voltmeter for the measurement of current; voltage drop across precision
resistance is measured. Digital multimeter can be converted into an ohmmeter by using an
accurate current source. It measures the voltage drop across the resistance being measured.

Fig. 2.3 Multimeter – Digital and Analog

Measurements using digital multimeter (DMM)

DC and AC voltage measurements using DMM
● Insert the positive and negative test leads in proper places
● Set the range selector switch to DC/AC volt range and connect the test leads across
the voltage under measurement. If the voltage under measurement is unknown, set the e
range selector switch to highest range and walk down the lower range.
● Note: If the display as in fig: it indicates over range. Range selector switch must be set
to higher range.
DC and AC current measurements using DMM
● Connect the positive test lead to the COM terminal red test lead to the terminal marked
for the measurement of current up to 2A. For the measurement of current in the range from
2A to 20 A, connect the red test lead to 20A.
● Set the range selector switch to DC or AC current accordingly and connect the test
lead series with the load under measurement.

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 ● Note: If the current is unknown, set the range selector to the highest range and work
down. If the figure displayed over the range is being indicated and the range selector switch
must be put to higher range.
Resistance measuring using DMM
● Insert positive and negative test leads in proper places.
● Set the range selector switch to ‘2’ range and connect the test leads across the
resistance under measurement.
● Note: If figure is displayed over the range is being indicated set the range selector
switch to high range. Ensure that the power is removed from circuit under the
test continuity instruments.
● After setting up of electronic circuits it is a good practice to verify the shorts and opens
in a circuit. For this, set the selector switch to position diode in some multimeters. If there
is continuity (short) between lead tips, a beep sound will be produced.

POWER SUPPLY
A power supply is an electronic device that supplies electric energy to an electrical load.
The primary function of a power supply is to convert one form of electrical energy to
another and, as a result, power supplies are sometimes referred to as electric power
converters. Some power supplies are discrete, stand-alone devices, whereas others are built
into larger devices along with their loads. Every power supply must obtain the energy it
supplies to its load, as well as any energy it consumes while performing that task, from an
energy source.

Depending on its design, a power supply may obtain energy from various types of energy
sources, including electrical energy transmission systems, energy storage devices such as
a batteries and fuel cells, electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators,
solar power converters, or another power supply. All power supplies have a power input,
which receives energy from the energy source, and a power output that delivers energy to
the load. Some power supplies have other types of inputs and outputs as well, for functions
such as external monitoring and control.

Fig. 2.4 Power supply

Department of ECE 30 KMEA Engineering college
 This is a high-quality power supply with a continuously variable stabilized output
adjustable at any value between 0 and 30VDC. The circuit also incorporates an electronic
output current limiter that effectively controls the output current from a few milliamperes (2
mA) to the maximum output of three amperes that the circuit can deliver. This feature makes
this power supply indispensable in the experimenter’s laboratory as it is possible to limit the
current to the typical maximum that a circuit under test may require, and power it up then,
without any fear that it may be damaged if something goes wrong. There is also a visual
indication that the current limiter is in operation so that you can see at a glance that your circuit
is exceeding or not its preset limits.

Technical Specifications of Power supply

Input Voltage 24 VAC
Input Current 3A (max)
Output Voltage 0-30 V adjustable
Output Current 2 mA-3 A adjustale
Output Voltage Ripple 0.01 % maximum

RESULT
The working of cathode ray oscilloscope, function generator, multimeters and power supply
was familiarized.

2b) FAMILIARIZATION/APPLICATION OF SOLDERING TOOLS

AIM
To familiarize with working and application of soldering iron, desoldering pump, pliers,
cutters, wire strippers, screw drivers, tweezers, crimping tool, etc.
COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
Soldering iron, desoldering pump, pliers, cutters, wire strippers, screw drivers, tweezers,
crimping tool etc.
THEORY
Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and
flowing a filler metal (solder) into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point than
the adjoining metal. Soldering differs from welding in that soldering does not involve melting
the work pieces.
Required Tools: Before discussing soldering techniques, one should must set up a soldering
work station. The following is a list of tools for a typical soldering station.
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 Damp sponge for cleaning soldering iron tip
Variable temperature
used for applying heat to joints during the soldering process
soldering iron
to electrically and mechanically bond a component to the
Rosin-core solder
PCB
for trimming component leads and stripping insulation from
Wire cutters or side cutter
wires
Needle nose pliers for holding, placing and shaping components
Desoldering pump and/or
for removing solder
desoldering braid
to extract and dispel fumes generated during the soldering
Ventilation
process
Flux to clean components and PCB pads
Acid brush to assist in the removal of flux residue

Good Solder Joint - Solder Fillet

Fig.2.1 Joint Examples

SOLDERING IRON
A soldering iron is a hand tool used in soldering. It supplies heat to melt solder so that it can
flow into the joint between two workpieces. A soldering iron is composed of a heated metal
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 tip and an insulated handle. Heating is often achieved electrically, by passing an electric
current (supplied through an electrical cord or battery cables) through a resistive heating
element. Cordless irons can be heated by combustion of gas stored in a small tank, often using
a catalytic heater rather than a flame. Simple irons less commonly used than in the past were
simply a large copper bit on a handle, heated in a flame. Soldering irons are most often used
for Installation, repairs, and limited production work in electronics assembly. High-volume
production lines use other soldering methods.

Fig. 2.2 Soldering Iron

DESOLDERING PUMP:

In electronics, desoldering is the removal of solder and components from a circuit board
for troubleshooting, repair, replacement, and salvage. A desoldering pump is exactly what it
sounds like: a pump that sucks up solder. Usually, the pump is spring-loaded and provides a
recoil when released.

