II.

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

II. Environmental Science,
Management, and Policy
(ESMP)

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
8 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE FUNDAMENTALS

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary study of the natural and man-made world. It integrates
knowledge on physical, biological and information sciences (e.g., ecology, biology, physics, chemistry,
zoology, mineralogy, oceanology, limnology, soil science, geology, and atmospheric science), which is
then applied to the study of the environment and the development of solutions to environmental
problems. We can view the environment as constituting a number of interconnected processes and
phenomena, which include the formation of rocks, the climate system, the cycling of essential
biological elements and the interaction between organisms and their surroundings, for example.
Environmental science involves the identification, measurement and classification of these processes
and phenomena. Like all other sciences, environmental science involves detection, classification,
measurement, the establishment of experimentally verified laws by hypothesis formation and testing
and the generation of predictive models.

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

Environmental science is of importance not only because it informs us about the world in which we
live in, but it also enables us to identify and address more effectively, potential root causes to many
of the emerging and pressing environmental-related issues that confront the modern world. For this
⾯临
reason, environmental science is increasingly seen as a vital field in helping to establish the ground
rules by which the environment may be more effectively managed in the future.

Environmental scientists work on subject areas like the understanding of earth processes such as the
causes and effects of global climate change, evaluating alternative energy systems, natural resource
management, as well as pollution control and mitigation. Since environmental issues almost always
include interactions amongst and between physical, chemical, and biological processes,
environmental scientists bring a ‘systems approach’ to the analysis of environmental problems and
their social, legal, and economic context. Key elements of an effective environmental scientist include
the ability to comprehend and apply knowledge on space and time relationships, as well as
quantitative analysis skills, to prevent as well as solve problems.

Earth systems science

To understand the potential dynamics of pollution, some basic
knowledge of the earth system is essential. The earth system is commonly
categorised into four spheres: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the
⽔圈
lithosphere, and the biosphere as shown in Figure II-1.
岩⽯圈 ⽣物圈
The atmosphere 2 is a mixture of gases surrounding our planet, providing
us with air to breathe, shielding us from most of the sun’s harmful
ultraviolet (UV) radiation and warming the surface of our planet by about
33° C (59° F). Dry air usually contains about 78% nitrogen (N2) and about
21% oxygen (O2). Argon, carbon dioxide (CO2) and many other gases are
also present but each making up less than 1% of the atmosphere's
mixture of gases. The atmosphere also includes water vapor, which varies
a lot but on average is around 1%.

There are several different layers in the atmosphere, each with its own
characteristic temperatures, pressures, and phenomena. The Figure II-1: The earth system
troposphere is the lowest layer, where most clouds are found and almost Source: UCAR Center for Science Education,
all weather occurs. Some jet aircraft fly in the next higher layer, the https://scied.ucar.edu/atmosphere-layers
stratosphere, which contains the jet streams and the ozone layer. Above
those are the mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere layers.

2 UCAR Center for Science Education, https://scied.ucar.edu/shortcontent/earths-atmosphere

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
The hydrosphere3 includes all liquid and frozen surface waters, groundwater held in soil and rock, and
atmospheric water vapour. Liquid water exists on the surface in the form of oceans, lakes, and rivers.
It also exists below ground—as groundwater, in wells and aquifers. Water vapor is most visible as
clouds and fog. The frozen part of Earth's hydrosphere is made of ice: glaciers, ice caps and icebergs.
The frozen part of the hydrosphere is also known as the cryosphere. Water moves through the
hydrosphere in a cycle. Water collects in clouds, then falls in the form of rain or snow. This water
collects in rivers, lakes, and oceans, which then it evaporates into the atmosphere to start the cycle
all over again. This is called the water cycle.

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

Figure II-2: The water cycle
Source: John Evans and Howard Periman, USGS, 2013, http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html

The oceans constitute large parts of the hydrosphere, covering 75% of the earth. Ocean depth 4 can be
divided into several different zones based on depth, temperature, light, and the topography of the
ocean bottom. This is illustrated in Figure II-3. Since these factors vary both between and within ocean
basins, depth delineations for each zone can also vary.
上层区 中层区
These zones include, with increasing depth: the epipelagic zone (the sunlight zone); the mesopelagic
zone (the twilight zone); the bathypelagic zone (the midnight zone); and the abyssopelagic zone (the
abyss). 深海区 远洋 深海 带

3 National Geographic, https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/hydrosphere/print/

4 Curriculum Research & Development Group (CRDG), College of Education, University of Hawaii, 2020,
https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/physical/ocean-depths/depth-zones

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

Figure II-3: Zones of the oceans
Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

The lithosphere 5 refers to uppermost layers of the solid earth composed of the entire crust (oceanic
and continental) and the top rigid portion of the mantle lying above the partially melted, less rigid
asthenosphere. Broken into major tectonic 地壳构造
plates moving relative to one another over
the asthenosphere, the lithosphere consists
of rocks overlain by discontinuous surface
贴⾯板veneers of sediment and soil. Lithospheric
thickness varies from about 50 kilometres
under ocean bottoms to about 100
kilometres below continental surfaces.
Tectonic activity is responsible for some of
earth's most dramatic geologic events:
earthquakes, volcanoes, orogeny (mountain-
building), and deep ocean trenches can all be
formed by tectonic activity in the
lithosphere.

Figure II-4: The Lithosphere

Source: National Geographic, Resource Library,
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/lithosphere/
岩⽯圈
The lithosphere stores very large amounts of mass. With the exception of volcanic activity, however,
transport of materials through the lithosphere is relatively slow. Physical, chemical, and biological
processes interact with the outermost land surfaces of the lithosphere to form soil, ultimately
providing materials essential for vegetative growth.
遍布 的 ⼟壤圈
The biosphere5 includes all life on earth, including the life found pervasively on the pedosphere (soil)
surface, the land surface of the lithosphere, in the hydrosphere (oceans, lakes and rivers), extending
down to various depths into the pedosphere and lithosphere, and up into the lower atmosphere. The
biosphere includes both oceanic and terrestrial (land) domains. On land there are a number of
different, easily recognizable communities called biomes. Biomes essentially result from the
interaction of regional climate, biota (life) and substrates (soils or underlying surfaces) and are usually

5 Old Dominion University, http://www.ccpo.odu.edu/SEES/veget/class/Chap_1/1_3.htm

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
顶点 ⽣物群 系 稀树 草原 草原
defined by their climax vegetation. Some examples of biomes are rainforest, savanna, grassland,
desert, taiga, and tundra. Biomes can be divided into smaller, more descriptive units to provide a more
针叶 冻原
detailed characterization of an area and information about the types of organisms that might exist
there.

8.1 AN INTRODUCTION TO POLLUTION

Pollution is commonly defined as the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes
harm to human health, other living organisms, and the general environment. Pollution can be in the
form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat, or light. There are different kinds of
pollution, such as air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, visual pollution, and light pollution for
example. Some other common definitions for pollution are:
 The impairment of the quality of some portion of the environment by the addition of harmful
impurities;

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

 Something people produce or is man-made in such large quantities that it interferes with our
health or wellbeing; and
 Any change in the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of the air, water, or soil that can
affect the health, survival, or activities of human beings or other forms of life in an undesirable
way. Pollution does not have to produce physical harm; pollutants such as noise and heat may
-

cause injury, but more often they cause physical or sensory distress, such as foul odours and
unpleasant visual effects. 藉
Scientific methodology
In the study of environmental science,
scientists apply scientific methods to
gather and interpret information to draw
conclusions about the processes at work
in the environment. The typical process
involves observation, speculation, 推测
hypothesis formation, prediction testing
and fine-tuning, interpretation, and
conclusion reasoning.

Source: Garland, Jr., Theodore. "The Scientific

Method as an Ongoing Process". U C Riverside.
Archived from the original on 19 Aug 2016. (by
ArchonMagnus – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=42164616) Figure II-5: The scientific method

Some key terms

 Acid rain – Any form of precipitation making a media more acidic from the fall-out of air
pollutants (primarily sulphur dioxide) dissolving into it.
 Actinides in the environment – The sources, environmental behaviour, and effects of radioactive
actinides in the environment. 锕 系元素
 Air Quality Health Index – An index aimed at communicating air pollution and heath information
to the public.
 Atmospheric dispersion modelling – The mathematical and computer simulation of how air
pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere.
 Bioremediation – Any process that uses microorganisms, fungi, green plants, or their enzymes to
return the environment altered by contaminants to its original/natural state.

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) – Synthetic chemicals that are odourless, non-toxic, non-flammable,
and chemically inert. They are used mainly for air conditioning and refrigeration.
 Ecological civilization – A form of human civilization based on ecological principles.
 Electrical resistance heating remediation – An in-situ environmental remediation method that
uses the flow of altering current electricity to heat soil and ground water to evaporate
contaminants.
 Emerging pollutants (contaminants, PPCPs) – Any synthetic or naturally occurring substance,
chemical or microorganism that is not commonly monitored in the environment but has the
potential to enter the environment and cause known or suspected adverse ecological and/or
human health effects. For example, pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs)
comprise a very broad, diverse collection of thousands of chemical substances, including
prescription and over-the-counter therapeutic drugs, fragrances, cosmetics, sunscreen agents,
diagnostic agents, nutrapharmaceuticals, bio-pharmaceuticals, and many others.
 Environmental radioactivity – The study of radioactive material in the human environment.
 Eutrophication – A process in which the natural water body, for example a lake, receives excess
C

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

过营养化 inputs of plant nutrients as a result of natural erosion, surface runoff or anthropogenic discharges
from the surrounding land basin.
 Fission products – The atomic fragments left after large nucleus fission. 核裂变
- , , -

 Global dimming – The gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the earth’s
surface. 全球黯变 蚱蜢效应
 Global distillation (or grass hopper effect) – The geochemical process by which certain chemicals,
most notably persistent organic pollutants (POPs), are transported from warmer to colder regions
of the earth. 除
鞩
 Herbicide- – A substance or mixture of substances used to kill unwanted plants.
 ←Hypoxia – A phenomenon that occurs in the aquatic environment where the dissolved oxygen
缺氧 (DO) reduces in concentration to the point where it is detrimental to aquatic organisms living in
the system. 有害的
 Indoor air quality – A term referring to the air quality within and around building occupants.
 Invasive species – Non-indigenous species (e.g., plants or animals) that adversely affect the
habitats they invade economically, environmentally, or ecologically.
 Light pollution – Excessive or obtrusive artificial light (photo-pollution or luminous pollution).
 Marine debris – Human-created, or potentially harmful, effects resulting from the entry into the
ocean of chemicals, particles, or industrial, agricultural, and residential waste, or from the spread
of invasive organisms.
 Noise pollution – Unwanted sound that disrupts the activity or balance of human or animal life.
 Nuclear fallout – The radiation hazard from a nuclear explosion, so named as it refers to the
放射性尘埃
residual radioactive material usually in the form of radioactive dust and ash “falling out” of the
atmosphere and spreading during and after the nuclear explosion.
 Ocean acidification – The ongoing decrease in the pH value of the Earth’s oceans, caused by their
uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
 Oil spill – A form of pollution characterized by the release of liquid petroleum hydrocarbons into
the environment due to human activity.
 Ozone depletion – Ozone concentrations vary naturally with sunspots, the seasons, and latitude,
but these processes are well understood and predictable. But recently the ozone layer in the
stratosphere which shields off the harmful solar UV radiation is being depleted well beyond
changes due to normal processes.
 Particulates – Normally refers to fine dust and fume particles that travel easily through air.
 Pesticide – A substance or mixture of substance used to kill pests.
 Plutonium – A radioactive trace element rarely found in naturally occurring uranium ores and is
点 primarily created as a byproduct of and for nuclear power production. It can also be used to
create weapons from which there would be nuclear fallout impacts.
 Radiation poisoning - A form of damage to organ tissue due to excessive exposure to ionizing
radiation. 铺 身蝳 电离

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
⾛失
 Radio spectrum pollution – Straying of waves in the radio and electromagnetic spectrums
outside their regulated allocations that can cause problems for some activities like radio
astronomy and telecommunications.
 Radon and radiation – Radon is a radioactive product arising from the decay of Radium. It and
its decay products are highly radioactive.
 Rare earth elements – The 17 chemical elements in the periodic table defined by the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, that occur naturally in low concentrations or
levels but can be commonly found. They are often mined for the purpose of producing a wide
range of technologies and products such as lasers, magnets, batteries, paints, etc. The mining of
these elements as well as the production and disposal of rare earth element-containing products
can cause significant negative environmental impacts.
 Smog – Term used to describe visible air pollution; a dense, discoloured haze containing large
quantities of soot, ash, and gaseous pollutants such as ozone and nitrogen dioxide.
 Soil Guideline Value – A series of measurements and values used to measure the contamination
of the soil.

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

 Surface runoff – The water flow over the land caused by rain, snowmelt, or other sources.
 Thermal pollution – Changes in the ambient water or air temperature causing harmful effects
on aquatic or terrestrial ecosystems, or negatively impacting the beneficial use of water or air
resources.铀
 Uranium – A naturally occurring element commonly found in low levels within all rock, soil, and
water, that is used in nuclear power generation. It can also be used to create weapons from
which there would be nuclear fallout impacts.
 Visual pollution – The unattractive or unnatural (human-made) visual elements of a vista,
landscape, or any other object or scene that a person might not want to look at.
 Wastewater – The liquid waste stream primarily produced by one or several of the five major
sources of: animal waste, household waste, industrial waste, institutional and commercial waste,
and storm water runoff.
 Water quality – The physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of water.
 Waterborne diseases – Diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms directly transmitted
through the use of contaminated water. 引起疾病 的

8.2 SOURCES AND TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

8.2.1 Sources of pollution

⼈为的
The environmental contaminants of interest are usually those originating from anthropogenic or man-
made sources, mainly from industry. Industry can be categorized in different ways and one
conventional way to categorise them is in accordance with the level of resource processing 6,7:

a) Primary industries – involve the harvesting of raw materials or resources (e.g., oil, iron ore,
timber, fish, etc.) from land or sea, for use or further processing in the other industry categories.
Examples of primary industries include mining, oil and gas extraction, quarrying, fishing, forestry,
farming, etc.

b) Secondary industries – involve the processing of raw materials produced by primary industries
to manufacture other products through physical and/or chemical means, using manual labour

6 Source: BBC.co.uk website downloaded on 17 April 2017

(http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/geography/economic_change/characteristics_industry_rev1.shtml)
7 Source: Platform with GCSE study material developed by teachers downloaded 17 April 2017

(https://revisionworld.com/gcse-revision/geography/industry/different-types-industry).

