BOT1603/Notes/2024

Tutorial Letter (Notes)

Botany Practical
BOT1603

Year Module

Department of Life and Consumer Sciences

This tutorial letter contains important information about your module.

BARCODE
 CONTENTS
Page

1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 3
2 LECTURER(S) AND CONTACT DETAILS................................................................................... 3
2.1 Lecturer(s) .................................................................................................................................... 3
3 ASSESSMENT ............................................................................................................................. 3
3.1 Assessment criteria....................................................................................................................... 3
3.2 Assessment plan .......................................................................................................................... 3
3.3 Assignment no.03 due date .......................................................................................................... 4
3.4 The examination ........................................................................................................................... 4
4 ACADEMIC DISHONESTY .......................................................................................................... 4
4.1 Plagiarism ..................................................................................................................................... 4
4.2 Cheating ....................................................................................................................................... 4
4.3 More information about plagiarism can be downloaded on the link below ..................................... 4
5 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS .......................................................................................... 4
6 Study notes ................................................................................................................................. 6
6.1 Environmental Botany ................................................................................................................... 6
6.2 Ecosystems ................................................................................................................................ 13
6.3 Ecosystem dynamics .................................................................................................................. 14
6.4 Plant and their adaptations ......................................................................................................... 16
6.5 The microscopes ........................................................................................................................ 17
6.6 Cell structure and cell cycle ........................................................................................................ 17
6.7 Parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma ............................................................................ 18
6.8 Structure and morphology of roots .............................................................................................. 19
6.9 Structure and morphology of stems ............................................................................................ 21
6.10 Structure and morphology of leaves ............................................................................................ 22
7 IN CLOSING ............................................................................................................................... 23

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Dear Student

1 INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the BOT1603 class for 2023 academic year!

COVID-19 is top of mind for all of us at UNISA. I would like to assure you that we are monitoring
the COVID-19 situation closely and have prioritized the health and safety of the UNISA
community. Hence, we switched over to virtual practical sessions instead of offering them in the
lab on campus.

If you happen to leave your house, masks or cloth face coverings must always be on all public
space. Visit the COVID-19 UNISA webpage for more information, guidelines and Frequently
Asked Questions (FAQs).

This tutorial letter seeks to give depth of what will/or have been covered during your practical
presentations and should help you as you prepare for your practical examination.

2 LECTURER(S) AND CONTACT DETAILS

2.1 Lecturer(s)

The primary lecturer for this module is Mr AR Mudau Cand.Sci.Nat. (Botany)

Department: Life and Consumer Sciences
Telephone: +2711 471 3921
Email: [email protected]

3 ASSESSMENT
3.1 Assessment criteria

Students’ work will be assessed/judged based on the depth of their understanding of the
concepts, clarity of their explanations, accuracy, relevance, originality, legibility,
succinctness and impact. In order to achieve all these students should familiarize
themselves with the learning outcomes and those aspects of learning outcome, which are
assessed.
3.2 Assessment plan

• To complete this module, you will be required to submit 04 assessment including the
examination.

• The assignment no.01 and 02 weight for the module is 30% towards your final mark.

• The examination will be 1 hour timed exam (MCQ) and will be out of 50 questions.

• The examination will be available between 09h00 and 19h00 on Friday, 28 July 2028.

• The examination combined with assignment no.04 (portfolio) will count 70% towards the final
module mark.
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• Wherein, assessment no.03 (referred as exam) and 04 (referred as portfolio) weigh 40% and
60%, respectively towards the 70%.
3.3 Assessment due date

• Assessment no.03 date has been made available to you on day one practical presentation for
this module (28 July 2023).

• You should start working on your assessment no.04 (portfolio) as soon as possible (25 August
2023).

3.4 The examination

Examination will be written on Friday during practical group week depending on the time agreed
and will be made available to you online via the myUnisa module site (BOT1603). The
examination duration is 1 hour and it means that as the time elapses the system will automatically
submit your answers should it be that you have not submitted.

4 ACADEMIC DISHONESTY
4.1 Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the act of taking the words, ideas and thoughts of others and presenting them as
your own. It is a form of theft which involves several dishonest academic activities, such as the
following:

• Cutting and pasting from any source without acknowledging the source.
• Not including or using incorrect references.
• Paraphrasing without acknowledging the original source of the information.
4.2 Cheating
Cheating includes, but is not limited to, the following:

• Completing assessments on behalf of another student, copying from another student

during an assessment or allowing a student to copy from you.
• Using social media (e.g. WhatsApp, Telegram) or other platforms to disseminate
assessment information.
• Buying completed answers from “tutors” or internet sites (contract cheating).
4.3 More information about plagiarism can be downloaded on the link below
https://www.unisa.ac.za/sites/myunisa/default/Study-@-Unisa/Student-values-and-rules

5 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

• Can one fail practical module? Yes, you may fail if you do not give your studies ample
time. Some students fail due to missing assignment or examination.
• When will the results for this module are going to be released? Your results for BOT1603
will ONLY be ready for publication during Oct/Nov examination results window.