Fig. 2.3 Desoldering with a solder pump

Department of ECE 33 KMEA Engineering college

 WIRE STRIPPER, CUTTER, TWEEZER

A wire stripper is a small, hand-held device used to strip the electrical insulation from electric
wires. A simple manual wire stripper is a pair of opposing blades much like scissors or wire
cutters. The addition of a center notch makes it easier to cut the insulation without cutting the
wire. This type of wire stripper is used by rotating it around the insulation while applying
pressure in order to make a cut around the insulation. Since the insulation is not bonded to the
wire, it then pulls easily off the end. This is the most versatile type of wire stripper.
Tweezers (or Forceps) are an extension of our fingers and they allow us to grab, grip, place,
remove or hold items that are too small or delicate for our fingers to manipulate. The size and
shape of the items we grab, grip, place or hold necessitate the need for a variety of tweezer tip
styles and shapes.
Diagonal pliers (or wire cutters or diagonal cutting pliers or diagonal cutters) are pliers
intended for the cutting of wire (they are generally not used to grab or turn anything). The
plane defined by the cutting edges of the jaws intersects the joint rivet at an angle or "on a
diagonal", hence the name.
Instead of using a shearing action as with scissors, diagonal pliers cut by indenting and
wedging the wire apart. The jaw edges are ground to a symmetrical "V" shape, thus the two
jaws can be visualized to form the letter "X", as seen end-on when fully occluded. The pliers
are made of tempered steel, and inductive heating and quenching are often used to selectively
harden the jaws.

Fig. 2.4 Wire stripper, Tweezer, Diagonal plier (cutter)

RESULT
The familiarization of different soldering tools was completed.

Department of ECE 34 KMEA Engineering college

 EXPERIMENT NO: 3

TESTING OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS USING MULTIMETER

AIM

Testing of electronic components like Resistor, Capacitor, Diode and Transistor using
multimeter.

COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Equipment and Components Type Quantity

Resistors 10 KΩ, 10 KΩ pot 1 each

0.1µf Disc Type, 0.01nf Ceramic

Capacitors Type, 470µf Electrolytic type, 1 each
1µf Mica type

Inductors 1 mH 1

Diodes 1N4007, OA79, SZ5.6, LED 1 each

Transistors BC107, BFW10, 2N2646 1 each

TESTING A RESISTOR
Turn the circuit off before measuring resistance. If any voltage is present, the value of
resistance will be incorrect. In most cases you cannot measure a component while it is in-
circuit. This is because the meter is actually measuring a voltage across a component and
calling it a "resistance." The voltage comes from the battery inside the meter. If any other
voltage is present, the meter will produce a false reading. If you are measuring the resistance
of a component while still "in circuit," (with the power off) the reading will be lower than the
true reading.

Fig 3.1: Set up to test the resistor using DMM

Department of ECE 35 KMEA Engineering college
 MEASURING RESISTANCE

To check the value of a resistor, it should be removed from the circuit. Resistors very rarely
change value, but if it is overheated or damaged, the resistance can increase. If the resistor
shows signs of blackening or charring, it may be damaged by excess current flow. A resistor
showing blackening or charring should be replaced and discarded.
1. The resistor value will be printed on the resistor. Smaller resistors may have their value
indicated by color coded bands. Note the resistor tolerance. No resistor is precisely the value
indicated on it. The tolerance indicates how much the printed value may vary and still be
considered a properly sized resistor.
2. Set the adjustable scale of the DMM to the next setting higher than the expected resistor
value. For example, if the DMM may be set to scales that are multiples of 10 and a resistor
marked as 840 ohms is to be measured, set the DMM to the 1,000Ω scale.
3. Measure the resistance. Connect the 2 leads of the DMM to the 2 legs of the resistor.
Resistors have no polarity, so it does not matter which DMM lead is connected to which
resistor leg.
4. Determine the actual resistance of the resistor. Read the result shown on the multimeter. In
determining whether or not the resistor is within the allowable range for that resistor, do not
forget to take the resistor tolerance into account.

TESTING POTENTIOMETERS (variable resistors)

To check the value of a variable resistor, it should be removed from circuit or at least 2 legs
should be removed. A Rheostat is a variable resistor using only one end and the middle
connected to a circuit. The resistance between the two outside pins is the value marked on the
component and the centre leg will change from nearly zero to the full resistance as the shaft
is rotated. Read the value of resistance same as that of fixed resistors using DMM.

TESTING A CAPACITOR

Capacitors are one of the most difficult things to test. That's because they don't give a reading
on a multimeter and their value can range from 1p to 100,000uF. A faulty capacitor may be
"open" when measured with a multimeter, and a good capacitor will also be "open." You need
a piece of test equipment called a CAPACITANCE METER to measure the value of a
capacitor.

Department of ECE 36 KMEA Engineering college

 • By Digital Multimeter

1. Make sure the capacitor is discharged.

2. Set the meter on Ohm range (Set it at lease 1000Ohm = 1k).
3. Connect the Meter leads to the Capacitor terminals.
4. Digital meter will show some numbers for a second. Note the reading.
5. And then immediately it will return to the OL (Open Line). Every attempt of Step 2 will
show the same result as was in step 4 and Step 5. It’s mean that Capacitor is in Good
Condition.
6. If there is no Change, then Capacitor is dead.

• By Multimeter in the capacitance setting

If multimeter has a Capacitance meter in it, the following method is good for tiny capacitors.

1. Make sure the capacitor is fully discharged.

2. Remove the capacitors from board or circuit.
3. Now Select “Capacitance” on the multimeter.
4. Now connect the capacitor terminal to the multimeter leads.
5. If the reading is near to the actual value of the capacitor (i.e. the printed value on the
Capacitor container box).
6. Then the capacitor is in good condition. (Note that the reading may be less than the actual
value (the printed value) of the capacitor.
7. If the reading a significantly lower capacitance or none at all, then capacitor is dead andyou
should change it.

TESTING DIODES

A diode is best tested by measuring the voltage drop across the diode when it is forward-
biased. A forward-biased diode acts as a closed switch, permitting current to flow. A
multimeter’s Diode Test mode produces a small voltage between test leads. The multimeter
then displays the voltage drop when the test leads are connected across a diode when forward-
biased. The Diode Test procedure is conducted as follows:
1. Ensure a) all power to the circuit is OFF and b) no voltage exists at the diode.
2. Turn the dial (rotary switch) to Diode Test mode.
3. Connect the test leads to the diode. Record the measurement displayed.

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 4. Reverse the test leads. Record the measurement displayed.

Fig 3.2: set up to test the diode using DMM

● A good forward-based diode displays a voltage drop ranging from 0.5 to 0.8 volts for the
most commonly used silicon diodes. Some germanium diodes have a voltage drop ranging
from 0.2 to 0.3 V.
● The multimeter displays OL when a good diode is reverse-biased. The OL reading indicates
the diode is functioning as an open switch.
● A bad (opened) diode does not allow current to flow in either direction. A multimeter will
display OL in both directions when the diode is opened.