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
净化 提纯
.ie _
and machinery. Examples of secondary industries include oil refining, production of oil and
,

synthetic petroleum products such as lubrication oils and plastics, electricity, automotive, textile,
food, paper, etc.
三级⼯业
c) Tertiary industries – involve the provision of skills and services to people and other industries
and do not involve the production of any raw materials or products. Examples of tertiary
industries include health services, legal services, transportation, education, entertainment,
tourism, finance, retail, etc.
四 级⼯业
d) Quaternary industries – involve the use of high tech and/or provision of information services.
Examples of quaternary industries include computing, ICT (information and communication
technologies), R&D (research and development), etc. Quaternary industries are sometimes
included with the tertiary industry sector as they are both service sectors.

In addition to resource extraction and production activities, the use, end-of-life decommissioning and

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

disposal of products and facilities, can also result in negative environmental impacts.

Figure II-6: Product life cycle

Source: Adapted from Environmental Sustainability for Engineers and Applied Scientists, Online publication date: February
2019, pp 65-93, Cambridge University Press, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316711408.005

Hence in order to understand more accurately the potential environmental impacts of any product
or service, it is important to conduct a life-cycle assessment (see Section 12.2).

8.2.2 Types of pollution

Different types of pollution can generally be categorized according to the natural spheres they impact,
although some affecting the biosphere tend to warrant their own categorisation.

a) Air Pollution – acid rain, global warming, global dimming, global distillation, particulates, smog,
ozone depletion.

b) Water pollution – eutrophication, hypoxia, marine pollution, marine debris, ocean acidification,
oil spills, ship pollution, surface runoff, thermal pollution, wastewater, waterborne diseases,
water quality.

c) Soil contamination – Bioremediation, electrical resistance heating, herbicides, pesticides, Soil

Guideline Values (SGVs).

d) Radioactive contamination – actinides in the environment, environmental radioactivity, fission

products, nuclear fallout, plutonium in the environment, radiation poisoning, radium in the
environment, uranium in the environment.

e) Others – invasive species, light pollution, noise pollution, radio spectrum pollution, visual
pollution.

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
8.3 FATE AND TRANSPORT OF POLLUTANTS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
错综复杂
Owing to the intricate relationships between air, water, and land media, it is important to understand
that although a pollutant’s primary impact may be or start in one of the natural spheres, there could
be knock-on effects flowing into the other spheres.
连锁

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

Figure II-7: Impact of pollutants on the environment
Source: Adapted from Environmental Sustainability for Engineers and Applied Scientists, Online publication date: February
2019, pp 65-93, Cambridge University Press, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316711408.005

For example, the acid rain problem is caused by air pollution but it damages both aquatic and
terrestrial ecosystems; an air pollution control system such as a “scrubber” can produce a flow of dirty
渗漏
water that can cause water pollution; and leachate production can cause leachate seepage through
landfills and contaminate surface water and groundwater. The fate and transport of pollutants can be
further examined by going through the cycling of matter in ecosystems. Some important cycles
included the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, phosphorus cycle, and the phosphorous cycle (Wright).

8.4 ECOLOGY, HEALTH AND ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS

8.4.1 Ecology and biodiversity

Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. It is important to have
an overarching concept for biodiversity and the role of ecology in Environmental Management.
包罗万象的
In consideration of the distribution and adaptation of species, it is essential to consider that the
distribution and abundance of species is not random throughout the world.

To understand the distribution and abundance of species, we need to know not just about their
present-day interactions with their environment and other organisms, but also their historical origins
and in biology this means evolutionary history.

The theory of evolution by natural selection (Darwin)

Natural selection and an individual's fitness (definitions): Organisms appear to be well adapted to fit
the environment that they are found in; this is a result of natural selection favouring those individuals
which have heritable characteristics most suitable to the environment and therefore being relatively
more successful in producing offspring than their less fit colleagues. For example, the case of the
peppered moth Biston betularia - selection of different colour morphs.

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
Individual responses to environmental factors
As a result of evolution, organisms appear well suited to the environmental conditions (the abiotic
factors, which vary in space and time such as temperature, moisture, light, etc.) that they live in.
Different species respond differently (tolerate) to these factors - different species perform better at
different levels of these factors.

An example of different species responses

By looking at very severe environmental gradients, we can see how different species respond to
changes in the environment. Rocky shores are such a gradient from marine to terrestrial habitats; Case
study of barnacles on exposed shores (Chthamalus stellatus and Semibalanus (=Balanus) balanoides).
Environmental factors affect the distribution both along the shore and geographically We can explain
this using the model of the Ecological Niche (Hutchinson, 1957), n- dimensional hypervolume in n-
dimensional space.

The effect of geological history on species evolution

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

The present-day suite of species and their distribution is the result of millions of years of the earth's
development and is influenced by a number of factors including the geological time scale, evolution
and speciation - phylogenetic constraints on species forms, plate tectonics and continental drift,
- _ -
漂流
divergence of populations and1reproductive isolation leading to speciation 1- island speciation as a
special case (endemism); etc. 系统发⽣的
板块构造

8.4.2 Health and ecological effects of pollutants

协同 的
In general, air pollution effects on health is the combined impact of the gwhole mixture of pollutants
acting over our life span and frequently these effects are synergistic, with two or more factors
combining to produce a greater effect than their simple sum. For example, plants may be so stressed
by pollution that they become more vulnerable to other environmental factors, such as drought or
attack by insects. Humans may develop lung disease due to the combined effects of ozone and
particulate matters. It is not easy to determine the role of any particular pollutant in causing an
observed result. The linkage with cause and effect have been established with a high degree of
certainty. Acute exposure to some pollutants can be life threatening, but many effects are chronic,
acting over a period of years to cause a gradual deterioration of physiological functions. Moreover,
some pollutants are carcinogenic, adding significantly to the risk of lung cancer as they are breathed
into the lungs.

8.5 DATA COLLECTION, ANALYSIS AND MODELLING

Environmental professionals should have basic knowledge and skills in data collection, numerical
calculations, statistical analysis, data interpretation and data modelling.

8.5.1 Data collection

Data sampling and collection is the most critical part of the data processing value chain, since the
quality of the data will affect the accuracy, robustness, and confidence level, or even the overall
validity of the analyses results.

When preparing a sampling plan, the purpose, objectives, and approach (or goals, strategies, and
methods) must be considered along with the existing knowledge and understanding of the target
environment, including the physical, chemical, and biological variables and processes involved. 8

8 Sampling and data quality objectives for environmental monitoring, J.F. Artiola and A.W. Warrick, Chapter 2,

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
Environmental-related data tends to have spatial and/or temporal properties. The environment is
defined by two or three spatial dimensions, while sample collection or measurements over time are
defined by natural cycles such as daytime, night-time, or daily, seasonal, or annual intervals.
Sometimes the data may be simply defined in convenient time units such as seconds, minutes, hours,
weeks, or months.
替代的
Methods of sampling include random; systematic, grab/search/exploratory, surrogate, composite,
path integrated, time integrated, remote sensing and quality control (e.g., blank, sample replicates,
etc.).

The nature of the sampling can also be classified as either destructive or non-destructive (non-
invasive). Destructive sampling is when samples are physically removed from an environment, the
effects of which may be irreversible or reversible. Examples of destructive sampling include subsurface
cores (geologic), soil cores, plants and plant tissue samples, animals and animal tissue samples, water
samples, and air samples. Nondestructive sampling, often called noninvasive sampling, is becoming

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

increasingly important as new sensors and technologies are being developed. Two major techniques
are remote sensing, which records electromagnetic radiation with sensors, and liquid-solid or gas-solid
sensors, which provide an electrical response to changes in parameter activity at the interface.

With the continuous advancement in technology, there will be growing opportunities for the
application of technologies particularly for non-invasive sampling. There could potentially be more
valuable insights produced by the accumulation of more data and the increasing computing power to
process big data. For example, cataloguing ecological species is getting easier and less expensive given
the photo and video capabilities of electronic phones and high-resolution cameras today. Furthermore,
this information can now be shared instantaneously around the world given the mass internet and
social media capabilities we now have.

Although the use of technology can make data collection faster and cheaper, this also means we need
to continue to strengthen and grow our capabilities in ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the
monitoring equipment, through regular calibration and testing.

8.5.2 Data analysis and interpretation

Statistical analysis is essential to the field of environmental sciences. It enables researchers and
environmental practitioners to gain an understanding of the environmental issues and to develop
potential solutions to these issues. Environmental statistics is widely used in the academic,
governmental, regulatory, technological, and consulting sectors.

Within the scope of environmental statistics, there are two main use categories: 9
i. Descriptive statistics, which are not used to make inferences about data, but to simply describe
its characteristics; and
ii. Inferential statistics, which are used to make inferences about data, testing hypotheses or making
predictions. 推理性数据

Environmental Monitoring and Characterization, 2004, Elsevier (USA)

9 Rong, Yue (2011-09-01). "Environmental Statistics". Environmental Forensics. 12 (3): 189–190.
doi:10.1080/15275922.2011.599263. ISSN 1527-5922.

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
The types of studies that utilise environmental statistics include: 10
 Baseline studies to document the present state of an environment to provide background in case
of unknown changes in the future;
 Targeted studies to describe the likely impact of changes being planned or of accidental
occurrences; and
 Regular monitoring to attempt to detect changes in the environment.

There are numerous statistical methods applied in environmental sciences. Although they have been
widely used in other fields, many of these methods must be adapted to fit the needs and limitations
of data in environmental science. Linear regression models, generalized linear models, and non-linear
models are some methods of statistical analysis that are widely used within environmental science to
study relationships between variables. 11

Variable types can be classified according to their relationships to each other: independent variables;
dependent variables; and interdependent variables. Each variable has a measurement or observation

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

scale which is either qualitative with a categorical or nominal scale or is quantitative with either a
discrete ordinal scale or continuous (interval or ratio) scale. It is typically the response or dependent
variables that determine the appropriate statistical model or class of statistical methods. 12 In
environmental studies, there are many types of dependent variable data, including: continuous data;
counts; proportions; binary data; time at death; time series; and circular data.

8.5.3 Data modelling

模型
准
Two general groups of models are commonly used to address environmental fate and transport of
chemicals: compartment models and plume models. Compartment models, also referred to as Box
models or Mackay models, conceptualise the environment as consisting of homogeneous, well-mixed
compartments. The principle of mass conservation and mass balance equations are the basis for
compartment models. Plume models are used if it is assumed that compartments are not
homogeneous and not well mixed. Plume models aim to model the distribution of a chemical within
a given compartment and have evolved into complex models of pollutant plumes with third and fourth
(time) dimensions. 13

Atmospheric dispersion modelling is an example of the use of plume models. It is performed with
computer programmes that solve the mathematical equations and algorithms算法 which simulate the
pollutant dispersion. Dispersion models are used to estimate the downwind ambient concentration of
air pollutants or toxins emitted from sources such as industrial plants, vehicular traffic or accidental
chemical releases. They are employed to determine whether existing or proposed new industrial
facilities are or will be in compliance with the Air Quality Objectives and assist in the design of effective
control strategies to reduce emissions of harmful air pollutants. Due to their capability to predict
future concentrations under specific scenarios (i.e., changes in emission sources), they are the
dominant type of model used in air quality policy making. They are most useful for pollutants that are
dispersed over large distances and that may react in the atmosphere. For pollutants that have a very

10 Manly B.F.J. (2001) Statistics for Environmental Science and Management, Chapman & Hall/CRC. ISBN 1-58488-029-5
11 Rong, Yue (2011-09-01). "Environmental Statistics". Environmental Forensics. 12 (3): 189–190.
doi:10.1080/15275922.2011.599263. ISSN 1527-5922.
12 University of Massachusetts, Landscape Ecology Lab, Analysis of Environmental Data: Conceptual Foundations

(http://www.umass.edu/landeco/teaching/ecodata/schedule/environmental.data.pdf)
13 Environmental Sustainability for Engineers and Applied Scientists, Online publication date: February 2019, pp 65-93,

Cambridge University Press, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316711408.005

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
high spatial-temporal variability and for epidemiological studies statistical land-use regression models
are also used.

Models are subject to errors and limitations. The contribution of atmospheric transport models to
population exposure estimates can be improved with the incorporation of the following
considerations:

a) Improve spatial and temporal resolution for PM2.5 and ozone estimates, e.g., by better description
of urban areas and its emissions;

b) Consider the use of regional emission inventories in global models, and the use of emission
inventory by source sector. This would facilitate assessment of the regional and sector-specific
contributions and better information for policy makers;
全套
c) Consider the development of “ensemble” of models to improve the simulated concentration data,

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including exploration of the use of the regional/local modelling that is being conducted by the
countries;

d) Explore the use of top-down constraints by satellite and in-situ observations for assessment of
pollution trends, spatial and temporal variation and emission ratios such as NO2/reactive
hydrocarbons ratios;

e) Advance understanding and description of parameterization of the sub-grid physical processes

occurring in the atmosphere and their impact on the concentration estimates, e.g., secondary
organic particles formation;

f) Explore feasibility of global models for other health and climate-related air pollutants and of
models describing pollution in cities (or megacities);

g) Minimise uncertainty: One major source of data uncertainty stems from measurement
uncertainty, hence every effort should be made to minimise monitoring uncertainty. A minimum
common protocol should be established for air quality monitoring by countries, with reference
to existing good practice examples and basic Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for reducing
measurement uncertainty, including:
 Definition of monitoring objectives, one of which should be provision of data for health risk
assessment, and data quality objectives with uncertainty estimate;
 Pollutants to be monitored (e.g., PM2.5, black carbon, NO2, ozone); however, PM2.5 should
have the highest priority, followed by ozone;
 PM2.5 speciation monitoring in support of atmospheric transport models and satellite remote
sensing development and data validation;
 High time resolution of monitoring;
 Spatial monitoring issues (density, urban/rural monitoring, pollution hotspots, urban micro-
scale monitoring, etc.;)
 Choice of, positioning, maintenance, and calibration of monitoring equipment;
 The QA/QC system to be used;
 Appropriate staff training necessary for monitoring implementation; and
 Integration of PM2.5 monitoring data into the health or environmental data base.

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
8.6 POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES

8.6.1 Prevention and avoidance

Before considering any control technologies, the concept of moving pollution control upstream should
be considered, i.e., avoidance or prevention before control. For example, all processes should select
processes and technologies that use resources and materials that are less emitting or have less
negative environmental impacts (e.g., using renewable energy instead of fossil fuels, purchasing
locally produced materials instead of imported products, etc.), and that are also efficient and use less
resources and materials per unit of production (e.g., adopting advanced technologies that are more
efficient than traditional ones, etc.). Indeed, the 3R’s of "Reduce, Re-use, Recycle" approach for
managing waste adopts a similar concept. The 3R’s should be central to the implementation and
promotion of waste management at community level. Hong Kong's landfills are rapidly running out of
space while our waste loads continue to increase. The only way to solve this crisis is for everybody -
consumers and manufacturers alike - to urgently take responsibility for reducing waste.