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• Can one fail because of failing to attend practical? No, if a student miss on attending
practical it recommended that the students go through recordings that are
published via Microsoft teams. Otherwise, if student does NOT attend/listen to
recordings on teams surely the student will not make it.

• How long is the duration of the practical? Practical begins on Monday and conclude on
the Friday within the same week.

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6 Study notes
6.1 Environmental Botany

6.1.1 Biomes of south Africa

What is a biome?
• Biome is a large-scale vegetation mapping unit with in which the macroclimatic
patterns and vegetation structure are similar. Biomes are often linked to similar
environmental drivers, such as grazing or fire.
• Biome is greatly characterized by its vegetation, soil, climate, and wildlife.
• It includes various communities and is named for the dominant type of vegetation,
such as grassland or coniferous forest.
• South Africa is recognised as one of the countries with highest range of diversity in
the world.
• The South African flora consists of ± 20 500 taxa and is well known for its species
richness.

There are nine major biomes in South Africa:

Savanna biome
The Savanna Biome is the largest Biome in southern Africa, occupying 46% of its area, and over
one-third the area of South Africa. It is well developed over the lowveld and Kalahari region of
South Africa. It is characterized by a grassy ground layer and a distinct upper layer of woody
plants. Where this upper layer is near the ground the vegetation may be referred to as Shrubveld,
where it is dense as Woodland, and the intermediate stages are locally known as Bushveld.

The environmental factors delimiting the biome are complex: altitude ranges from sea level to 2
000 m; rainfall varies from 235 to 1 000 mm per year; frost may occur from 0 to 120 days per
year; and almost every major geological and soil type occurs within the biome. A major factor
delimiting the biome is the lack of sufficient rainfall which prevents the upper layer from
dominating, coupled with fires and grazing, which keep the grass layer dominant. Summer rainfall
is essential for the grass dominance, which, with its fine material, fuels near-annual fires. In fact,
almost all species are adapted to survive fires, usually with less than 10% of plants, both in the
grass and tree layer, killed by fire. Even with severe burning, most species can resprout from the
stem bases.

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The grass layer is dominated by C4-type grasses, which are at an advantage where the growing
season is hot, but where rainfall has a stronger winter component, C3-type grasses dominate.
The shrub-tree layer may vary from 1 to 20 m in height, but in Bushveld typically varies from 3 to
7 m. The shrub-tree element may come to dominate the vegetation in areas which are being
overgrazed. Most of the savanna vegetation types are used for grazing, mainly by cattle or game.
In the southernmost savanna types, goats are the major stock. In some types crops and
subtropical fruit are cultivated.

Nama-Karoo biome
The Nama-Karoo Biome occurs on the central plateau of the western half of South Africa, at
altitudes between 500 and 2000m, with most of the biome failing between 1000 and 1400m. It is
the second-largest biome in the region.

The geology underlying the biome is varied, as the distribution of this biome is determined
primarily by rainfall. The rain falls in summer, and varies between 100 and 520mm per year. This
also determines the predominant soil type - over 80% of the area is covered by a lime-rich, weakly
developed soil over rock. Although less than 5% of rain reaches the rivers, the high erodibility of
soils poses a major problem where overgrazing occurs.

The dominant vegetation is a grassy, dwarf shrubland. Grasses tend to be more common in
depressions and on sandy soils, and less abundant on clayey soils. Grazing rapidly increases the
relative abundance of shrubs. Most of the grasses are of the C4 type and, like the shrubs, are
deciduous in response to rainfall events.

The amount and nature of the fuel load is insufficient to carry fires and fires are rare within the
biome. The large historical herds of Springbok and other game no longer exist. Like the many bird
species in the area - mainly larks - the game was probably nomadic between patches of rainfall
events within the biome. The Brown Locust and Karoo Caterpillar exhibit eruptions under similarly
favourable, local rainfall events, and attract large numbers of bird and mammal predators. Less
than 1% of the biome is conserved in formal areas.

Grassland biome
The Grassland biome is found chiefly on the high central plateau of South Africa, and the inland
areas of KwaZuluNatal and the Eastern Cape. The topography is mainly flat and rolling, but
includes the escarpment itself. Altitude varies from near sea level to 2 850 m above sea level.

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Grasslands (also known locally as Grassveld) are dominated by a single layer of grasses. The
amount of cover depends on rainfall and the degree of grazing. Trees are absent, except in a few
localized habitats. Geophytes (bulbs) are often abundant. Frosts, fire and grazing maintain the
grass dominance and prevent the establishment of trees.