TESTING OF A TRANSISTOR (BJT) WITH A MULTIMETER

Digital Multi Meter (DMM) can be used to get a basic pass/fail reading from a suspected
faulty NPN or PNP bipoloar transistor is a simple and quick task. Some multimeters have a
built-in transistor testing function, if so simply insert the transistor into the socket on the
multimeter and set the meter to the hFE mode. It will probably show information such as
the gain(hFE) that could be checked against the datasheet as well as a pass/fail reading. If it
does not have a transistor testing function, transistors can easily be checked with the “Diode”
testing setting. Remove the transistor from the circuit for accurate test results.
Step 1: (Base to Emitter)
Hook the positive lead from the multimeter to the to the BASE (B) of the transistor. Hook
the negative meter lead to the EMITTER (E) of the transistor. For a good NPN transistor,
the meter should show a voltage drop between 0.45V and 0.9V. If it is a PNP transistor, it
should show “OL” (Over Limit).
Step 2: (Base to Collector)

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 Keep the postitive lead on the BASE (B) and place the negative lead to the COLLECTOR
(C).For a good NPN transistor, the meter should show a voltage drop between 0.45V and
0.9V. If it is a PNP transistor, it should show “OL” (Over Limit).

Step 3: (Emitter to Base)

Hook the positive lead from the multimeter to the to the EMITTER (E) of the transistor.
Hook the negative meter lead to the BASE (B) of the transistor.
For a good NPN transistor, it shows “OL” (Over Limit).If it is a PNP transistor, the meter
should show a voltage drop between 0.45V and 0.9V.
Step 4: (Collector to Base)
Hook the positive lead from the multimeter to the COLLECTOR (C) of the transistor. Hook
the negative meter lead to the BASE (B) of the transistor. For a good NPN transistor, it
shows “OL” (Over Limit).If it is a PNP transistor, the meter should show a voltage drop
between 0.45V and 0.9V.
Step 5: (Collector to Emitter)
Hook the positive meter lead to the COLLECTOR (C) and the negative meter lead to the
EMITTER (E)– A good NPN or PNP transistor will read “OL”/Over Limit on the meter.
Swap the leads(Positive to Emitter and Negative to Collector) – Once again, a good NPN or
PNP transistor should read “OL”.
If the bipolar transistor measures contrary to these steps, consider it to be bad.
This test only verifies that the transistor is not shorted or open, it does not guarantee that the
transistor is operating within its designed parameters. It should only be used to help decide
if you need “replace” or “move on to the next component”.

TESTING OF A TRANSISTOR (FET) WITH A MULTIMETER

Testing FET with diode mode

Step-1.

● Connect DMM positive test lead to GATE

● Connect DMM Negative test lead to DRAIN, Display reading shows 0.715v

● Connect DMM Negative test lead to SOURCE, display reading shows 0.703v

Step-2.

● Connect DMM Negative test lead to GATE

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 ● Connect DMM positive test lead to DRAIN OL DMM reading (OL means Over Load).

● Connect DMM positive test lead to SOURCE OL

Step-3.

● DMM positive test lead to DRAIN

● DMM Negative test lead to SOURCE,display reading 0.090V

● DMM Negative test lead to DRAIN display reading (OL MEANS OVER LOAD)

● DMM Positive test lead to SOURCE READING 0.090v or (090 mV)

Connect DMM Negative lead to Shield

● DMM Positive test lead to GATE open or open or ‘1’

● DMM positive test lead to DRAIN OL DMM READING ( OL MEANS OVER LOAD)

● DMM positive test lead to SOURCE OL

If the DMM shows above reading the condition is GOOD. If the reading in forward bias as
0000 or OL or 1, and in reverse bias as 0000 (or) low values the FET transistor can be
FAULTY and needs replacement.

RESULT

Familiarization of testing of electronic components like Resistor, Capacitor, Diode and

Transistor using multimeter was completed.

Department of ECE 40 KMEA Engineering college

 EXPERIMENT NO: 4

INTER-CONNECTION METHODS AND SOLDERING PRACTICE

AIM

To practice interconnection methods and soldering practice.

MATERIALS AND TOOLS REQUIRED

Breadboard, wrapping tool, crimping tool, solder, flux, knife/blade, soldering iron, nose
plier, desoldering pump, etc.

THEORY

INTERCONNECTION METHODS

In order to temporarily construct a circuit without damaging the components used to build it,
we must have some sort of a platform that will both hold the components in place and provide
the needed electrical connections. In the early days of electronics, radio circuits were
constructed on wooden breadboards. Although more sophisticated techniques and devices
have been developed to make the assembly and testing of electronic circuits easier, the concept
of the breadboard still remains in assembling components on a temporary platform.

Fig. 4.1: (a) A typical Breadboard and (b) its connection details

A real breadboard is shown in Fig. 4.1(a) and the connection details on its rear side are shown
in Fig. 4.1(b). The five holes in each individual column on either side of the central groove
are electrically connected to each other, but remain insulated from all other sets of holes. In
addition to the main columns of holes, however, you'll note four sets or groups of holes along
the top and bottom. Each of these consists of five separate sets of five holes each, for a total
of 25 holes. These groups of 25 holes are all connected together on either side of the dotted
line indicated on
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 These breadboard sockets are sturdy and rugged, and can take quite a bit of handling.
However, there are a few rules you need to observe, in order to extend the useful life of the
electrical contacts and to avoid damage to components. These rules are:

• Always make sure power is disconnected when constructing or modifying your

experimental circuit. It is possible to damage components or incur an electrical shock if
you leave power connected when making changes.

• Never use larger wire as jumpers. #24 wire (used for normal telephone wiring) is an
excellent choice for this application. Observe the same limitation with respect to the size
of component leads.

• Whenever possible, use ¼ watt resistors in your circuits. ½ watt resistors may be used
when necessary; resistors of higher power ratings should never be inserted directly into a
breadboard socket.

• Never force component leads into contact holes on the breadboard socket. Doing so can
damage the contact and make it useless.