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

Once as many avoidance and prevention measures have been adopted upstream as possible, then
pollution control measures must be considered for the remaining unavoidable negative environmental
impacts. Pollution control technologies can be classified in different ways, such as by the control
method or by media/sphere impact 14.

8.6.2 Control methods

The potential control methods involve physical, physical chemical, chemical, biological and ecological
processes. As an example, an illustration of various control methods used in wastewater treatment is
show in Table II-1 below.

Table II-1: Main wastewater pollution control technology and the scope of processing object

Source: Environmental Pollution Control, Jingling LiuLulu ZhangZhijie Liu, 2017, Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG

As an example, in Hong Kong, the waste treatment methods currently employed in Hong Kong include
landfilling, chemical waste treatment, biological treatment, and sludge incineration. More examples
of the various control technologies can be seen in Table II-2 below 15.

14 Environmental Pollution Control, Jingling LiuLulu ZhangZhijie Liu, 2017, Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG
15 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution#Pollution_control

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Table II-2: Examples of waste treatment and control technologies
Air Pollution Sewage & Wastewater Waste & Other
Thermal oxidizer Sewage treatment Waste management
Dust collection systems - Sedimentation (Primary - Landfill
- Baghouses treatment) - Chemical waste
- Cyclones - Activated sludge biotreaters treatment
- Electrostatic precipitators (Secondary treatment; also used - Biological treatment
Scrubbers for industrial wastewater) - Sludge treatment
- Baffle spray scrubber - Aerated lagoons 曝⽓氧化塘 - Incineration
- Cyclonic spray scrubber - Constructed wetlands (also used - Pyrolysis ⾼温分解
- Ejector venturi scrubber for urban runoff) Vapor recovery systems
- Mechanically aided scrubber Industrial wastewater treatment Phytoremediation
- Spray tower - API oil-water separators[38][68]
- Wet scrubber - Biofilters
- Dissolved air flotation (DAF) 溶⽓浮选

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- Powdered activated carbon
treatment
- Ultrafiltration

8.7 CHARACTERIZATION OF CONTAMINATED SITES

After careful characterization, a site can be designated as contaminated or otherwise. Typically, the
type and extent of contamination is determined (e.g., size, nature of contaminants, quantities). The
evaluation process would inevitably determine the level of contamination left after remediation,
especially regarding heavy metal contamination. The acceptable level would in turn be determined by
the intended use of the site and also the risk for further contamination of groundwater. Site with soil
contamination can be divided into the following classes:

 Mineral oil or mineral oil substances;

 Halogenated solvents; ⻧ 化 溶剂
 PCB, PCT, dioxins;
 Gas cleaning compounds from old city gas works; and
 Heavy metals (e.g., Cd, Pb, Hg, Cr, Ni, As, Cu).

8.8 REMEDIATION AND RESTORATION TECHNOLOGIES

The level of decontamination and clean up action will very much depend on the type of contaminant,
acceptable standards, hydrogeology of the site, costs, ecology, and future use.
⽔⽂地质学

For remedial action of sites, common methods include in-situ chemical injection, soil vapour
extraction, thermal treatment, and bioremediation.

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9 GLOBAL AND MULTI-MEDIA ENVIRONMENTAL
ISSUES

9.1 ATMOSPHERIC OZONE DEPLETION

The stratospheric ozone layer protects Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation. The depletion of this
layer is one of the major challenges resulting from human activities. Atmospheric scientists have
traced the problem to a group of chemicals, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs were commonly used
in aerosol sprays and as coolants in many refrigerators. As they reach the stratosphere, the sun's UV
rays break CFCs down into substances that include chlorine. One atom of chlorine can destroy more
than 100,000 ozone molecules (according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency), eradicating
ozone much more quickly than it can be replaced. 16

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Recognition of the harmful effects of CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances led to the Montreal
Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer in 1987, a landmark agreement to phase out
those substances that has been ratified by all 197 UN member countries. More than 30 years after the
Montreal Protocol, NASA scientists documented the first direct proof that Antarctic ozone is
recovering because of the CFC phase-down: Ozone depletion in the region has declined 20 percent
since 2005. At the end of 2018, the United Nations confirmed in a scientific assessment that the ozone
layer is recovering, projecting that it would heal completely in the (non-polar) Northern Hemisphere
by the 2030s, followed by the Southern Hemisphere in the 2050s and polar regions by 2060.

9.2 GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE

The earth’s climate is driven by a continuous flow of energy from the sun 17. This energy arrives mainly
in the form of visible light. About 30% is immediately scattered back into space, but most of the
remaining 70% passes down through the atmosphere to warm the earth’s surface. The earth must
send this energy back out into space in the form of infrared radiation. Greenhouse gases in the
-̌
atmosphere block infrared radiation from escaping directly from the surface to space.
红外辐射
The main greenhouse gases are water vapour, carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, nitrous oxide, and
halocarbons and other industrial gases. Apart from the industrial gases, all of these gases occur
naturally. Together, they make up less than 1% of the atmosphere. This is enough to produce a natural
greenhouse effect that keeps the planet some 30°C warmer than it would otherwise be essential for
life as we know it.

However, levels of all key greenhouse gases (with the possible exception of water vapour) are rising
as a direct result of human activity. Emissions of carbon dioxide (mainly from burning coal, oil, and
natural gas), methane and nitrous oxide (due mainly to agriculture and changes in land use), ozone
(generated by automobile exhaust fumes and other sources) and long-lived industrial gases such as
CFCs, HFCs, and PFCs are changing how the atmosphere absorbs energy. Water vapour levels may also
be rising because of a positive feedback. This is all happening at an unprecedented speed. The result
is known as the enhanced greenhouse effect.

The climate system must adjust to rising greenhouse gas levels to keep the global energy budget in
balance. In the long term, the earth must get rid of energy at the same rate at which it receives energy

16 National Geographic, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/ozone-depletion/

17 United Nations Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Climate Change Information Kit, 2001,
https://unfccc.int/resource/iuckit/cckit2001en.pdf

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
from the sun. Since a thicker blanket of greenhouse gases helps to reduce energy loss to space, the
climate must change somehow to restore the balance between incoming and outgoing energy.

This adjustment will include a global warming of the earth’s surface and lower atmosphere. But this is
only part of the story. Warming up is the simplest way for the climate to get rid of the extra energy.
But even a small rise in temperature will be accompanied by many other changes: in cloud cover and
wind patterns, for example. Some of these changes may act to enhance the warming (positive
feedbacks), others to counteract it (negative feedbacks).

Meanwhile, man-made aerosols have an overall cooling effect. Sulphur emissions from coal and oil-
fired power stations and the burning of organic material produce microscopic particles that can reflect
sunlight back out into space and also affect clouds. The resultant cooling partly counteracts
greenhouse warming. These aerosols, however, remain in the atmosphere for a relatively short time
compared to the long-lived greenhouse gases, so their cooling effect is localized. They also cause acid
rain and poor air quality, problems that need to be addressed. This means we should not rely

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indefinitely on the cooling effect of aerosols.

Climate models estimate that the global average temperature will rise by about 1.4-5.8°C (2.5-10.4°F)
by the year 2100. This projection uses 1990 as a baseline and assumes that no policies are adopted
for minimising climate change. It also takes into account climate feedbacks and the effects of aerosols
as they are presently understood.

Past emissions have already committed us to some climate change. The climate does not respond
immediately to emissions. It will therefore continue to change for hundreds of years even if
greenhouse gas emissions are reduced and atmospheric levels stop rising. Some important impacts
of climate change, such as a predicted rise in sea level, will take even longer to be fully realized.

There is new and stronger evidence that climate change has already begun. The climate varies
naturally, making it difficult to identify the effects of rising greenhouse gases. However, an increasing
body of observation now presents a collective picture of a warming world. For example, the pattern
of temperature trends over the past few decades resembles the pattern of greenhouse warming
predicted by models; these trends are unlikely to be due entirely to known sources of natural
variability. Many uncertainties remain, however, such as how changes in cloud cover will influence
future climate.

In 1992, the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) was established under the UNCED
Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro and the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, with the aim of reducing greenhouse
gas emissions. At the 21st meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP21) in 2015, the Paris
Agreement was delivered and signed by 150 countries, with signatories committing to reduction
targets in their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) submissions, which are expected to be
ratcheted down over time.
下降

9.3 ECOLOGICAL CIVILIZATION

A new conceptual framework, namely, the ecological civilization which describes the final goal of
environmental reform within a given society, is emerging given that the changes required in response
to global climate disruption are so extensive as to represent another form of human civilization, one
based on ecological principles. Broadly construed, 理解 ecological civilization involves a synthesis of
economic, educational, political, agricultural, and other societal reforms toward sustainability. In April
2014, the United Nations Alliance of Civilizations and the International Ecological Safety Collaborative
Organization founded a sub-committee on ecological civilization. It advocates an ecological civilization
主张 拥护
that emphasizes the importance of a long-term perspective on the current climate crisis, the need for
,

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major environmental reforms, and the need to take a fresh look at the nature of society after these
reforms.

9.4 INDOOR AIR QUALITY

We spend more than 70% of our time at homes, in offices and other indoor environments. Poor indoor
air quality can lead to discomfort, ill health (e.g., headache, itchy eyes, respiratory difficulties, skin
irritation, nausea, and fatigue), and in workplaces, absenteeism and lower productivity. Children, the
elderly, and those with existing respiratory or heart disease are more susceptible to the effects of poor
indoor air quality.

Good indoor air quality safeguards the health of the building occupants and contributes to their
comfort and well-being.

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

Home renovation, burning of fuels in stoves and ovens, use of building materials with high emissions,
tobacco smoking are often the sources of indoor air pollution. In addition, homes which are humid
and poorly ventilated can have high levels of biological contaminants arising from mould growth on
damp surfaces. This poor air quality adds to the general discomfort of living in such housing conditions,
particularly for those with allergic conditions.

For offices and public places, the indoor air pollutants commonly observed include: (i) Chemical
pollutants such as tobacco smoke, ozone from photocopiers, emissions from office equipment,
furniture, wall and floor coverings, and cleaning and consumer products; (ii) Particulates such as the
particles of dust, dirt, or other substances drawn into the building from outside and other particulate
matters caused by activities that occur in buildings, like sanding wood, printing, copying, operating
equipment, and smoking; and (iii) Biological contaminants (bacteria, viruses, fungi (including moulds))
resulted from inadequate maintenance and housekeeping, water spills, inadequate humidity control,
condensation, and those brought into the building by occupants, infiltration, or ventilation air.

9.5 NUTRIENT ENRICHMENT OF WATERS

We can consider Nutrient Pollution as a form of water pollution, refers to contamination by excessive
inputs of nutrients. It is a primary cause of eutrophication of surface waters, in which excess nutrients,
usually nitrogen or phosphorus, stimulate algal growth. Sources of nutrient pollution include surface
runoff from farm fields and pastures, discharges from septic tanks and feedlots, effluent discharge
from treatment works and emissions from combustion. Excess nutrients have been summarized as
potentially leading to:
 Population effects – excess growth of algae (blooms) which when die off cause serious depletion
of dissolved oxygen in the waterbody;
 Community effects – species composition shifts (dominant taxa); 分类
 Ecological effects – food web changes, light limitation;
 Biogeochemical effects – excess organic carbon (eutrophication); dissolved oxygen deficits
(environmental hypoxia); toxin production; and
低氧
 Human health effects – excess nitrate in drinking water; disinfection by-products in drinking
water.

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9.6 HABITAT DEGRADATION / DESTRUCTION, BIODIVERSITY, ENDANGERED
SPECIES
Habitat destruction is the process in which natural habitat is rendered unable to support the species
present. In this process, the organisms that previously used the site are displaced or destroyed,
reducing biodiversity. Habitat destruction by human activity is mainly for the purpose of harvesting
natural resources for industry production and urbanization. Clearing habitats for agriculture is the
principal cause of habitat destruction. Other important causes of habitat destruction include mining,
logging, trawling and urban sprawl. Habitat destruction is currently ranked as the primary cause of
species extinction worldwide. It is a process of natural environmental change that may be caused by
habitat fragmentation,碎geological
⽚化
processes, climate change, or by human activities such as the
introduction of invasive species, ecosystem nutrient depletion, and other human activities.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was drafted and became one of the pillars of the 1992

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. The Biodiversity Treaty, as the convention is called, was ratified in
December 1993 and is now in force. The Convention addresses three complementary objectives:
i. The conservation of biodiversity;
ii. The sustainable use of biodiversity services; and
iii. The equitable sharing of the use of genetic resources in a country.

9.7 BIOACCUMULATIVE SUBSTANCES

Bioaccumulation refers to the accumulation of substances, such as pesticides, or other chemicals in
an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a - possibly toxic - substance at a rate
faster than that at which the substance is lost by catabolism and excretion. Thus, the longer the
分解代谢 排泄
biological half-life of a toxic substance the greater the risk of chronic poisoning, even if environmental
levels of the toxin are not very high.

Bioconcentration is a related but more specific term, referring to uptake and accumulation of a
substance from water alone. By contrast, bioaccumulation refers to uptake from all sources combined
(e.g., water, food, air, etc.).

9.8 UNCONVENTIONAL POLLUTANTS

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental
degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of their persistence,
POPs bioaccumulate with potential significant impacts on human health and the environment. The
effect of POPs on human and environmental health was discussed, with intention to eliminate or
severely restrict their production, by the international community at the Stockholm Convention on
Persistent Organic Pollutants in 2001.

Many POPs are currently or were in the past used as pesticides, solvents, pharmaceuticals, and
industrial chemicals. Although some POPs arise naturally, for example volcanoes and various
biosynthetic pathways, most are man-made via total synthesis.

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10 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT, SITE ASSESSMENT, AND
RISK ASSESSMENT PROCESSES

10.1 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT PROCESSES

Environmental assessment is the assessment of the environmental consequences (positive and
negative) of a plan, policy, programme, or concrete projects to ensure that decision makers consider
the environmental impacts when deciding whether or not to proceed with a project. It may be
governed by rules of administrative procedure regarding public participation and documentation of
decision making, and the outcome of these assessments may be subject to judicial review. In this
context, the term "environmental impact assessment"(EIA) is usually used when applied to specific
projects by individuals or companies, or project proponents. Environmental assessments.