There are two categories of grass plants: sweet grasses have a lower fibre content, maintain their
nutrients in the leaves in winter and are therefore palatable to stock. Sour grasses have a higher
fibre content and tend to withdraw their nutrients from the leaves during winter so that they are
unpalatable to stock. At higher rainfall and on more acidic soils, sour grasses prevail, with 625
mm per year taken as the level at which unpalatable grasses predominate. C4 grasses dominate
throughout the biome, except at the highest altitudes where C3 grasses become prominent.

Grass plants tolerate grazing, fire, and even mowing, well: most produce new stems readily, using
a wide variety of strategies. Overgrazing tends to increase the proportion of pioneer, creeping
and annual grasses, and it is in the transition zones between sweet and sour grass dominance
that careful management is required to maintain the abundance of sweet grasses. The Grassland
Biome is the mainstay of dairy, beef and wool production in South Africa. Pastures may be
augmented in wetter areas by the addition of legumes and sweet grasses. The Grassland biome
is the cornerstone of the maize crop, and many grassland types have been converted to this crop.
Sorghum, wheat and sunflowers are also farmed on a smaller scale.

Urbanization is a major additional influence on the loss of natural areas - the Witwatersrand is
centred in this biome. The Grassland biome is considered to have an extremely high biodiversity,
second only to the Fynbos biome. Rare plants are often found in the grasslands, especially in the
escarpment area. These rare species are often endangered, comprising mainly endemic
geophytes or dicotyledonous herbaceous plants. Very few grasses are rare or endangered.

Fynbos biome
The Fynbos biome is considered by many to be synonymous with the Cape Floristic Region or
Cape Floral Kingdom. The contribution of Fynbos vegetation to the species richness, endemicity
and fame of the region is so overwhelming, that the Cape Floristic Region and Cape Floral
Kingdom can be considered to be essentially Fynbos.

The Cape Floral Kingdom is the smallest of the six Floral Kingdoms in the world and is the only
one contained in its entirety within a single country. It is characterized by its high richness in plant
species (8 700 species) and its high endemicity (68% of plant species are confined to the Cape

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Floral Kingdom). The Cape Floral Kingdom thus compares with some of the richest floras
worldwide, surpassing many tropical forest regions in its floral diversity. In South Africa, over one
third of all plant species occur in the Cape Floral Kingdom, even though the Kingdom occupies
less than 6% of the area of the country. This is not primarily due to the large number of vegetation
types in the Cape Floral Kingdom. Over 7 000 of the plant species occur in only five Fynbos
vegetation types, with perhaps an additional 1 000 species in the three Renosterveld vegetation
types. The contribution of Succulent and Nama Karoo, Thicket and Forest vegetation types in the
region to the plant species diversity is thus relatively small. Thus, although the Cape Floral
Kingdom contains five biomes, only the Fynbos Biome, comprising the Fynbos and Renosterveld
vegetation groups, contains most of the floral diversity. Furthermore, the Cape Floral Kingdom
traditionally does not include the Fynbos and Renosterveld vegetation outliers to the north and
east. Including these would mean that endemicity would approach 80%, the highest level of
endemicity on any subcontinent.

Distressingly, some three-quarters of all plants in the South African Red Data Book occur in the
Cape Floral Kingdom: 1 700 plant species are threatened to some extent with extinction! This is
much more than one would expect based on either the area of the Kingdom (6%) or its plant
numbers (36%). This again reflects the unique nature of Fynbos vegetation: many Fynbos species
are extremely localized in their distribution, with sets of such localized species organized into
"centres of endemism." The city of Cape Town sits squarely on two such centres of endemism
and several hundred species are threatened by urban expansion. However, a more serious threat
is alien plants, which infest large tracts of otherwise undisturbed mountains and flats: their impact
on these extremely localized species is severe. Aliens are thus the major threat to Fynbos
vegetation and its plant diversity, especially in the mountains. On the lowlands and on the less
steep slopes the major threat is agriculture - new technologies, fertilisers and crops are steadily
eating into our floral reserves. Another important threat is the misuse of fire. Fynbos must burn,
but fires in the wrong season (such as in spring, instead of late summer) or too frequently (so that
plants do not have time to set seed) eliminate species. Several factors influence fire dynamics in
Fynbos - global warming, grazing practices and fire management (ignition events, size of burns),
but their relative importance and interactions are poorly understood.

The two major vegetation groupings in Fynbos are quite distinct and have contrasting ecological
systems. Essentially, Renosterveld used to contain the large animals in the Cape Floristic
Kingdom, but these are now extinct or else have been reintroduced into conservation areas. By
contrast, Fynbos is much richer in plant species, but has such poor soils that it cannot support

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even low densities of big game. However, most of the endemic amphibian, bird and mammal
species in the region, occur in Fynbos vegetation types.