• Do not insert stranded wire or soldered wire into the breadboard socket. If you must have
stranded wire (as with an inductor or transformer lead), solder (or use a wire nut to connect)
the stranded wire to a short length of solid hookup wire, and insert only the solid wire into
the breadboard. If you follow these basic rules, your breadboard will last indefinitely, and
your experimental components will last a long time.
Commercial electronic equipment is constructed on printed circuit boards by photo etching
the circuit layout onto a sheet of copper after which the components are soldered into place.
For testing simple circuits, a solder less breadboard is used to build a prototype circuit, thus
saving time and effort. A breadboard has a regular pattern of holes or sockets that are
connected with built –in conductor. Connecting wires or components are interconnected with
these conductors below once they are pushed in firmly into place. The interconnecting wires
follow the patterns as shown in figure 1 such that the two lines at either edge of the breadboard
are interconnected along the length, these sockets are used for power lines where as the main
holes in the central part of the board are interconnected in the direction across the board and
are used for circuit component interconnection.

Construction Tips

• Build your circuits compactly.

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 • Avoid using long leads between components as they introduce stray capacitance and can result

in oscillations or high frequency pickup. Having said that, do not build the circuits so

compactly that you have trouble accessing test points and manipulating the wires.

• For clarity, construct your circuits so that the input port is on the left side of the board, circuitry

in the middle, and the output port on the right side.

• Adhere to consistent colour coding to make your wiring clear, it is convenient to use black for

ground connections, red for power and any other colour for interconnections

WRAPPING

Wire wrap is a method to construct electronic circuit boards. Electronic components mounted
on an insulating board are interconnected by lengths of insulated wire run between their
terminals, with the connections made by wrapping several turns around a component lead or a
socket pin. Wire wrap construction can produce assemblies which are more reliable than printed
circuits: connections are less prone to fail due to vibration or physical stresses on the base board,
and the lack of solder precludes soldering faults such as corrosion, cold joints and dry joints.
The connections themselves are firmer and have lower electrical resistance due to cold welding
of the wire to the terminal post at the corners.
Wire wrap was used for assembly of high frequency prototypes and small production runs,
including gigahertz microwave circuits and super computers. It is unique among automated
prototyping techniques in that wire lengths can be exactly controlled, and twisted pairs or
magnetically shielded twisted quads can be routed together.

CRIMPING

A crimp connection is achieved with a type of solder-less electrical connector. Simple crimp
connectors are typically used to terminate stranded wire. Specialized crimp connectors are also
used, for example as signal connectors on coaxial cables in applications at high radio
frequencies (VHF, UHF).
• Close the handle so far as the terminal and barrel are not deformed. Insert the cable to the
conductor stopper, then close the handle until the ratchet is released.
• When reopening the handle, the crimped contact can easily be removed.

• If the handle is required to be opened during crimping, press the open knob.

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 • Remove the excess from wire stripping and scrap metal from the cable stopper. This scrap
material may cause operation problems

SOLDERING PRACTICE

Soldering is defined as "the joining of metals by a fusion of alloys, which have relatively low
melting points". In other words, you use a metal that has a low melting point to adhere the surfaces
to be soldered together. Soldering is more like gluing with molten metal than anything else.
Soldering is also a must have skill for all sorts of electrical and electronics work. It is also a skill
that can only be developed with practice.
Soldering requires two main things: a soldering iron and solder. Soldering irons are the heat source
used to melt solder. Irons of the 15W to 30W range are good for most electronics/printed circuit
board work. Solder is used for joining two or more metal at temperature below their melting point.
The popularly used solders are the alloys of tin(60%) and lead(40%) that melts at 375 0F and
solidifies when it cools.
Soldering fluxes
In order to make the surfaces accept the solder readily, the component terminal should be free
from oxides and other obstructing films. Soldering flux cleans the oxides from the surface of the
metal. The leads should be cleaned chemically or by scraping using a blade or knife. Small amount
of lead should be coated on the cleaned portion of the leads and the bit of the soldering iron. This
process is called tinning. Zinc chloride, ammonium chloride and rosin are the most commonly
used fluxes. These are available in petroleum jelly as paste flux. The residues which remain after
the soldering may be washed out with more water accompanied by brushing.

Fig. 4.1 Soldering Components

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 RULES IN SOLDERING

1. Select the proper soldering iron for work

2. Tin the bit before soldering

3. Keep the tinned bit always clean from oxide formed while soldering

4. Do not overheat the PCB and devices

5. Do not use excess solder or flux

6. Clean the surfaces of the leads to be joined using a blade

PROCEDURE

1. Make a lay out of the connection of the components in the circuit. Plug in the chord of the

soldering iron to the main supply and get it heated.

2. Surface Preparation - A clean surface is very important if you want a strong, low resistive solder

joint. Since you already have a PCB design, you don’t have to worry about your board being

clean. But, make sure that your component leads are clean. Clean leads using a blade or knife

and bend them according to the needs.

3. Component Placement and apply flux - Bend the leads as necessary and insert the component

through the proper holes on the board. Mount the components on the PCB, apply flux on the

joints.

4. Apply Heat - Apply a very small amount of solder to the tip of the iron. This helps conduct the

heat to the component and board, but it is NOT the solder that will make up the joint. Now you

are ready to actually heat the component and board. Lay the iron tip so that it rests against both

the component lead and the board. Normally, it takes one or two seconds to heat the component

up enough to solder.

As a general rule of thumb, you should solder passive components (resistors, capacitors, diodes

etc.) first. The reason is that passives can be more easily mounted as compared to transistors

and integrated circuits (ICs). Make sure you solder polarized capacitors and diodes correctly.

5. Apply Solder and Remove Heat -Once the component lead and solder pad has heated up, you

are ready to apply solder. Touch the tip of the strand of solder to the component lead and solder
Department of ECE 45 KMEA Engineering college
 pad, but NOT the tip of the iron. If everything is hot enough, the solder should flow freely

around the lead and pad. Once the surface of the pad is completely coated, you can stop adding

solder and remove the soldering iron (in that order). Don't move the joint for a few seconds to

allow the solder to cool. If you do move the joint, you will get what's called a "cold joint". A

cold joint is a joint in which the solder does not make good contact with the component lead or

printed circuit board pad.