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

The International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) defines an EIA as "the process of
identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of
development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made." The EIA
processes require decision makers to account for environmental values in their decisions and to justify
those decisions in light of detailed environmental studies and public comments on the potential
environmental impacts.

10.2 CONTAMINATED SITE ASSESSMENT PROCESS

The feasibility study of a contaminated site that is involved in site assessment process includes some
of the following essential elements:
 Site survey to establish historical uses of site;
 Establishing the in-situ soil type, classification, particle size analysis, porosity, bulk density, level
of concentration;
 Delineation of extent of soil contamination;
详细
阐述 Delineation of groundwater/soil water contamination by boreholes; 钻孔
 Assess contaminants from soil samples;
 Determine magnitude of each contaminant in soil samples;
 Assess contaminants in groundwater samples;
 Determine magnitude of contaminants in groundwater;
 Assess contaminants in the local air environment due to the contaminated site;
 Determine the level of air contaminants; and
 Determine the extent of contaminant movement by boreholes “downstream” of the
contaminated site.

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10.3 RISK ASSESSMENT PROCESS
The risk assessment process helps identify any potential problems and allow scientists, regulatory
officials, and stakeholders to evaluate the public health risk associated with toxic chemical release to
soil and groundwater. Typically, the risk assessment process consists of four steps:

1. Toxicological evaluation (hazard identification) – The factor to consider during the toxicological
evaluation for each contaminant include routes of exposure (ingestion, absorption, and
inhalation), types of effects, reliability of the data, dose, mixture effects, and the weight of
evidence in supporting the conclusions of the toxicological evaluation.

2. Dose-response evaluation – When a chemical has been toxicologically evaluated and the result
indicates that the chemical is likely to cause adverse effects, determining the potency of the
chemical is the next step. The dose-response curve describes the relationship between degree of
exposure to a chemical (dose) and the magnitude of the effect in the exposed organism.

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

3. Exposure assessment – Estimates are made of the actual or potential human exposure magnitude,
the exposure frequency and duration, and the potential exposure pathways.

4. Risk characterization – Adverse health effects are estimated under the conditions of exposure
found and described in the exposure assessment.

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11 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

An environmental management system, also known as an EMS, is developed as part of an

organization’s strategy to implement its environmental policy and address governmental regulations.
An EMS focuses resources on meeting the commitments identified in the organization’s policy. These
commitments may include reducing or eliminating the negative environmental impacts of its products,
services, activities and/or increasing their positive effects.
指定 规定
An EMS does not dictate the level of environmental performance that must be achieved. Each
organization’s EMS is tailored to its business and goals. Through the development of this set of
processes and practices which enables consistent control of its operations, the organization can set
targets and objectives to meet its identified commitments.

The primary parts of an EMS are:

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

 Core processes, their outputs, and the identification of significant environmental aspects and
impacts;
 Key supporting processes, such as those for maintaining awareness of legal requirements,
ensuring competency of employees, providing infrastructure, communicating EMS information,
and monitoring and evaluating environmental performance; and
 Management system supporting processes, such as documentation and records control and
management, and internal auditing.

An EMS is a continuous improvement process with the following basic elements:

 Review the organization’s environmental goals;
 Analyze its environmental impacts and legal requirements;
 Set environmental objectives and targets to reduce legal requirements;
 Establish programs to meet these objectives and targets;
 Monitor and measure progress in achieving the objectives;
 Ensure employees’ environmental awareness and competence; and
 Review the progress of the EMS and make improvements.

Environmental management systems reinforce the alignment of processes into integrated systems of
processes, all focused on providing the highest value to the customer. In this sense, the primary
customer of the EMS is the local, regional, and global environment. Secondary customers may include
the organization’s owners or shareholders, customers, government, and employees.

ISO 14001 is the most widely used internationally recognized EMS standards. Others include: EMAS
(Eco-Management and Audit Scheme - http://ec.europa.eu/environment/emas/) and BS 8555
(phased EMS implementation approach piloted by IEMA).

More information on EMS can be found at

https://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/how_help/tools_ems/ems.html

11.1 ORGANIZATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY

ISO 14001 defines an Environmental Policy as "a statement by the organization of its intentions and
principles in relation to its overall environmental performance which provides a framework for action
and for the setting of its environmental objectives and targets."

The environmental policy statement would: (i) demonstrate the organization's commitment to
improving its environmental performance; (ii) communicate the organization's mission, vision and
beliefs towards the environment to the staff and other interested parties; and (iii) provide a

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
framework for guiding the organization's ongoing environmental improvement efforts. It usually
addresses a combination of the following:
 Meet all relevant regulatory and legislative requirements;
 Reduce waste and consumption of resources (materials, fuel and energy), recover and recycle,
where feasible;
 Minimize the production of pollutants to the environment;
 Adopt technologies and raw materials that will minimize pollution, energy use and waste;
 Design products in such a way to minimize their environmental effects in production, use and
disposal;
 Minimize the adverse environmental effects of new developments through strategic planning;
 Provide environmental education and training; and
 Work towards the achievement of sustainable development and continual improvement of
environment management.

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

11.2 IDENTIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
Organizations should identify and document, from a life cycle perspective, all environmental aspects
and associated impacts of its products, services, and activities necessary for the provision of such
products and services (see Sections 8.2). Changes or planned future changes to these products and
services, as well as any occurrence of potential irregular situations, must be taken into account. The
criteria used to identify these aspect and impacts must also be defined.

11.3 ESTABLISHING GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

Environmental Objective is defined as "an overall environmental goal, arising from the environmental
policy, that an organization sets itself to achieve, and which is quantified where practicable" 18 and the
Environmental Target (or Goal) as "a detailed performance requirement, quantified where
practicable, applicable to the organization or parts thereof, that arises from the environmental
objectives and that needs to be set and met in order to achieve those objectives." 19 They serve the
following important purposes:
 Translate the environmental policy into a more specific, tangible and measurable basis for
implementation;
 Provide performance indicators for guiding the organization in planning and developing the
environmental programmes in a focused manner;
 Provide clear benchmarks against which to measure the progress and success of the
environmental programmes over time; and
 Provide a basis for external and internal reporting of achievements.

Organisations implementing an Environmental Management System must establish environmental

objectives after considering the identified environmental impacts, risks and opportunities, and
compliance obligations. These goals and objectives should be:
 Consistent with the organization’s environmental policy;
 Measurable and monitored;
 Communicated to all relevant parties; and
 Updated as necessary.

18 EPD website. https://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/how_help/tools_ems/ems_6.html

19 EPD website. https://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/how_help/tools_ems/ems_6.html

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
In addition to establishing goals and objectives, adequate planning must be in place to ensure they
can be achieved. The following should be considered:
 What needs to be done;
 What resources are required;
 Who is responsible and are they qualified and capable; and
 How are results to be measured.

11.4 ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE INDICATORS

Environmental performance indicators (EPIs) are measurable results or consequences to help an
organisation to determine trends, evaluate risk and identify its strategic objectives and targets. ISO
14031 sets out the following three types of EPIs:

i. Environmental condition indicators that provide information on the health of the environment

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and how it is changing (e.g., concentrations of air pollutants, concentrations of the contaminants
in surface soils and upstream and downstream of the wastewater discharge point).

ii. Operational performance indicators (OPI) that measure potential environmental burden in
terms of resource use (e.g., quantity of materials, water and recycled materials used per unit of
product; quantity of energy saved due to energy conservation; fuel consumption, quantity of
waste and emissions per year.

iii. Management performance indicators (MPI) that describe management related matters ranging
from allocation of funds and labour to environmental programme and policy (e.g., degree of
compliance with environmental regulations, cost savings due to reductions in resource use,
prevention of pollution or waste recycling).

Selecting meaningful EPIs can help the organization assess the effectiveness of its environmental
programmes and identify actions needed for achieving its environmental objectives, based on reliable
and verifiable information. 20

Organisations in Hong Kong implementing an EMS may consider incorporating these elements into
their goals and objectives. However, it is important that any environmental performance indicators
must be relevant to the organization’s strategic direction and its environmental policy and objectives.

11.5 REPORTING ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE

More and more companies are reporting on their environmental performance, whether it is a brief
mention of their green activities in the annual report or a separate document to record their quantified
emission targets to be achieved next year.

Some benefits of reporting environmental performance are to:

 Create market opportunities and enhances competitiveness;
 Satisfy the community's right to know;
 Improve access to funds, insurance and leases;
 Raise staff commitment to improve environmental performance; and
 Reassure regulators and bridges communication with neighbours and other stakeholders.

20 ISO 14031:2013 Environmental management — Environmental performance evaluation — Guidelines

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
Since over two decades ago, there have been a number of international sustainability-related
initiatives, such as the United Nations Global Compact, Principles of Responsible Investment and
Sustainable Development Goals. During this time, a significant number of leading multinational
corporations (MNCs) have not only joined or supported these initiatives, but they have also started
producing corporate sustainability reports, usually in reference or according to frameworks like the
Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) Reporting Standard 21, the Sustainability Accounting Standards Board
(SASB) 22 materiality map and the International Integrated Reporting Council’s <IR> Integrated
Reporting Framework 23. Figure II-8 provides a conceptual map of the various sustainability reporting
guidance and standards that are commonly followed as compared with financial reporting.

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

Figure II-8: Sustainability reporting guidance and standards compared with financial reporting

Corporates are also now responding to increasingly prominent investor-related sustainability ratings,
including the Dow Jones Sustainability Indices (DJSI) 24, Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP) 25, MSCI ESG
Indexes 26, Hang Seng Corporate Responsibility Index Series 27, etc. In 2017, the G20 Financial Stability
Board issued the Recommendations of the Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures
(TCFD) 28, which will likely be increasingly featured on the corporate agenda in the next few years.

Over the past decade, there have also been an increasing number of regulators around the world,
授权
including stock exchanges, 29 mandating disclosure on corporate environmental, social and
governance (ESG) performance and activities. In 2012, the Stock Exchange of Hong Kong Limited (the
Exchange) implemented the voluntary Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) Reporting Guide
(the ESG Guide), which aimed to raise awareness and encourage listed companies to start ESG
reporting.

21 Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), https://www.globalreporting.org/standards

22 Sustainability Accounting Standards Board, https://www.sasb.org/standards-overview/materiality-map/
23 International Integrated Reporting Council, https://integratedreporting.org/resource/international-ir-framework/
24 Dow Jones Sustainability Indices, https://www.spglobal.com/esg/csa/
25 Carbon Disclosure Project, CDP, https://www.cdp.net/en/companies
26 MSCI ESG Indexes, https://www.msci.com/esg-indexes
27 Hang Seng Corporate Sustainability Index, https://www.hsi.com.hk/eng/indexes/all-indexes/corporatesustainability
28 Recommendations of the Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures, https://www.fsb-tcfd.org/publications/
29 The Sustainable Stock Exchanges Initiative, https://sseinitiative.org/

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In 2014, the new Companies Ordinance required all Hong Kong incorporated companies to include in
the business review section of their annual directors’ reports, all the environmental components of
the ESG Guide on a “comply or explain basis’”. In 2019, the Exchange updated the ESG Guide to raise
the social-related aspects up to a “comply or explain” level and in light of the changing landscape
including the increasing prominence of TCFD, it also updated various requirements to now include:
 Mandatory disclosure of
o a broad statement setting out the board’s consideration of ESG issues;
o application of the relevant reporting principles of materiality, quantitative, consistency and
balance;
o explanation of the reporting boundary and identification process for including specific entities
and operations in ESG reports; and
 Comply or explain disclosure of “A. Environmental Aspects”, which include General Disclosures
and KPIs for the following categories of environmental information:
o A1 – Emissions (which now includes disclosure of reduction targets as well as just emissions).
o A2 – Use of Resources.

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o A3 – The Environment & Natural Resources.
o A4 – Climate Change.

In 2020, the Exchange published A Step-by-Step Guide to ESG Reporting, to assist companies in
meeting their disclosure requirements. 30

11.6 OPERATIONAL CONTROLS

Operational controls depend greatly on the size, nature, compliance obligations, and environmental
aspects and impacts of an organization, and should be planned such that desired results can be
achieved consistently.

Operational processes should be designed to:

 Guarantee consistency;
 Eliminate errors;
 Include the use of technology to improve control; and
 Only assign trained and competent staff to operate the processes.

Operational processes should be performed in an agreed and prescribed manner and are measurable.

Outsourced processes, as well as outsourced service suppliers, must be considered and controlled.
This may be addressed by ensuring the requirements are defined in the procurement process.

Regardless of whether the operational processes are performed by the organisation or its supplier,
compliance obligations must be considered and controlled, and all direct and associated
environmental impacts should be evaluated and managed.

30 https://www.hkex.com.hk/-/media/HKEX-Market/Listing/Rules-and-Guidance/Other-Resources/Listed-
Issuers/Environmental-Social-and-Governance/Exchanges-guidance-materials-on-ESG/step_by_step.pdf?la=en

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11.7 EMERGENCY RESPONSE PLANNING
The Emergency Response Plan describes the preparedness and response procedures of an
organization for potential accidents and emergency situations that give rise to significant
environmental impacts, including: 引发 导致 ,

 Fires, explosions;
 Rainstorms, typhoon or other unexpected weather conditions;
 Major chemical spillage or leakage; and
 Accidents as a result of equipment failure.

It is a responsibility of an organization to be prepared for emergency situations, as it is a key element

of environmental risk mitigation. The following actions should be considered in their emergency plans:
 Establishing appropriate methods for emergency response;
 Developing actions to mitigate incidents;
 Establishing internal and external communication methods;

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

 Undertaking regular emergency response testing and training;
 Defining and communicating assembly routes and evacuation procedures; and
 Preparing and making available lists of key personnel and emergency agencies.

11.8 INCIDENT INVESTIGATION AND CORRECTIVE / PREVENTIVE ACTION

When incidents occur, it is important to investigate and analyse the occurrence to determine the
underlying reason causing the incident. Based on the analysis results, corrective and preventive
actions should be carried out to prevent the incident, or other similar incidents, from occurring again.

Any corrective or preventive actions should be appropriate to the magnitude of the issue and its
impacts to avoid over- or under-compensating for a problem.

The organisation must record the results of the investigation, as well as any corrective or preventive
actions taken. The actions taken must be evaluated after implementation to determine their
effectiveness.

11.9 ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH

Fields typically concerned by the precautionary principle are the possibility of:
• Global warming or abrupt climate change in general;
• Extinction of species;
• Introduction of new and potentially harmful products into the environment, threatening
biodiversity (e.g., genetically modified organisms);
• Threats to public health, due to new diseases and techniques (e.g., AIDS transmitted through
blood transfusion);
• Long-term effects of new technologies (e.g., health concerns regarding radiation from cell
phones and other electronics communications devices);
• Persistent or acute pollution (e.g., asbestos, endocrine disruptors); 内分泌失调
• Food safety; and
• Other new biosafety issues (e.g., artificial life, new molecules).