Cold joints occur when the component lead or solder pad moves before the solder is completely

cooled. Cold joints make a really bad electrical connection and can prevent your circuit from

working. Cold joints can be recognized by a characteristic grainy, dull gray color, and can be

easily fixed. This is done by first removing the old solder with a desoldering tool or simply by

heating it up and flicking it off with the iron. Once the old solder is off, you can resolder the

joint, making sure to keep it still as it cools. Soldering must be done in minimum time to avoid

dry soldering and heating up of the components.

6. Wash the residues using water and brush.

7. Practice desoldering a soldered circuit using soldering iron and desoldering pump.

Fig. 4.2 Soldering Practice

RESULT

Familiarized the various interconnection methods and studied the procedure and instructions to
solder a simple circuit on PCB.

Department of ECE 46 KMEA Engineering college

 EXPERIMENT NO: 5

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

AIM
To study the basics of Printed Circuit Board (PCB) and its fabrication methods and assemble
a half wave circuit on a general purpose PCB.

MATERIALS AND TOOLS REQUIRED

General purpose PCB, transformer, resistor, capacitor, diode, tools for soldering etc.

INTRODUCTION TO PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

Printed circuit boards are electronic circuits boards created for mounting electronic
components on a nonconductive board, and for creating conductive connections between
them. A printed circuit board, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect
electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or traces etched from copper sheets
laminated onto a non- conductive substrate. The creation of circuit patterns is accomplished
using both additive and subtractive methods. The conductive circuit is generally copper,
although aluminum, nickel, chrome, and other metals are sometimes used. It is also referred
to as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB populated with electronic
components is a printed circuit assembly (PCA), also known as a printed circuit board
assembly (PCBA). Printed circuit boards have copper tracks connecting the holes where the
components are placed.

Types of PCB
PCBs are mainly classified into 3 types –

i) Single Sided PCB ii) Double Sided PCB and iii) Multilayer PCB

1) Single sided PCB

In this type of PCB, the conductor patterns are only on one side of the board. The components
are mounted on the other side.

2) Double Sided PCB

In this type of PCB, the conductor patterns are on both sides of the base material. The
components can be mounted on both sides of the board. They can be made with or without
plated through holes (PTH). The production cost of boards without PTH is considerably lower

Department of ECE 47 KMEA Engineering college

 because platting can be avoided. Here contacts are Made from one side of the board to the
other side by soldering the components leads on both sides of the board.
3) Multilayer PCB

Conductors on 3 or more layers separated by dielectric material and the layers are
interconnected by PTH or pads. 4-layer PCB is a sandwich of 2 double layered PCBs.
Likewise, 6-layer PCB is a sandwich of 3 double layered PCB. This sandwiching is done by
placing oxidizing material between double layered PCBs. The spatial and density requirement
and the circuitry complexity determine the type of board to be produced.

Process involved in PCB fabrication

Following are the steps involved in fabrication of PCB.

1. Preparation of the layout of the track

2. Transferring the layout of the track

3. Etching to remove the copper from the copper clad wherever it is not required.

4. Drilling holes for component mounting.

Preparing Layout - The track layout of the electronic circuit must be drawn on a white paper.
The layout should be made in such a way that the paths are in easy routes. This enables the
PCB to be more compact and economical.
Transferring the layout to copper - The layout made on the white paper should be redrawn
on the copper clad using paint or nail polish or permanent marker pen.
Etching - Ferric chloride solution is the popularly used etching solution. The ferric chloride
powder is made into a solution using water and kept in a plastic tray. Marked copper clad is
immersed in this solution for two hours. Due to the reaction, the solution will become weak
and it is not recommended for another etching process. The copper in the unmarked area will
be etched out. Take out the etched sheet from the tray and dry it in sunlight for an hour. Later
remove the paint or nail varnish using turpentine.
Drilling - The holes are made by a drilling machine for the component insertion.

Department of ECE 48 KMEA Engineering college

 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 5.1 Circuit diagram of Half Wave Rectifier

PCB LAYOUT

Fig 5.2 PCB layout of center tapped Rectifier

PCB Design Rules

Layout Design - Layout design is the first step of the PCB design and it is a rough design

of the artwork which contains proper information for PCB. For the preparation of layout,

designer should have the following information

1. Physical size of each component

2. Pin configuration details of components

3. Design rule for particular application

4. Preferable size of PCB

5. Termination of connection

Layout scale - Depending on the accuracy required, layout should be produced at 1:1,
2:1 or 4:1 scale. 2:1 scale is commonly used.

Layout procedure

1.Prepare component layout

Department of ECE 49 KMEA Engineering college

 2. Layout should be prepared in the direction of signal flow as far as possible

3. Among the components, larger ones are placed first and the place in between this is filled
with smaller ones.

4. Components that require input output connections are placed near the PCB edge

5. All components are placed in such a manner that desoldering of other components is not
necessary if they have to be replaced.

6. The circuit can be subdivided into functional subunits and each subunit is realized on a
definite position of the board.

7. While preparing the layout it is a common practice to draw conductor lines only on graph
sheet.

8. Spacing between the components must be uniform.

9. Components producing considerable heat have to be identified so as to avoid concentrated
heat on the board.

Component list - A separate list giving all the desired information about the components is
needed with the circuit diagram for layout preparation. A component list may include the
following details – component code, exact specification, supplies of the component, price,
matching requirements and mechanical dimensions.

RESULT

Studied PCB designing and fabricated single sided PCB for a half wave rectifier.

Department of ECE 50 KMEA Engineering college

 EXPERIMENT NO: 6

DRAWING OF ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS USING

BIS/IEEE SYMBOLS AND INTRODUCTION TO EDA TOOLS

AIM
To learn the basics of the LTSPICE schematic editor and draw the circuit of some simple
circuits.

SOFTWARE USED
LTspice XVII

THEORY
LTSPICE – is a free SPICE simulator with schematic capture from Linear Technology. It is
quite similar to PSPICE Lite but is not limited in the number of devices or nodes. Linear
Technology (LT) is one of the industry leaders in analog and digital integrated circuits. They
also provide a complete set of SPICE models for LT components. The input file for SPICE
is generated automatically from the schematic capture software. In the old days, the input
file was created by hand as a simple text file. SPICE can still run using a simple text file as
the input but today most users prefer to use schematic capture software to create the input
file.

Installing LTspice:
LTspice is freely available software and can be downloaded from the website of Linear
Technology. To download LTspice
- visit http://www.linear.com/designtools/software/ltspice.jsp
- Select the Register on No Thanks option
- Run the LTspiceIV.exe file on your computer
- Install LTSpice

Simulation of circuits using LTspice:

Simulation of circuits using LTspice has two steps:
1. Drawing (editing) or entering the circuit using the schematic capture
2. Defining the desired type of simulation and running it

a) Starting Schematic Capture

- First run LTspice IV from the start menu of windows

Department of ECE 51 KMEA Engineering college

 - Press the New Schematic button to launch it or
- Select File followed by New Schematics from the main menu
Drawing a circuit is easier when the grid is active. To activate the grid, click on View and
select Show Grid.

b) Placing circuit elements

There are buttons on the main menu for basic circuit elements including resistor, capacitor,
inductor, diode, wire as well as ground (GND).
To place one of these circuit elements: - Click on the corresponding button - Move the mouse
to a location where the element is to be located - Click the left key of the mouse to place the
element - You can move the mouse to a different location to place another element of the
same type in another location or press the right key of the mouse to deselect the circuit
element type - continue with placing another type of circuit element.
Note: another type of selecting elements is using the keyboard: ‘r’ for resistor, ‘c’ for
capacitor, ‘l’ for inductor and ‘d’ for diode.
To place circuit elements beyond those shown on the main menu, we click the button Place
Circuit Element and we select the desired element from the list of elements that appears in
a window.
For example, if you want to place a voltage source - Click the Place Circuit Element button
- Select Voltage from the element list and double click it. - Move the mouse to the position
where the voltage source is desired to be placed - Press the left key of the mouse to place
the voltage source and select the right mouse to deactivate the voltage source selection.

c) Wiring the elements

To wire the circuit elements, select the Draw Wire (pencil tool) button. You can draw
horizontal and vertical lines using the pencil tool. - Mark the beginning of a wire by pressing
the left key of the mouse. - Move the mouse to stretch the line horizontally or vertically. - If
change of direction of the wiring is desired, press the left key of the mouse and move the
mouse in the desired direction. - Press the right key of the mouse to stop wiring - Press the
ESC key to deselect the pencil tool.

d) Editing the elements

Delete an element: Press the Delete button and click the scissors on the element. Press the
right mouse key or ESC to quit deleting.

Department of ECE 52 KMEA Engineering college

 Move an element: Press the Move button (or F7) and click the left mouse key over the
element to be moved. Move the mouse to the desired position and click the left mouse key
to place the element.
Rotate an element: Press the Rotate button to rotate an element 900 in clockwise direction.
The element can be rotated before it is placed in a position. If an element is already
positioned, Move the element to get the Rotate button activated.
Add Ground: Press the Ground button to add a button to a circuit. Note that any circuit
should have a Ground (a reference of zero voltage) for the simulation of a circuit to work
properly.
Modifying an element: The value of a component can be changed or modified on a window
that emerges after clicking the right mouse key over the component. For example, after right
clicking the mouse over a resistor, the following window is displayed.
To change the value of the resistor, enter the value in ohms in the entry for resistance or
press the Select Resistor button and choose the value from the list that appears.

RESULT
Familiarized LTspice and drawn a sample circuit as shown below.

Department of ECE 53 KMEA Engineering college

 EXPERIMENT NO: 7

ASSEMBLING OF ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS USING SMT (SURFACE

MOUNT TECHNOLOGY) STATIONS

AIM
To familiarize the principles and techniques for assembling electronic circuits using surface
mount technology stations (SMT).

THEORY
Surface-mount technology (SMT), originally called planar mounting, is a method in which
the electrical components are mounted directly onto the surface of a printed circuit board
(PCB). An electrical component mounted in this manner is referred to as a surface-mount
device (SMD). In industry, this approach has largely replaced the construction method of
fitting components, in large part because SMT allows for increased manufacturing
automation which reduces cost and improves quality. It also allows for more components to
fit on a given area of substrate. Both technologies can be used on the same board, with the
through-hole technology often used for components not suitable for surface mounting such
as large transformers and heat-sinked power semiconductors.
An SMT component is usually smaller than its through-hole counterpart because it has either
smaller leads or no leads at all. It may have short pins or leads of various styles, flat contacts,
a matrix of solder balls (BGAs), or terminations on the body of the component. Different
terms describe the components, technique, and machines used in manufacturing. These
terms are listed in the following table.
SMD Surface-mount devices (active, passive and electromechanical components)
SMT Surface-mount technology (assembling and mounting technology)
SMA Surface-mount assembly (module assembled with SMT)
SMC Surface-mount components (components for SMT)
SMP Surface-mount packages (SMD case forms)
SME Surface-mount equipment (SMT assembling machines)

SMT Assembly Procedure

SMT assembly procedure primarily consists of the following steps: solder paste printing,
chip mounting, reflow soldering, cleaning, inspection and rework, all of which will be
introduced in detail below.
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 • Solder Paste Printing
Solder paste printing refers to the process in which solder paste is placed onto PCB (Printed
Circuit Board) pad through the openings on stencil. Solder paste printing is implemented by
solder paste printer that is placed at the first beginning of SMT assembly manufacturing
line.
• Chip Mounting
Chip mounting aims to place components onto corresponding positions on PCB compatible
with design files and it is done on chip mounter that is placed after solder paste printer in
SMT assembly manufacturing line.
• Reflow Soldering
In the process of reflow soldering, solder paste is first melted, making SMCs (Surface Mount
Components) or SMDs (Surface Mount Devices) stuck to PCB board with solder paste
cooled down. Reflow soldering is carried out in reflow soldering oven that is placed after
chip mounter in SMT assembly manufacturing line.
• Cleaning
Cleaning aims to eliminate hazardous residues left on board. Hazardous residues possibly
derive from flux that is used during reflow soldering process. Cleaning machine is usually
used to clean off residues, which is not placed at a fixed position in SMT assembly
manufacturing line. Cleaning can be implemented either during SMT assembly line or off
the line.
• Inspection
Inspection is used during SMT assembly procedure to get the quality of soldering and
assembly guaranteed compatible with corresponding manufacturing standard and
regulations. Numerous equipment and tools can be used to participate in SMT inspection,
such as magnifying lens, microscope, ICT (In-circuit Tester), Flying probe test, AOI
(Automated Optical Inspection), X-ray inspection, function tester etc. Inspection equipment
can be placed on any suitable position if necessary.
• Rework
Rework is implemented to fix or remanufacture PCB whose defects are exposed through
inspection. To implement rework, some equipment and tools are called for, including
electric soldering iron, rework station etc. Rework can be placed at any position of SMT
assembly line.