The precautionary principle is often applied to biological fields because changes cannot be easily
predicted or contained and have the potential of becoming global. The principle has less relevance to
contained fields such as aeronautics, where the few people undergoing risk have given informed
consent. 航空学

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11.10 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING AND CORRECTIVE ACTION

Environmental auditing is a systematic, documented, periodic and objective process in assessing an

organization's activities and services in relation to:
 Assessing compliance with relevant statutory and internal requirements;
 Facilitating management control of environmental practices;
 Promoting good environmental management;
 Maintaining credibility with the public;
 Raising staff awareness and enforcing commitment to departmental environmental policy;
 Exploring improvement opportunities; and
 Establishing the performance baseline for developing an EMS.

Conducting an environmental audit is no longer an option but a sound precaution and a proactive
measure in today's heavily regulated environment. Evidence suggests that environmental auditing has

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

a valuable role to play, encouraging systematic incorporation of environmental perspectives into many
aspects of an organisation's overall operation, helping to trigger new awareness and new priorities in
policies and practices.
不 遵守
Corrective actions are reactive – they aim to deal with the problem. Non-conformances are resolved
through corrective actions. This will include the immediate corrective actions you take to keep your
customer happy, e.g., you sent the wrong part and will immediately replace it with the correct part.

However, “dealing with it” means that you eliminate the problem AND make sure it will not happen
again, so the corrective actions you take will also include the longer-term actions you take to make
sure the problem will not occur again.

The problem might be identified in processes, materials, suppliers, the product, the service, the
workplace, or the management system itself.

11.11 ENVIRONMENTAL DUE DILIGENCE RELATED ACQUISITIONS AND

DIVESTITURES 收购和 资产 剥离
Environmental Due Diligence assessments can vary in 些 intent and scope, and generally include desktop
and site investigations to identify environmental features, review of site history and confirmation of
conditions on the ground to provide advice on the opportunities and constraints to potential
development, and what further work or approvals may be necessary to accomplish development
objectives.

Environmental features and constraints associated with landholdings is a critical component of the
due diligence process.

An environmental due diligence assessment defines opportunities and constraints associated with the
development and can vary from a simple desktop study (GIS mapping) to more detailed assessments
which include site visits, soil sampling and profiling.

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11.12 TOTAL QUALITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT (TQEM)

Total Quality Environmental Management (TQEM) is a method of applying total quality management
approaches to corporate environmental strategies.

TQEM supports continuous improvement of corporate environmental performance. Companies that

have already implemented TQM programs will find it relatively easy to satisfy the requirements of
TQEM. In general, there are four basic elements of TQEM:

i. Customer identification
In TQEM, environmental quality is determined by customer preferences. Buyers, the local
community, environmental groups and the general public are considered external customers,
while a company's employees represent the internal customer group.

ii. Continuous improvement

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

A company's management and employees should work systematically towards the improvement
of environmental performance. Company-wide employee involvement in TQEM is a key to
success.

iii. Doing the job right first time

TQEM supports the elimination of environmental risks. Employees should seek to identify and
eliminate potential environmental problems.

iv. A systems approach

It is important to design all components of the TQEM system so that they function together and
support each other in achieving desired goals.

In order to be able to apply TQEM, environmental professionals often must help the organisation
understand the financial implications of environmental management, whether in terms of allocating
budget or investing in processes and solutions that reduce environmental impact. There are a number
of tools that environmental professionals can use including: environmental cost accounting, cost-
benefit analysis, etc.

Environmental full-cost accounting (EFCA) is a method of cost accounting that traces direct costs and
allocates indirect costs by collecting and presenting information about the possible environmental,
social and economic costs and benefits or advantages. It is also known as true-cost accounting (TCA),
but, as definitions for "true" and "full" are inherently subjective, experts consider both terms
problematical. 有问题的

Since costs and advantages are usually considered in terms of environmental, economic and social
impacts. A large number of standards now exist in this area including Ecological Footprint, eco-labels,
and the United Nations International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives approach to triple
bottom line using the ecoBudget metric. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has
several accredited standards useful in FCA or TCA including for greenhouse gases, the ISO 26000 series
for corporate social responsibility coming in 2010, and the ISO 19011 standard for audits including all
these.

In general, the following should be accounted for:

 costs rather than outlays;
 hidden costs and externalities;
 overhead and indirect costs;
 past and future outlays; and
 costs according to life cycle of the product.

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Cost–benefit analysis (CBA), sometimes called benefit–cost analysis (BCA), is a systematic approach
to estimate the strengths and weaknesses of alternatives (e.g., in transactions, activities, functional
business requirements); it is used to determine options that provide the best approach to achieve
benefits while preserving savings. The CBA is also defined as a systematic process for calculating and
comparing benefits and costs of a decision, policy (with particular regard to government policy) or (in
general) project.

Broadly, CBA has two main purposes:

 To determine if an investment/decision is sound (justification/feasibility) – verifying whether its
benefits outweigh the costs, and by how much; and
 To provide a basis for comparing projects – which involves comparing the total expected cost of
each option against its total expected benefits.

CBA is related to, but distinct from cost-effectiveness analysis. In CBA, benefits and costs are expressed
in monetary terms, and are adjusted for the time value of money, so that all flows of benefits and

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

flows of project costs over time (which tend to occur at different points in time) are expressed on a
common basis in terms of their net present value.

It is closely related, but slightly different from formal techniques including cost-effectiveness analysis,
cost–utility analysis, risk–benefit analysis, economic impact analysis, fiscal impact analysis, and social
return on investment analysis.

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12 POLLUTION PREVENTION, DESIGN FOR
ENVIRONMENT, AND SUSTAINABILITY

12.1 ELEMENTS OF POLLUTION PREVENTION

According to sustainability principles, the global scale sustainability and environmental management
involves managing the oceans, freshwater systems, land and atmosphere.

Land use change is fundamental to the operations of the biosphere because alterations in the relative
proportions of land dedicated to urbanisation, agriculture, forest, woodland, grassland and pasture
have a marked effect on the global water, carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles. Management
of the Earth's atmosphere involves assessment of all aspects of the carbon cycle to identify
opportunities to address human-induced climate change and this has become a major focus of

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on biodiversity and human
communities. Ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate and weather and, in turn,
the food supply of both humans and other organisms.

Green Chemistry
It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it is formed. Synthetic methods
should be designed to maximize the incorporation of all materials used in the process into the final
product. Whenever practicable, synthetic methodologies should be designed to use and generate
substances that possess little or no toxicity to human. Energy requirements should be recognized for
their environmental and economic impacts and should be minimized.

Green Procurement
Green Procurement means purchasing products and services that cause minimal adverse
environmental impacts and it can be viewed as part of the sustainable development process. It
incorporates human health and environmental concerns into the search for high quality products and
services at competitive prices.

In 2000, the HKSAR Government amended its procurement regulations to require bureaux and
departments to take into account environmental considerations when procuring goods and services.
Specifically, they are encouraged to avoid single-use disposable items, and purchase products:
 With improved recyclability, high recycled content, reduced packing and greater durability;
 With greater energy efficiency;
 Utilizing clean technology and/or clean fuels;
 Which result in reduced water consumption;
 Which emit fewer irritating or toxic substances during installation or use; and
 Which result in smaller production of toxic substances, or of less toxic substance, upon disposal.

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12.2 LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT
Life-cycle assessment (LCA, also known as life-cycle analysis, ecobalance, and cradle-to-grave analysis)
is a technique to assess environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a product's life from
raw material extraction through materials processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair and
maintenance, and disposal or recycling. Designers use this process to help critique their products.
前景 评价
LCAs can help avoid a narrow outlook on environmental concerns by:
 汇编Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases;
 Evaluating the potential impacts associated with identified inputs and releases; and
 Interpreting the results to help make a more informed decision.

12.3 INDUSTRIAL ECOLOGY

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

Industrial ecology is the study of material and energy flows through industrial systems. The global
industrial economy can be modelled as a network of industrial processes that extract resources from
the Earth and transform those resources into commodities which can be bought and sold to meet the
needs of humanity. Industrial ecology seeks to quantify the material flows and document the industrial
processes that make modern society function. Industrial ecologists are often concerned with the
impacts that industrial activities have on the environment, with use of the planet's supply of natural
resources, and with problems of waste disposal. Industrial ecology is a young but growing
multidisciplinary field of research which combines aspects of engineering, economics, sociology,
toxicology and the natural sciences.

The field approaches issues of sustainability by examining problems from multiple perspectives,
usually involving aspects of sociology, the environment, economy and technology. The name comes
from the idea that the analogy of natural systems should be used as an aid in understanding how to
design sustainable industrial systems.

12.4 ELEMENTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sustainable development is a process of meeting human development goals while sustaining the
ability of natural systems to continue to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services upon
which the economy and society depends. Sustainable development calls for concerted efforts towards
building an inclusive, sustainable and resilient future for people and planet.

The concept of sustainable development first emerged in the 1960s when environmentalists started
debating on the impact of economic growth on the environment. Since then, different definitions of
sustainability and sustainable development have been put forward and discussed, but the most widely
adopted one was published in the report, "Our Common Future" (also known as the Brundtland
Report) by the World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987, which defined
sustainable development as: “Development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

In 2000, following the adoption of the United Nations Millennium Declaration, eight Millennium
Development Goals 31 (MDGs) were established as international development goals for the year 2015.

31 United Nations Millennium Development Goals, 2000, https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/

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In 2015, the Sustainable Development Goals 32 (SDGs) succeeded the MDGs with 17 international
development goals for 2030.

In practice, for sustainable development to be achieved, it is crucial to harmonise three core elements:
economic growth, social inclusion and environmental protection. These elements are interconnected
and are all crucial for the well–being of individuals and societies.

The HKSAR Government commissioned The Study on Sustainable Development for the 21st Century
in Hong Kong (SUSDEV 21) in 1997 33. The study was conceived in response to the need to take account
of environmental and social concerns as well as economic aspects when making decisions about the
future of Hong Kong. The SUSDEV 21 study has been primarily concerned with developing a systematic
process to enable Hong Kong's decision makers to take into consideration the long-term implications
of strategic development decisions, using a set of forward-looking sustainability indicators. Study
outputs included the development of eight guiding principles 34 representative of the key sustainable
development issues in Hong Kong, as well as a Computer-aided Sustainability Evaluation Tool (CASET)

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

for conducting sustainability assessment of strategic policy and project proposals across 27
parameters. Institutional changes were also recommended resulting in the establishment of the
Council for Sustainable Development as well as the Sustainable Development Division (formerly
known as the Sustainable Development Unit).

12.5 PRODUCT AND ENVIRONMENTAL STEWARDSHIP 管理⽅式 ⼀

Product stewardship is where environmental, health, and safety protection centers on the product
itself, and everyone involved in the lifespan of the product is called upon to take up responsibility to
reduce its environmental, health, and safety impacts. For manufacturers, this includes planning for,
and if necessary, paying for the recycling or disposal of the product at the end of its useful life. This
may be achieved, in part, by redesigning products to use fewer harmful substances, to be more
durable, reusable and recyclable, and to make products from recycled materials. For retailers and
consumers, this means taking an active role in ensuring the proper disposal or recycling of an end-of-
life product.

Those who advocate it are concerned with the later phases of product lifecycle and the comprehensive
outcome of the whole production process. It is considered as a pre-requisite to a strict service
economy interpretation of (fictional, national, legal) "commodity" and "product" relationships.

The most familiar example is the container-deposit legislation. A fee is paid to buy the bottle,
separately from the fee to buy what it contains. If the bottle is returned, the fee is returned, and the
supplier must return the bottle for re-use or recycling. If not, the collected fee can be used to pay for
landfill or litter control measures. Also, since the same fee can be collected by anyone finding and
returning the bottle, it is common for people to collect these and return them as a means of survival.
This is quite common for instance among homeless people in U.S. cities.

However, the principle is applied very broadly beyond bottles to paint and automobile parts such as
tires. When purchasing paint or tires in many places, one simultaneously pays for the disposal of the
toxic waste they become.

32 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, 2015, https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-

development-goals/
33 Government of Hong Kong SAR, Environment Bureau, https://www.enb.gov.hk/en/susdev/sd/index.htm
34 Government of Hong Kong SAR, Environment Bureau, https://www.enb.gov.hk/en/susdev/su/sus.htm

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Environmental stewardship
It refers to the responsible use and protection of the natural environment through conservation and
sustainable practices.

Different types of environmental stewards

There are 3 types of environmental stewards: doers, donors, and practitioners. Doers go out and do
help the cause by taking action. For example, the doers in an oil spill would be the volunteers that go
along the beach and help clean up the oil from the beaches. A donor is the person that financially
helps the cause. They can do anything from donating their money, to hosting public events to raise
funds. They are typically governmental agencies. Lastly, there are practitioners. They work on a day-
to-day basis to steer governmental agencies, scientists, stakeholder groups, or any other group toward
-5

碓⻚
a stewardship outcome. Together these 3 groups make up environmental stewards and with the help
keep the ecosystem running healthily. Anybody can be an environmental steward by being aware and
knowledgeable of the world around them and making sure they do as little as possible to negatively
impact our world. Without these groups, it would be hard to get any sort of sustainability in our

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

increasingly industrially based world.

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
13 DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF
ENVIRONMENTAL PUBLIC POLICY

The sustainable management of our environment requires actions across all sectors, whether it is the
scientific community or the government and private sectors - each play an important role.

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

Figure II-9: Roles of business and communities, governments, and the scientific community

The scientific community informs the society of the environmental issues at hand and the general
direction of what we need to achieve to stop the problem. while the government has the responsibility
of developing and implementing policies, regulations and rules that support sustainable solutions and
penalize unsustainable ones. The business sector and the community at large, as well as the
government itself, will then make investment decisions and take actions in accordance with these
policies and regulations, to achieve or deliver on the original desired objective of solving an
environmental challenge in a sustainable manner.

13.1 ROLE OF THE PUBLIC AND OTHER STAKEHOLDERS IN POLICY

DEVELOPMENT
Environmental policy refers to the commitment of an organization to the laws, regulations, and other
policy mechanisms concerning environmental issues. These issues generally include air and water
pollution, waste management, ecosystem management, maintenance of biodiversity, the protection
of natural resources (e.g., country park), marine environment, wildlife and endangered species.
Policies concerning energy or regulation of toxic substances including pesticides and many types of
industrial waste are part of the topic of environmental policy. This policy can be deliberately taken to
direct and oversee human activities and thereby prevent harmful effects on the biophysical
environment and natural resources, as well as to make sure that changes in the environment do not
have harmful effects on humans.
公布
One good example of evidence-based control policy formulation and promulgation over the Pearl
River Delta region in southern China on improving regional air quality is highlighted here as an example.
The framework and approaches reported in the Special Issue of Atmospheric Environment (2013)
articulated the complex issues that connect science to policy formulation. It can also be extended to
other rapidly developing regions in China and elsewhere in the world that needs regional cooperation
to tackle their air pollution problem.

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
Government actions and process of public policy making
Public policy making can be characterized as a dynamic, complex, and interactive system through
which public problems are identified and countered by creating new public policy or by reforming
existing public policy. Public problems can originate in many ways and require different policy
responses (such as regulations, subsidies, quotas, and laws) on the local, regional, national, or
international level.

Public policy making is a continuous process that has many feedback loops. Verification and evaluation
are essential to the functioning of this system. The public problems that influence public policy making
can be of economic, social, or political nature. Each system is influenced by different public problems
and thus requires different public policy.

In public policy making, numerous individuals and interest groups compete and collaborate to
influence policymakers to act in a particular way. The large set of actors in the public policy process,
游说 团体
such as politicians, civil servants, lobbyists, domain experts, and industry representatives, use a variety

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

of tactics and communication tools to advance their aims, including advocating their positions publicly
and lobbying. Many actors can be important in the public policy process, but government officials
ultimately choose public policy in response to the public issue or problem at hand. In doing so,
government officials are expected to meet public sector ethics and take the needs of all stakeholders
into account.

In Hong Kong, Fair Winds Charter is an excellent example of public-private-NGO sector collaboration
that can be extended to regional cooperation in Pearl River Delta (PRD) region in China. The key
scientific findings on ship emissions in the PRD did help chart the eventual marine control regulations
by the authorities in Hong Kong and China (AE, 2013) and contributed to air quality improvement in
the PRD region.

Goals and objectives of for protecting the environment on the governmental level should be clearly
defined and reviewed on a regular basis. For example, both air quality objectives and water quality
objectives are established for the protection of air and water quality in Hong Kong.

EPIs on the governmental level are used to track and quantify the environmental performance of the
policies of different countries and economies. The Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) was a
composite index published from 1999 to 2005 that tracked 21 elements of environmental
sustainability covering natural resource endowments, past and present pollution levels,
environmental management efforts, contributions to protection of the global commons, and a
全球 公域
society's capacity to improve its environmental performance over time.

Moving forward into the future, just as it is important for environmental professionals to have
‘systems thinking’ capabilities, it is envisioned that policymakers in the environmental field will also
need to continue to develop and apply such skills. An example of a new tool that governments can
study is the “Government as a Systems Toolkit” developed by the Policy Lab in the UK. 35 The new
toolkit covers local, central and international government action and takes into consideration the way
government works in practice (so in the UK, its government acts by influencing, engaging, designing,
developing, resourcing, delivering and controlling or managing), as well as the scale of power enacted
by the government, from ‘softer’ more collaborative power, to more formal government regulatory
power. Perhaps a similar framework could be developed that would be suited for Hong Kong’s
government’s use.

35Government as a system toolkit, Policy Lab, Government of UK, 2020,

https://openpolicy.blog.gov.uk/2020/03/06/introducing-a-government-as-a-system-toolkit/

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
13.2 GEOPOLITICAL CONSIDERATIONS (LOCAL, REGIONAL, NATIONAL,
INTERNATIONAL)
地理政治学
Geopolitics is the study of the effects of geography (human and physical) on international politics and
international relations. Geopolitics is a method of studying foreign policy to understand, explain and
predict international political behaviour through geographical variables. These include area studies,
climate, topography, demography, natural resources, and applied science of the region being
⼈⼝ 统计学
evaluated.

Geopolitics focuses on political power in relation to geographic space. In particular, territorial waters
and land territory in correlation with diplomatic history. Academically, geopolitics analyses history and
social science with reference to geography in relation to politics. Outside of academia, geopolitical
prognosis is offered by a variety of groups including non-profit groups as well as by for-profit private
institutions (such as brokerage houses and consulting companies).
经纪 公司

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

13.3 ROLE OF SCIENCE IN PUBLIC POLICY FORMULATION
⼤会 会议,

Science plays a vital role in public policy formulation. For example, under the Convention on the
Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS) of Wild Animals, a Scientific Council was established to
provide advice on scientific matters to other CMS bodies.

In addition, the Intergovernmental science-policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services

(IPBES) is an independent intergovernmental body established to strengthen the science-policy
interface for biodiversity and ecosystem services for the conservation and sustainable use of
biodiversity, long-term human well-being and sustainable development. Scientists from all over the
world currently contribute to the work of IPBES. The IPBES provides a mechanism recognized by both
the scientific and policy communities to synthesize, review, assess and critically evaluate relevant
information. IPBES aims to strengthen capacity for the effective use of science in decision-making at
all levels.

Decision makers need scientifically credible and independent information that takes into account the
complex relationships between biodiversity, ecosystem services, and people. They also need effective
methods to interpret the scientific information in order to make informed decisions. The scientific
community also needs to understand the decision makers and their needs and driving forces in order
to provide them with the relevant information.

13.4 ROLE OF BUSINESS TO DELIVER

As mentioned earlier, governments set the “rules” for business and
society to operate.

Some businesses are more regulated than others – these are the
ones that can probably innovate more and faster without the need
for policies and regulations. Meanwhile, the most regulated
businesses will require more predictable policy and regulatory
signals to be able to make changes/transitions to new business
models.

The relationship between the public and private sectors depends on

the purpose or objective of the interaction. With government
Figure II-10: Government-business
regulations, the business sector focuses on ensuring compliance. interactions

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
With government policies, businesses actions can range from passive to active engagement, from
engaging with government to be informed, to informing, advocating, or even lobbying for certain
policies. Businesses that are more forward-looking will see policies not as just emerging compliance
有远⻅的
⼀⼑
- _ -

risks, but also as signals for potential new business opportunities as well. 发展⾐ 期的

With government-issued voluntary guidance, codes, or standards, this provides businesses with the
opportunity to build capacity to comply to new emerging regulations over time, as well as to show
leadership in pioneering and developing new potential business lines as well as business risk
management solutions.

13.5 REGULATORY FRAMEWORKS AND MECHANISMS

13.5.1 Command-and-control regulatory framework and mechanisms

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

The objective of environmental public policy is to change the behaviour of polluters and resource users
to benefit public welfare and the environment. There may be some circumstances that at a certain
period of time, this kind of framework is necessary to stimulate and ensure the commercial viability
and hence sustainability of any required assets and operations to deliver on the environmental
performance of and for the community.

Command and control strategy – a direct regulatory approach that sets certain principles, compliance
standards and/or thresholds in a number of areas, including economic returns and expenditures,
environmental and social-related performance, and disclosure of performance against the stipulated
targets and principles.

Some examples of command and control measures deployed in Guangdong, China and Hong Kong on
air quality management were reported by Zhong at al (Special Issue: Atmospheric Environment, 76, 3-
10, 2013).

It should be noted that the success of a command-and-control approach is highly dependent on a

number of factors, including integration of appropriate controls, penalties and incentives that help
ensure a sustainable balance between the environmental, economic and social performance; regular
review with appropriate changes to the agreement to ensure alignment with government policies;
mandating a high level of public transparency; etc.

13.5.2 Market-based regulatory framework & mechanisms

Market strategy – uses the market to set prices on pollution and resource use, with the assumption
that this would result in the implementation of the solutions with least cost.

Emissions trading of SO2 credits is one successful

úmt
example of leveraging support from the market to
achieve SO2 reduction. Emissions trading or cap-and-trade is a government-mandated, market-based
-
政府 要求
approach to controlling pollution by providing economic incentives for achieving reductions in the
emissions of pollutants. In contrast to command-and-control environmental regulations such as best
available technology standards and government subsidies, cap-and-trade schemes are a type of
flexible environmental regulation that allows organizations to decide how best to meet policy targets.
Various countries, states and groups of companies have adopted such trading systems, notably for
mitigating climate change.

It should be noted that the success of a market-based approach is highly dependent on a number of
factors, including appropriate market design and rules; the existence of a range of sustainable
solutions that have true cost-differential between them; the size of the market; etc.

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
14 INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL
CONVENTIONS
顶点
International environmental conventions often culminate from the development of a substantive
body of international scientific evidence to demonstrate the cause for the global environmental issue
at hand. Government representatives from around the world gather to subsequently shape and
negotiate the terms of the agreement before the agreement is finalized, which often takes a number
of years. The international convention then needs to be officially ratified by each country or party as
医 式签署
a sign of official commitment. The convention often has some trigger or threshold conditions, such as
the number or percentage of signatories, before the convention can enter into force.

The international environmental conventions to which Hong Kong has signed on to, are listed on the
EPD’s website [International Conventions | Environmental Protection Department]. This section
presents some of the key international environmental conventions by topic. It is recommended that

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

the reader also look up other international environmental conventions beyond what is included in this
guide.

14.1 CONSERVATION

14.1.1 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES), 1973, as amended in 1979

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) aim
is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their
survival. 样本

Annually, international wildlife trade is estimated to be worth billions of dollars and to include
hundreds of millions of plant and animal specimens. The trade is diverse, ranging from live animals
and plants to a vast array of wildlife products derived from them, including food products, exotic
leather goods, wooden musical instruments, timber, tourist curios and medicines. Levels of
exploitation of some animal and plant species are high and the trade in them, together with other
factors, such as habitat loss, is capable of heavily depleting their populations and even bringing some
species close to extinction. Many wildlife species in trade are not endangered, but the existence of an
agreement to ensure the sustainability of the trade is important in order to safeguard these resources
for the future.

Because the trade in wild animals and plants crosses borders between countries, the effort to regulate
it requires international cooperation to safeguard certain species from over-exploitation. CITES was
conceived in the spirit of such cooperation. Today, it accords varying degrees of protection to more
than 35,000 species of animals and plants, whether they are traded as live specimens, fur coats or
dried herbs.

CITES was adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of IUCN (The World Conservation Union) and the
text of the Convention was agreed at a meeting of representatives of 80 countries in Washington, D.C.,
USA, on 3 March 1973. It entered in force on 1 July 1975 and as of 2017, it has a membership of 183
Parties.

In Hong Kong, adherence to this Convention is under the remit of the Agriculture, Fisheries and
Conservation Department (AFCD). ⼀⼀年 贵

See the CITES website for the current text of the Convention.

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
14.1.2 Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl
Habitat, 1971, as amended in 1982

The Ramsar Convention’s mission is “the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local and
national actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable
development throughout the world”.

Wetlands are among the most diverse and productive ecosystems. They provide essential services and
supply all our fresh water. However, they continue to be degraded and converted to other uses.

The Convention uses a broad definition of wetlands. It includes all lakes and rivers, underground
aquifers, swamps and marshes, wet grasslands, peatlands, oases, estuaries, deltas and tidal flats,
mangroves and other coastal areas, coral reefs, and all human-made sites such as fishponds, rice
paddies, reservoirs and salt pans.
⽔稻⽥

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

Under the “three pillars” of the Convention, the Contracting Parties commit to:
 Work towards the wise use of all their wetlands;
 Designate suitable wetlands for the list of Wetlands of International Importance (the “Ramsar
List”) and ensure their effective management; and
 Cooperate internationally on transboundary wetlands, shared wetland systems and shared
species.

Ramsar, which was adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and came into force in 1975, is the
oldest of the modern global intergovernmental environmental agreements. As of 2017, there are 169
Contracting Parties, who implement the Ramsar Convention in their territories and collaborate on
shared projects. There are currently 2,263 Ramsar Sites covering a total surface area of 215,302,007
ha.

In Hong Kong, adherence to this Convention is under the remit of the AFCD. For the current text of the
Convention, please see the Ramsar website at http://www.ramsar.org/.

14.1.3 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, 1979

The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) is an environmental
treaty under the aegis of the United Nations Environment Programme, provides a global platform for
保护
the conservation and sustainable use of migratory animals and their habitats. CMS brings together the
States through which migratory animals pass, the Range States, and lays the legal foundation for
internationally coordinated conservation measures throughout a migratory range. The Convention
entered into force on 1 November 1983. As of 1 August 2016, the Convention on Migratory Species
has 124 Parties.

Species covered by CMS include mammals, birds, reptiles, fish and one insect are listed on the
Convention’s two Appendices, including many whales and dolphins, bats, gorillas, antelopes, 羚⽺
⼤猩猩 - _ -

albatrosses, raptors, waterbirds, sharks, sturgeons, marine turtles and the Monarch Butterfly.
藤
Migratory species threatened with extinction are listed on Appendix I of the Convention. CMS Parties
strive towards strictly protecting these animals, conserving or restoring the places where they live,
mitigating obstacles to migration and controlling other factors that might endanger them. Besides
establishing obligations for each State joining the Convention, CMS promotes concerted action among
the Range States of many of these species. Migratory species that need or would significantly benefit
from international co-operation are listed in Appendix II of the Convention. For this reason, the
Convention encourages the Range States to conclude global or regional agreements.

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
In Hong Kong, adherence to this Convention is under the remit of the AFCD. For the current text of the
Convention, please see the CMS website at http://www.cms.int/.

14.1.4 Convention of biological diversity and Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has three main goals: (i) the conservation of biological
diversity (or biodiversity); (ii) the sustainable use of its components; and (iii) the fair and equitable
sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources. Its main objective is to encourage the development
of national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.

The Earth's biological resources are vital to humanity's economic and social development. As a result,
there is a growing recognition that biological diversity is a global asset of tremendous value to present
and future generations. At the same time, the threat to species and ecosystems has never been so
great as it is today. Species extinction caused by human activities continues at an alarming rate.

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

The Convention was adopted on 22 May 1992 at the Nairobi Conference. It was opened for signature
on 5 June 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (the Rio "Earth
Summit") and entered into force on 29 December 1993. It represents a dramatic step forward in the
conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable
sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity was adopted on 29
January 2000 and entered into force on 11 September 2003 as a supplementary agreement to the
CBD. The Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified
⼀
organisms resulting from modern biotechnology. It establishes an advance informed agreement (AIA)
procedure for ensuring that countries are provided with the information necessary to make informed
decisions before agreeing to the import of such organisms into their territory. The Protocol contains
reference to a precautionary approach and reaffirms the precaution language in Principle 15 of the
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. The Protocol also establishes a Biosafety Clearing-
House to facilitate the exchange of information on living modified organisms and to assist countries
in the implementation of the Protocol.