Department of ECE 55 KMEA Engineering college

 Detailed description - Where components are to be placed, the printed circuit board
normally has flat, usually tin-lead, silver or gold plated copper pads without holes, called
solder pads. Solder paste, a sticky mixture of flux and tiny solder particles, is first applied
to all the solder pads with a stainless steel or nickel stencil using a screen-printing process.
It can also be applied by a jet-printing mechanism, similar to an inkjet printer. After
pasting, the boards proceed to the pick-and-place machines, where they are placed on a
conveyor belt. The components to be placed on the boards are usually delivered to the
production line in either paper/plastic tapes wound on reels or plastic tubes. Some large
integrated circuits are delivered in static- free trays. Numerical control pick-and-place
machines remove the parts from the tapes, tubes or trays and place them on the PCB.

The boards are then conveyed into the reflow soldering oven. They first enter a pre-heat
zone, where the temperature of the board and all the components is gradually, uniformly
raised to prevent thermal shock. The boards then enter a zone where the temperature is
high enough to melt the solder particles in the solder paste, bonding the component leads
to the pads on the circuit board. The surface tension of the molten solder helps keep the
components in place, and if the solder pad geometries are correctly designed, surface
tension automatically aligns the components on their pads.

There are a number of techniques for reflowing solder. One is to use infrared lamps; this
is called infrared reflow. Another is to use a hot gas convection. Another technology which
is becoming popular again is special fluorocarbon liquids with high boiling points which
use a method called vapor phase reflow. Due to environmental concerns, this method was
falling out of favor until lead-free legislation was introduced which requires tighter
controls on soldering. At the end of 2008, convection soldering was the most popular
reflow technology using either standard air or nitrogen gas. Each method has its
advantages and disadvantages. With infrared reflow, the board designer must lay the board
out so that short components do not fall into the shadows of tall components. Component
location is less restricted if the designer knows that vapor phase reflow or convection
soldering will be used in production. Following reflow soldering, certain irregular or heat-
sensitive components may be installed and soldered by hand, or in large-scale automation,
by focused infrared beam (FIB) or localized convection equipment.
If the circuit board is double-sided then this printing, placement, reflow process may be
repeated using either solder paste or glue to hold the components in place. If a wave

Department of ECE 56 KMEA Engineering college

 soldering process is used, then the parts must be glued to the board prior to processing to
prevent them from floating off when the solder paste holding them in place is melted.

After soldering, the boards may be washed to remove flux residues and any stray solder
balls that could short out closely spaced component leads. Rosin flux is removed with
fluorocarbon solvents, high flash point hydrocarbon solvents, or low flash solvents e.g.
limonene (derived from orange peels) which require extra rinsing or drying cycles. Water-
soluble fluxes are removed with deionized water and detergent, followed by an air blast to
quickly remove residual water. However, most electronic assemblies are made using a
"No-Clean" process where the flux residues are designed to be left on the circuit board,
since they are considered harmless. This saves the cost of cleaning, speeds up the
manufacturing process, and reduces waste. However, it is generally suggested to wash the
assembly, even when a "No-Clean" process is used, when the application uses very high
frequency clock signals (in excess of 1 GHz). Another reason to remove no-clean residues
is to improve adhesion of conformal coatings and underfill materials. Regardless of
cleaning or not those PCBs, current industry trend suggests to carefully review a PCB
assembly process where "No-Clean" is applied, since flux residues trapped under
components and RF shields may affect surface insulation resistance (SIR), especially on
high component density boards.

Certain manufacturing standards, such as those written by the IPC - Association

Connecting Electronics Industries require cleaning regardless of the solder flux type used
to ensure a thoroughly clean board. Proper cleaning removes all traces of solder flux, as
well as dirt and other contaminants that may be invisible to the naked eye. No-Clean or
other soldering processes may leave "white residues" that, according to IPC, are
acceptable "provided that these residues have been qualified and documented as benign".
However, while shops conforming to IPC standard are expected to adhere to the
Association's rules on board condition, not all manufacturing facilities apply IPC standard,
nor are they required to do so. Additionally, in some applications, such as low-end
electronics, such stringent manufacturing methods are excessive both in expense and time
required.

Finally, the boards are visually inspected for missing or misaligned components and solder
bridging. If needed, they are sent to a rework station where a human operator repairs any

Department of ECE 57 KMEA Engineering college

 errors. They are then usually sent to the testing stations (in-circuit testing and/or functional
testing) to verify that they operate correctly.

Fig. 7.1 Surface Mount Technology, Production line

Fig. 7.2 Surface Mount Technology Process Involved

RESULT
The familiarization of SMT is completed and understood the assembly procedure.

Department of ECE 58 KMEA Engineering college

 EXPERIMENT NO: 8

ASSEMBLING OF ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT/SYSTEM ON GENERAL

PURPOSE PCB, TEST AND SHOW THE FUNCTIONING

AIM

To assemble the following circuits on general purpose PCB and test the functioning.

1. Fixed voltage power supply with transformer, rectifier diode, capacitor filter, Zener
regulator.

2. Square wave generation using IC 555 timer in IC base.

MATERIALS AND TOOLS REQUIRED

General purpose PCB, transformer, resistors, capacitors, diodes, tools for soldering etc

THEORY

12V DUAL POWER SUPPLY

Fig. 8.1 Power supply - circuit diagram

Working Explanation - The main component of this circuit is a 12V/1W Zener Diode. Here,
the Zener diode is behaving as a voltage regulator. An input voltage of 230V is applied at
the primary of the transformer which steps it down to 15V through mutual induction of the
primary & secondary windings while maintaining the frequency at 50Hz. After which the
15V AC signal goes through a bridge rectifier (4x 1N4001 Diodes) which converts the AC
signal into a rippling DC signal.
The output DC signal then goes through a 250uF smoothing capacitor in order to remove
any residual noise. The DC signal then goes through 2 Zener diodes producing a regulated

Department of ECE 59 KMEA Engineering college

 ±12V each. The property to have a constant voltage in the breakdown region enables Zener
diodes to serve as a useful voltage regulator for low current uses.