In Hong Kong, adherence to this Convention is under the remit of the EPD. For the current text of the
Convention and the Protocol, please see CBD website at https://www.cbd.int/.

14.1.5 Conservation Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage,
1972

The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, which was
adopted by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) on 16
November 1972 and came into force on 17 December 1975, seeks to encourage the identification,
protection and preservation of cultural and natural heritage around the world considered to be of
outstanding value to humanity. As of June 2016, 192 state parties have ratified the convention, making
正式签署
it one of the most adhered to international instruments.

As of July 2016, 1052 sites were listed: 814 cultural, 203 natural, and 35 mixed properties, in 165 states.
According to the sites ranked by country, Italy is home to the greatest number of World Heritage Sites
with 51 sites, followed by China (50), Spain (45), France (42), Germany (41), India (35), Mexico (34)
and United Kingdom and British Overseas Territories (30).

A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by UNESCO as being
important to the collective interests of humanity by way of being unique in some respect as a
geographically and historically identifiable piece is of special cultural or physical significance (such as

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
either due to hosting an ancient ruins or some historical structure, building, city, complex, desert,
forest, island, lake, monument, or mountain) and symbolizes a remarkable footprint of extreme
human endeavour often coupled with some act of indisputable accomplishment of humanity which
then serves as a surviving evidence of its intellectual existence on the planet. Sites are selected on the
basis of having cultural, historical, scientific, or some other form of significance, and they are legally
protected by international treaties. Examples include the wilds of East Africa’s Serengeti, the Pyramids
of Egypt, the Great Barrier Reef in Australia and the Baroque cathedrals of Latin America, for example.
Under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund.

In Hong Kong, adherence to this Convention is under the remit of the AFCD. For the current text of the
Convention, please see the UNESCO website at http://whc.unesco.org/.

14.1.6 Plant Protection Agreement for the Asia and Pacific Region, 1956, as amended in
1967, 1979 and 1983 (Article 1(a) only)

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

Please see the AFCD websites for the details:
http://www.fao.org/asiapacific/apppc/en/
http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/legal/docs/006t-e.pdf

14.1.7 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, 1946, as amended in 1956

The International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling which is to provide for the proper
conservation of whale stocks and thus make possible the orderly development of the whaling industry,
was signed in Washington DC on 2nd December 1946. The International Whaling Commission (IWC)
has been set up and its membership is open to any country in the world that formally adheres to the
1946 Convention. As of 26 March 2017, there were 88 members of the IWC.

An integral part of the Convention is its legally binding 'Schedule.' The Schedule sets out specific
measures that the IWC has collectively decided are necessary in order to regulate whaling and
conserve whale stocks. These measures include catch limits (which may be zero as it the case for
commercial whaling) by species and area, designating specified areas as whale sanctuaries, protection
禁猎 区
of calves and females accompanied by calves, and restrictions on hunting methods. The Schedule can
be amended and updated when the Commission meets (a change requires at least three quarters
majority agreement) for reasons including new information are available from the Scientific
Committee and variations in the requirements of aboriginal subsistence whalers.

In Hong Kong, adherence to this Convention is under the remit of the AFCD.

14.2 ATMOSPHERE

14.2.1 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which is a framework for
international cooperation to combat climate change by limiting average global temperature increases
and the resulting climate change, and coping with impacts that were, by then, inevitable, was adopted
in 1992, at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (the Rio "Earth Summit").

By 1995, countries launched negotiations to strengthen the global response to climate change, and,
1997
two years later, adopted the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol legally binds developed country
Parties to emission reduction targets. The Protocol’s first commitment period started in 2008 and
ended in 2012. The second commitment period began on 1 January 2013 and will end in 2020.

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As of 2017, there are 197 Parties to the Convention and 192 Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
采⽤
The Paris Agreement, which was adopted in Paris on 12 December 2015 and came into force on 4
November 2016, marks the latest step in the evolution of the UN climate change regime and builds on
the work undertaken under the Convention. The Paris Agreement seeks to accelerate and intensify
the actions and investment needed for a sustainable low carbon future. Its central aim is to strengthen
the global response to the threat of climate change by (i) keeping a global temperature rise this
century well below 2oC above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature
increase even further to 1.5oC; (ii) achieving “peak” greenhouse gas emission as soon as possible and
achieve a balance between carbon sources and sinks (i.e., carbon neutrality) in the second half of the
21st century. Global actions are based on a “bottom-up” approach, where all the Parties must devise
their own suitably ambitious “nationally determined contributions” (NDC) that are to be updated once
every 5 years with targets and timelines. The Agreement also aims to strengthen the ability of
countries to deal with the impacts of climate change.

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

In Hong Kong, adherence to this Convention is under the remit of the EPD. For the current text of the
Convention, Protocol and Agreement, please see the UNFCCC website at http://unfccc.int/.

14.2.2 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, 1985, as supplemented by
Montreal Protocol in 1987 (amended in 1990, 1992, 1997 and 1999)

The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was adopted in 1985 and entered into
force on 22 Sep 1988. In 2009, it became the first Convention of any kind to achieve universal (i.e., all
197 Parties to the United Nations) ratification. The Convention aims to promote cooperation by means
of systematic observations, research and information exchange on the effects of human activities on
the ozone layer and to adopt legislative or administrative measures against activities likely to have
adverse effects on the ozone layer.

In accordance with the Vienna Convention, Parties are taking concrete actions to control ozone-
depleting substances under the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
which was originally agreed on 16 September 1987 and entered into force on 1 January 1989. The
Protocol is to reduce the production and consumption of ozone depleting substances in order to
reduce their abundance in the atmosphere, and thereby protect the earth’s fragile ozone Layer. It has
also been ratified by all 197 Parties to the United Nations.

The Montreal Protocol includes the adjustment provision that enables quick responses to new
scientific information and agreements to accelerate the reduction of the chemicals already covered
by the Protocol. These adjustments are then automatically applicable to all countries that ratified the
Protocol. These adjustments entered into force, for all the Parties, on 7 March 1991, 23 September
1993, 5 August 1996, 4 June 1998, 28 July 2000 and 14 May 2008, respectively.

Four amendments to the Protocol, viz., the London Amendment (1990), the Copenhagen Amendment
(1992), the Montreal Amendment (1997) and the Beijing Amendment (1999) had been made to enable,
among other things, the control of new chemicals and the creation of a financial mechanism to enable
developing countries to comply. Unlike adjustments to the Protocol, amendments must be ratified by
countries before their requirements are applicable to those countries. The London, Copenhagen,
Montreal and Beijing Amendments entered into force on 10 August 1992, 14 June 1994 10 November
1999 and 25 February 2002 respectively, only for those Parties which ratified the particular
amendments.

In Hong Kong, adherence to this Convention is under the remit of the EPD. For the current text of the
Convention and the Protocol, please see the Ozone Secretariat website at http://ozone,unep.org/.

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14.3 HAZARDOUS WASTE

14.3.1 Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes

and their Disposal, 1989

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their
⼀ following
Disposal was adopted on 22 March 1989 in Basel, Switzerland, in response to a public outcry
the discovery, in the 1980s, in Africa and other parts of the developing world of deposits of toxic
wastes imported from abroad. It entered into force in 1992. As of November 2020, 187 Parties have
ratified this Convention.
⾸要的
The overarching objective of the Convention is to protect human health and the environment against
the adverse effects of hazardous wastes. Its scope of application covers a wide range of wastes defined
as “hazardous wastes” based on their origin and/or composition and their characteristics, as well as
two types of wastes defined as “other wastes” - household waste and incinerator ash.

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

废品 碎屑
,

In 2019, Basel plastic scrap and waste amendments were adopted by Parties to the Basel Convention
,

to control exports and imports of most plastic scrap and waste. The amendments take effect on
January 1, 2021. As a result of these changes, transboundary movements of most plastic scrap and
waste are allowed only with the prior written consent of the importing country and any transit
countries. This includes hazardous and most non-hazardous plastic scrap and waste. Only plastic scrap
that is pre-sorted, clean, uncontaminated and destined for recycling in an environmentally sound
manner is not subject to Basel Convention.

The provisions of the Convention center around the following principal aims:
• The reduction of hazardous waste generation and the promotion of environmentally sound
management of hazardous wastes, wherever the place of disposal;
• The restriction of transboundary movements of hazardous wastes except where it is perceived to
be in accordance with the principles of environmentally sound management; and
• A regulatory system applying to cases where transboundary movements are permissible.

The first aim is addressed through a number of general provisions requiring States to observe the
fundamental principles of environmentally sound waste management (article 4). A number of
prohibitions are designed to attain the second aim: hazardous wastes may not be exported to
Antarctica, to a State not party to the Basel Convention, or to a party having banned the import of
hazardous wastes (article 4). Parties may, however, enter into bilateral or multilateral agreements on
双边的
hazardous waste management with other parties or with non-parties, provided that such agreements
are “no less environmentally sound” than the Basel Convention (article 11). In all cases where
transboundary movement is not, in principle, prohibited, it may take place only if it represents an
environmentally sound solution, if the principles of environmentally sound management and non-
discrimination are observed and if it is carried out in accordance with the Convention’s regulatory
system.

The regulatory system is the cornerstone of the Basel Convention as originally adopted. Based on the
concept of prior informed consent, it requires that, before an export may take place, the authorities
of the State of export notify the authorities of the prospective States of import and transit, providing
them with detailed information on the intended movement. The movement may only proceed if and
when all States concerned have given their written consent (articles 6 and 7).

In Hong Kong, adherence to this Convention is under the remit of the EPD. For the current text of the
Convention, please see the Basel Convention website at http://www.basel.int/.

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14.4 MARINE POLLUTION

14.4.1 International Convention relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil
Pollution Casualties, 1969, as supplemented in 1973 and as amended in 1991 and 1996

The International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution
受害者 Casualties was adopted on 29 November 1969 and entered into force on 6 May 1975, affirms the right
of a coastal State to take such measures on the high seas as may be necessary to prevent, mitigate or
eliminate danger to its coastline or related interests from pollution by oil or the threat thereof,
following upon a maritime casualty.
⾃主的
The coastal State is, however, empowered to take only such action as is necessary, and after due
consultations with appropriate interests including, in particular, the flag State or States of the ship or
ships involved, the owners of the ships or cargoes in question and, where circumstances permit,
independent experts appointed for this purpose.

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

The Convention applies to all seagoing vessels except warships or other vessels owned or operated by
a State and used on Government non-commercial service.

The 1969 Intervention Convention applied to casualties involving pollution by oil. In view of the
increasing quantity of other substances, mainly chemical, carried by ships, some of which would, if
released, cause serious hazard to the marine environment, the 1969 Brussels Conference recognized
the need to extend the Convention to cover substances other than oil.

The 1973 London Conference on Marine Pollution therefore adopted the Protocol relating to
Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Marine Pollution by Substances other than Oil. This extended
the regime of the 1969 Intervention Convention to substances which are either listed in the Annex to
the Protocol or which have characteristics substantially similar to those substances.

The 1973 Protocol entered into force in 1983 and has been amended subsequently to update the list
of substances attached to it.

14.4.2 Protocol of 1992 to amend the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil
Pollution Damage, 1992, as amended in 2000

The International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC) aims to ensure that
adequate compensation is available to persons who suffer oil pollution damage resulting from
maritime casualties involving oil-carrying ships. The Convention, which was originally adopted on 29
November 1969, was replaced by the 1992 Protocol which was adopted on 27 November 1992 and
entered into force on 30 May 1996.

The Convention places strict liability for damage on the owner of the ship from which the polluting oil
escaped or was discharged. It requires ships covered by it to maintain insurance or other financial
security in sums equivalent to the owner's total liability for one incident.

The Convention applies to all seagoing vessels actually carrying oil in bulk as cargo, but only ships
carrying more than 2,000 tons of oil are required to maintain insurance in respect of oil pollution
damage. It does not apply to warships or other vessels owned or operated by a State and used for the
time being for Government non-commercial service.

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In cases when the incident occurred as a result of the owner’s personal fault, the ship owner cannot
limit liability. If the owner of the ship is not at fault, the convention sets the compensation limits were
set as follows:
 For a ship not exceeding 5,000 gross tonnage, liability is limited to 3 million Special Drawing Rights
(SDR);
 For a ship 5,000 to 140,000 gross tonnage: liability is limited to 3 million SDR plus 420 SDR for
each additional unit of tonnage; and
 For a ship over 140,000 gross tonnage: liability is limited to 59.7 million SDR.

The daily conversion rates for Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) can be found on the International
Monetary Fund website at http://www.imf.org/.

14.4.3 Protocol of 1992 to amend the International Convention on the Establishment of an

International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage, 1992, as amended in 2000

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

The International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for
Oil Pollution Damage (FUND), adopted in 1971 was superseded by the 1992 Protocol, which in turn
was adopted in 1992 and entered into force in 1996. The original dual purposes of the 1971 Fund were
to: relieve the shipowner of the burden by the requirements of the 1969 Civil Liability Convention (CLC
Convention); and on the other hand, provide additional compensation to the victims of pollution
damage in cases where compensation under the CLC Convention was either inadequate or
unobtainable.

The main purpose of the 1992 Protocol was to modify the entry into force requirements and increase
compensation amounts. The 1992 Protocol established a separate, 1992 International Oil Pollution
Compensation (IOPC) Fund, known as the 1992 Fund, which is managed in London by a Secretariat.

14.4.4 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as
modified and supplemented in 1978 (excluding Annex IV), as amended in 1984, 1985,
1987, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2000 and 2001

The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) is the main
international convention covering prevention of pollution of the marine environment by ships from
operational or accidental causes. It was adopted on 2 November 1973 at International Maritime
Organization (IMO). The Protocol of 1978 was adopted in response to a spate of tanker accidents in
接⼆连三
1976-1977. As the 1973 MARPOL Convention had not yet entered into force, the 1978 MARPOL
Protocol absorbed the parent Convention. The combined instrument entered into force on 2 October
1983. In 1997, a Protocol was adopted to amend the Convention and a new Annex VI was added which
entered into force on 19 May 2005. MARPOL has been updated by amendments through the years.

The Convention includes regulations aimed at preventing and minimizing pollution from ships - both
accidental pollution and that from routine operations - and currently includes six technical Annexes.
Special Areas with strict controls on operational discharges are included in most Annexes.

Annex I Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Oil (entered into force 2 October 1983)
Covers prevention of pollution by oil from operational measures as well as from accidental discharges;
the 1992 amendments to Annex I made it mandatory for new oil tankers to have double hulls and
brought in a phase-in schedule for existing tankers to fit double hulls, which was subsequently revised
in 2001 and 2003.