SQUARE WAVE GENERATION USING IC 555 TIMER

Fig. 8.2 Square wave generation using IC 555 timer - circuit diagram

Working explanation - A timing interval starts when the trigger input ("tr") goes lower than
1/3 Vin, or 3.33V. When this happens, the 555 output goes high, and the 555 waits for the
threshold input ("th") to reach 2/3 Vin, or 6.67V. As the capacitor charges, the threshold
input slowly rises until it reaches the required level. Then, the timing interval ends, the
output goes low, and the capacitor is discharged through the "dis" input.
When the capacitor is discharged enough so that the trigger reaches 3.33V, then a new
timing interval begins. The end result is a square wave.

SCHEMATIC AND LAYOUT IN DIPTRACE

12V DUAL POWER SUPPLY

• Schematic

• Component layout

• PCB layout

Department of ECE 60 KMEA Engineering college

 Fig. 8.3 12V Dual power supply – schematic, component layout and PCB layout

SQUARE WAVE GENERATION USING IC 555 TIMER

• Schematic

• Component layout

• PCB layout

Fig. 8.4 12V Square wave generation using IC 555– schematic, component layout and PCB layout

RESULT
Assembling of power supply and square wave generator on a general purpose PCB is
completed and the functioning is tested.

Department of ECE 61 KMEA Engineering college

ESL 130 ELECTRICAL & CATEGORY L T P CREDIT YEAR OF
ELECTRONICS WORKSHOP INTRODUCTION
ESC 0 0 2 1 2019

Preamble: Electrical Workshop is intended to impart skills to plan and carry out simple
electrical wiring. It is essential for the practicing engineers to identify the basic practices and
safety measures in electrical wiring.

Prerequisite: NIL

Course Outcomes: After the completion of the course the student will be able to

CO 1 Demonstrate safety measures against electric shocks.

CO 2 Identify the tools used for electrical wiring, electrical accessories, wires, cables, batteries
and standard symbols
CO 3 Develop the connection diagram, identify the suitable accessories and materials necessary
for wiring simple lighting circuits for domestic buildings
CO 4 Identify and test various electronic components
CO 5 Draw circuit schematics with EDA tools
CO 6 Assemble and test electronic circuits on boards
CO 7 Work in a team with good interpersonal skills

Mapping of course outcomes with program outcomes

PO 1 PO 2 PO 3 PO 4 PO 5 PO 6 PO 7 PO 8 PO 9 PO PO PO
10 11 12
CO 1 - - - - - 3 - - - - - 1

CO 2 2 - - - - - - - - 1 - -

CO 3 2 - - 1 - 1 - 1 2 2 - 2

CO 4 3 - - - - - - - - - - 2

CO 5 3 - - - 2 - - - - - - 2

CO 6 3 - - - 2 - - - - - - 1

CO 7 - - - - - - - - 3 2 - 2

Mark distribution

Total Marks CIE ESE ESE

Duration(Internal)

100 100 - 1 hour

Continuous Internal Evaluation Pattern:

Attendance : 20 marks
Class work/ Assessment /Viva-voce : 50 marks
End semester examination (Internally by college) : 30 marks

End Semester Examination Pattern: Written Objective Examination of one hour

Syllabus

PART 1

ELECTRICAL

List of Exercises / Experiments

1. a) Demonstrate the precautionary steps adopted in case of Electrical shocks.

b)Identify different types of cables, wires, switches, fuses, fuse carriers, MCB, ELCB
and MCCB with ratings.
2. Wiring of simple light circuit for controlling light/ fan point (PVC conduit wiring)
3. Wiring of light/fan circuit using Two way switches . (Staircase wiring)
4. Wiring of Fluorescent lamps and light sockets (6A) with a power circuit for controlling power
device. (16A socket)
5. Wiring of power distribution arrangement using single phase MCB distribution board with
ELCB, main switch and Energy meter.
6. a)Identify different types of batteries with their specifications.
b)Demonstrate the Pipe and Plate Earthing Schemes using Charts/Site Visit.

PART II

ELECTRONICS

List of Exercises / Experiments (Minimum of 7 mandatory)

1. Familiarization/Identification of electronic components with specification

(Functionality, type, size, colour coding, package, symbol, cost etc. [Active, Passive,
Electrical, Electronic, Electro-mechanical, Wires, Cables, Connectors, Fuses, Switches,
Relays, Crystals, Displays, Fasteners, Heat sink etc.)
2. Drawing of electronic circuit diagrams using BIS/IEEE symbols and introduction to EDA
tools (such as Dia or XCircuit), Interpret data sheets of discrete components and IC’s,
Estimation and costing.

3. Familiarization/Application of testing instruments and commonly used tools.

[Multimeter, Function generator, Power supply, DSO etc.] [Soldering iron, De-
soldering pump, Pliers, Cutters, Wire strippers, Screw drivers, Tweezers, Crimping
tool, Hot air soldering and de- soldering station etc.]

4. Testing of electronic components [Resistor, Capacitor, Diode, Transistor and JFET

using multimeter.]

5. Inter-connection methods and soldering practice. [Bread board, Wrapping, Crimping,

Soldering - types - selection of materials and safety precautions, soldering practice in
connectors and general purpose PCB, Crimping.]

6. Printed circuit boards (PCB) [Types, Single sided, Double sided, PTH, Processing
methods, Design and fabrication of a single sided PCB for a simple circuit with manual
etching (Ferric chloride) and drilling.]
7. Assembling of electronic circuits using SMT (Surface Mount Technology) stations.
8. Assembling of electronic circuit/system on general purpose PCB, test and show the
functioning (Any Two circuits).

1. Fixed voltage power supply with transformer, rectifier diode, capacitor filter,
zener/IC regulator.

2. Square wave generation using IC 555 timer in IC base.

3. Sine wave generation using IC 741 OP-AMP in IC base.
4. RC coupled amplifier with transistor BC107.