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
Annex II Regulations for the Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk (entered into
force 2 October 1983)
Details the discharge criteria and measures for the control of pollution by noxious liquid substances
carried in bulk; some 250 substances were evaluated and included in the list appended to the
Convention; the discharge of their residues is allowed only to reception facilities until certain
concentrations and conditions (which vary with the category of substances) are complied with.

In any case, no discharge of residues containing noxious substances is permitted within 12 miles of
the nearest land.

Annex III Prevention of Pollution by Harmful Substances Carried by Sea in Packaged Form (entered
into force 1 July 1992)
Contains general requirements for the issuing of detailed standards on packing, marking, labelling,
documentation, stowage, quantity limitations, exceptions, and notifications.

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

For the purpose of this Annex, “harmful substances” are those substances which are identified as
marine pollutants in the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG Code) or which meet
the criteria in the Appendix of Annex III.

Annex IV Prevention of Pollution by Sewage from Ships (entered into force 27 September 2003)
Contains requirements to control pollution of the sea by sewage; the discharge of sewage into the sea
is prohibited, except when the ship has in operation an approved sewage treatment plant or when
the ship is discharging comminuted and disinfected sewage using an approved system at a distance of
bmusz
more than three nautical miles from the nearest land; sewage which is not comminuted or disinfected
has to be discharged at a distance of more than 12 nautical miles from the nearest land.

Annex V Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from Ships (entered into force 31 December 1988)
Deals with different types of garbage and specifies the distances from land and the manner in which
they may be disposed of; the most important feature of the Annex is the complete ban imposed on
the disposal into the sea of all forms of plastics.

Annex VI Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships (entered into force 19 May 2005)
Sets limits on sulphur oxide and nitrogen oxide emissions from ship exhausts and prohibits deliberate
emissions of ozone depleting substances; designated emission control areas set more stringent
standards for SOx, NOx and particulate matter. A chapter adopted in 2011 covers mandatory technical
and operational energy efficiency measures aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions from ships.

Control of Sulphur Oxides (SOx) Emissions Under IMO

According to IMO, SOx and particulate matter emission controls apply to all fuel oil, as defined in
regulation 2.9, combustion equipment and devices onboard and therefore include both main and all
auxiliary engines together with items such boilers and inert gas generators. These controls divide
between those applicable inside Emission Control Areas (ECA) established to limit the emission
of SOx and particulate matter and those applicable outside such areas and are primarily achieved by
limiting the maximum sulphur content of the fuel oils as loaded, bunkered, and subsequently used
onboard. These fuel oil sulphur limits (expressed in terms of % by mass) are subject to a series of step
changes over the years, regulations 14.1 and 14.4. This is summarized in Table II-3.

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
EmissioncorardA.eu
Table II-3: SOx and particulate matter emission limits
Outside an ECA established to limit SOx and Inside an ECA established to limit SOx and
particulate matter emissions particulate matter emissions
4.50% by weight prior to 1 January 2012 1.50% by weight prior to 1 July 2010
3.50% by weight on and after 1 January 2012 1.00% by weight on and after 1 July 2010
0.50% by weight on and after 1 January 2020 0.10% by weight on and after 1 January 2015

The ECAs established are:

(a) Baltic Sea area – as defined in Annex I of MARPOL (SOx only).
(b) North Sea area – as defined in Annex V of MARPOL (SOx only).
(c) North American area (entered into effect 1 August 2012) – as defined in Appendix VII of Annex VI
of MARPOL (SOx, NOx and PM).
(d) United States Caribbean Sea area (entered into effect 1 January 2014) – as defined in Appendix

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

VII of Annex VI of MARPOL (SOx, NOx and PM).

Most ships will operate on different fuel oils in order to comply with the respective limits. Prior to
entry into the ECA, it is required to have fully changed over to using the ECA compliant fuel oil. Similarly,
change-over from using the ECA compliant fuel oil is not to commence until after exiting the ECA. At
each change-over it is required that the quantities of the ECA compliant fuel oils onboard are recorded
in the logbook of the ship, together with the date, time, and position of the ship when either
completing the change-over prior to entry or commencing change-over after exit from such areas.

The first level of control in this respect is on the actual sulphur content of the fuel oils stated by the
fuel oil supplier on the bunker delivery note. It is for the ship’s crew to ensure, in respect of the ECA
compliant fuel oils, that through avoiding loading into otherwise part filled storage, settling or service
tanks, or in the course of transfer operations, that such fuel oils do not become mixed with other,
higher sulphur content fuel oils, so that the fuel oil as actually used within an ECA exceeds the
applicable limit.

The use of alternative means is allowed if they achieve equivalent levels of SOx and particulate matter
emission control, both outside and inside ECA These may be divided into methods termed primary (in
which the formation of the pollutant is avoided) or secondary (in which the pollutant is formed but
subsequently removed before discharging to the atmosphere). The application of such methods is
subject to approval by the Administration, taking into account any relevant guidelines, if available. For
example, guidelines (MEPC.184(59)) have been adopted for exhaust gas cleaning systems which
operate by water washing the exhaust gas stream (e.g., scrubber) prior to discharge to the atmosphere,
in using such arrangements there would be no constraint on the sulphur content of the fuel oils as
bunkered other than that given the system’s certification.
☆
In October 2016, during its Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), meeting for its 70th
session in London, the IMO officially announced to implement a global sulphur cap at 0.5% on marine
fuel from January 2020.

In Hong Kong, adherence to the IMO protocols and conventions is under the remit of marine
department (MD).

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
14.4.5 Marine Pollution Control in China and Hong Kong

In December 2015, the Ministry of Transport of the People’s Republic of China issued an
implementation plan on the establishment of three Domestic Emissions Control Areas (DECAs) in the
waters of the Pearl River Delta (PRD), the Yangtze River Delta and Bohai Rim (Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei).
By January 2019, all vessels excluding military vessels, sport vessels and fishing boats will be required
to use fuel with a sulphur content not exceeding 0.5% by weight within the DECAs. The geographical
boundary of the PRD DECA (excluding the waters of Hong Kong and Macau) is shown in Figure II-11.

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

Figure II-11: The geographical boundary of the PRD DECA

Marine vessels are the largest local air pollution emission source in Hong Kong, accounting for 44%,
33% and 36% of the emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and respirable
suspended particulates (RSP) respectively in 2014. To control air pollution from marine sector, two
control measures are being implemented:

i. Air Pollution Control (Marine Light Diesel) Regulation (Cap 311Y)

Since 1 April 2014, a statutory cap of 0.05% on the sulphur content of locally supplied marine
diesel is imposed, which was a 90% reduction as compared with the previous limit at 0.5%.

ii. 暨处 王
Air Pollution Control (Ocean Going Vessels) (Fuel at Berth) Regulation (Cap 311AA)
Since 1 July 2015, ocean-going vessels (OGVs) are required to switch to use fuel with a sulphur
content not exceeding 0.5% by weight, liquefied natural gas (LNG) or other approved fuel while
at berth in Hong Kong. This measure can help reduce the emissions of SO2 and RSP from OGVs at
berth by about 60%, compared with the use of heavy fuel oil with a sulphur content as high as
3.5%.

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 II. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY (ESMP)
14.4.6 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other
Matter, 1972, as amended in 1978 (Incineration), 1980, 1989 and 1993, and the 1996
Protocol

The Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and
Other Matter, which is commonly known as the London Protocol, was adopted on 7 November 1996
and entered into force on 24 March 2006 to replace the Convention on the Prevention of Marine
Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter originally adopted in 1972.

Rather than stating which materials may not be dumped, it prohibits all dumping, except for possibly
acceptable wastes on the so-called "reverse list", contained in the Annex to the Protocol. The
permitted wastes include:
 Dredged material;
 Sewage sludge;
 Fish waste, or material resulting from industrial fish processing operations;

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

 Vessels and platforms or other man-made structures at sea;
 Inert, inorganic geological material;
 Organic material of natural origin;
 Bulky items primarily comprising iron, steel, concrete and similar unharmful materials for which
the concern is physical impact and limited to those circumstances, where such wastes are
generated at locations, such as small islands with isolated communities, having no practicable
access to disposal options other than dumping; and
 CO2 streams from CO2 capture processes.

The London Protocol codified the "precautionary approach" and the "polluter pays principle." The
former requires that “appropriate preventative measures are taken when there is reason to believe
that wastes or other matter introduced into the marine environment are likely to cause harm even
when there is no conclusive evidence to prove a causal relation between inputs and their effects”. The
latter requires "the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution" and emphasizes that
缔约⽅Contracting Parties should ensure that the Protocol should not simply result in pollution being
transferred from one part of the environment to another.

The Contracting Parties to the London Convention and Protocol have recently taken steps to mitigate
the impacts of increasing concentrations of CO2 in the atmosphere (and consequently in the marine
environment) and to ensure that new technologies that aim to engineer the climate and have the
potential to cause harm to the marine environment, are effectively controlled and regulated. The
instruments have, so far, been the most advanced international regulatory instruments addressing
carbon capture and sequestration in sub-sea geological formations and marine climate engineering
such as ocean fertilization.

14.5 PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS (POPS)

The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants is a global treaty to protect human
health and the environment from chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods,
become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of humans and wildlife, and
have harmful impacts on human health or on the environment.

Exposure to Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) can lead to serious health effects including certain
cancers, birth defects, dysfunctional immune and reproductive systems, greater susceptibility to
disease and damages to the central and peripheral nervous systems. Given their long-range transport,
no one government acting alone can protect its citizens or its environment from POPs.

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The Stockholm Convention, which was adopted on 22 May 2001 in Stockholm, Sweden and entered
into force on 17 May 2004, requires its parties to take measures to eliminate or reduce the release of
POPs into the environment. In implementing the Convention, Parties to the Convention will take
measures to control/restrict the trade, domestic production and 蛚 use of ten intentionally produced
氯化物 㑶杀
POPs (aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin,杀⾍剂 heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), mirex, 虺义灵
,

toxaphene and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)), and to reduce and where possible to ultimately
eliminate the production and release of two unintentionally produced POPs by-products
(polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs or dioxins) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs or
furans)). These initial twelve most toxic POPs identified by the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) are commonly referred to as the "Dirty Dozen".

The Stockholm Convention was amended in 2009 and 2011 to list 10 new POPs in its Annexes. These
POPs can be placed in three categories:
i. Pesticides: Chlordecone, α-hexachlorocyclohexane, β-hexachlorocyclohexane, lindane,
pentachlorobenzen, technical endosulfan and its related isomers;

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

ii. Industrial chemicals: Hexabromobiphenyl, hexabromodiphenyl ether, heptabromodiphenyl ether,
and pentachlorobenzene; and
iii. Unwanted by-products of industrial processes: α-hexachlorocyclohexane, β-
hexachlorocyclohexane and pentachlorobenzene.

In Hong Kong, adherence to this Convention is under the remit of the EPD. Please see the POPS website
for the current text of the Convention at http://chm.pops.int/.

14.6 HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES

14.6.1 Rotterdam Convention

The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous
Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade aims to promote shared responsibility and
cooperative efforts in the international trade of certain hazardous chemicals and pesticides to better
safeguard human health and the environment. The Convention has introduced a mandatory prior
informed consent (PIC) procedure to monitor and control the import and export of 33 pesticides
(including 4 severely hazardous pesticide formulations) and 14 industrial chemicals and disseminate
national importing decisions to all Parties to the Convention.

The Rotterdam Convention was adopted on 10 September 1998 in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. The
Convention entered into force on 24 February 2004. As of 26 March 2017, 157 Parties have ratified
the Convention.

fpmntmedcons.at
The Convention covers pesticides and industrial chemicals that have been banned or severely
restricted for health or environmental reasons by Parties and which have been notified by Parties for
inclusion in the PIC procedure. One notification from each of two specified regions triggers
consideration of addition of a chemical to Annex III of the Convention. Severely hazardous pesticide
formulations that present a risk under conditions of use in developing countries or countries with
economies in transition may also be proposed for inclusion in Annex III.

Once a chemical is included in Annex III, a "decision guidance document" (DGD) containing information
concerning the chemical and the regulatory decisions to ban or severely restrict the chemical for
health or environmental reasons, is circulated to all Parties. Parties have nine months to decide
whether to allow or ban the importation of the chemical. The import decisions are circulated and
exporting country Parties are obligated under the Convention to take appropriate measure to ensure
that exporters within its jurisdiction comply with the decisions.

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The non-pesticide hazardous chemicals listed in the Annex III to the Convention are controlled in Hong
Kong under the Hazardous Chemicals Control Ordinance (Cap. 595) and the Import and Export
Ordinance (Cap. 60).

In Hong Kong, adherence to this Convention is under the remit of the EPD. Please see the Rotterdam
Convention website for the current text of the Convention at http://www.pic.int/.

14.6.2 Minamata Convention on Mercury

The Minamata Convention on Mercury is a global treaty to protect human health and the
environment from the adverse effects of mercury. It was agreed at the fifth session of the
Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee on mercury in Geneva, Switzerland on 19 January 2013
and adopted later that year on 10 October 2013 at a Diplomatic Conference (Conference of
Plenipotentiaries), held in Kumamoto, Japan. As of 26 March 2017, 40 Parties have ratified the
Convention.

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

⽆处不在的
The Convention draws attention to a global and ubiquitous metal that, while naturally occurring, has
_

broad uses in everyday objects and is released to the atmosphere, soil and water from a variety of
sources. Controlling the anthropogenic releases of mercury throughout its lifecycle has been a key
factor in shaping the obligations under the Convention.
逐步 淘汰
Major highlights of the Minamata Convention include a ban on new mercury mines, the phase-out of
existing ones, the phase out and phase down of mercury use in a number of products and processes,
control measures on emissions to air and on releases to land and water, and the regulation of the
informal sector of artisanal and small-scale gold mining. The Convention also addresses interim
⼯匠 ⼿艺⼈
storage of mercury and its disposal once it becomes waste, sites contaminated by mercury as well as
health issues.

In Hong Kong, adherence to this Convention is under the remit of the EPD. Please see the Mercury
Convention website for the current text of the Convention at http://www.mercuryconvention.org/.

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15 REFERENCES

 University of Oregon, International Environmental Agreements (IEA) Database Project

https://iea.uoregon.edu/iea-project-contents
 List of International Environmental Agreements, Wikipedia, 26 March 2017
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements
 EPD website
http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/international_conventions/international_convention.html

--- END OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, MANAGEMENT, AND POLICY CHAPTER ---

This copy is issued to <Tang Hugh Yeung Benjamin>

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