Succulent Karoo biome

The Succulent Karoo biome has an equal status to the other biomes in South Africa - it is not a
subtype of "a Karoo biome." Most of the biome covers a flat to gently undulating plain, with some
hilly and "broken" veld, mostly situated to the west and south of the escarpment, and north of the
Cape Fold Belt. The altitude is mostly below 800 m, but in the east it may reach 1 500 m. A variety
of geological units occur in the region. There is little difference between the soils of the Succulent
Karoo and Nama Karoo biomes - both are lime-rich, weakly developed soils on rock. The Olifants
and Doring Rivers are the major drainage systems in the west, with the Gouritz River in the south-
east of the biome.

The Succulent Karoo biome is primarily determined by the presence of low winter rainfall and
extreme summer aridity. Rainfall varies between 20 and 290 mm per year. Because the rains are
cyclonic, and not due to thunderstorms, the erosive power is far less than of the summer rainfall
biomes. During summer, temperatures in excess of 40°C are common. Fog is common nearer
the coast. Frost is infrequent. Desiccating, hot, Berg Winds may occur throughout the year.

The vegetation is dominated by dwarf, succulent shrubs, of which the Vygies

(Mesembryanthemaceae) and Stonecrops (Crassulaceae) are particularly prominent. Mass
flowering displays of annuals (mainly Daisies Asteraceae) occur in spring, often on degraded or
fallow lands. Grasses are rare, except in some sandy areas, and are of the C3 type. The number
of plant species mostly succulents - is very high and unparalleled elsewhere in the world for an
arid area of this size.

Little data are available for the fauna of the Succulent Karoo. Of importance in the area are
heuweltjies, raised mounds of calcium-rich soil, thought to have been created by termites. These
often support distinctive plant communities. The area has little agricultural potential due to the
lack of water. The paucity of grasses limits grazing, and the low carrying capacity requires
extensive supplementary feeds. Much soil has been lost from the biome, through sheet erosion,
as a consequence of nearly 200 years of grazing. Ostrich farming, with considerable
supplementary feeding, is practised in the Little Karoo in the south of the biome. In areas adjoining
the Fynbos biome, wine grapes, fruit and other crops are cultivated using the Fynbos water
catchments. Tourism is a major industry: both the coastal scenery and the spring mass flower
displays are draw cards. Mining is important, especially in the north.

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Less than 0.5% of the area of the Succulent Karoo biome has been formally conserved. The
biome has a high number of rare and Red Data Book plant species. The high species richness
and unique global status of the biome require urgent conservation attention. Fortunately, there
are few invasive alien plants, with only Rooikrans, Acacia, Cyclops a major problem in the
southern coastal regions. Strip-mining for diamonds is destructive in the northern coastal regions,
and legislation requiring revegetation of these areas is inadequate for near-desert conditions.

Indian Ocean Coastal Belt biome

This region occurs as an almost 800 km long coastal strip between the South African border with
Mozambique as far south as the mouth of the Great Kei River. This high-level vegetation unit
comprises a dominant forest cover interrupted by edaphically or hydrologically controlled areas
of grassland, with at least a significant part of the belt being open to dense savanna vegetation,
interspersed with many areas of forest and grassland. The overwhelmingly large extent of
transformation of the coastal belt outside the existing strips and patches of embedded forest
represents significant loss of evidence of its prior condition.

Desert biome
Desert biome is found under very harsh environmental conditions which are more extreme than
those found in the Succulent Karoo biome and Nama-Karoo biome. The climate is characterized
by summer rainfall, but high levels of summer aridity. Mean annual rainfall is from approximately
10 mm in the west, to 70 or 80 mm on the inland margin of the desert. In reality, the rainfall is
highly variable from year to year. Most true desert in southern Africa is found in Namibia, although
an outlier does occur in a small part of South Africa, mainly in the Springbokvlakte area of the
Richtersveld in the lower Orange River valley.

The vegetation of the Desert biome is characterized by dominance of annual plants (often annual
grasses). This means that after a season with rarely abundant rains, the desert plains can be
covered with a sea of short annual grass. Whereas in more normal years, the plains can appear
bare with the annual plants persisting in the form of seed. Perennial plants are usually
encountered in specialized habitats associated with local concentrations of water. Common
examples of these are broad drainage lines or washes.

The well-known shrub, Welwitschia mirabilis, of the Namib Desert, occurs in such areas. The
perennial grass, Stipagrostis sabulicola, occurs sporadically on large dunes which contain
substantial stores of water. Nearer the coast in Namibia, the role of coastal fog also governs

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distribution of certain species commonly associated with the desert. Desert biome includes an
abundant insect fauna which includes many tenebrionid beetles, some of which can utilize fog
water.

Albany Thicket biome

The thicket biome does not form a continuous zone and extends in rather fragmented band along
the coast from Kwa-Zulu Natal down to the Western Cape. It is most extensive in the Eastern
Cape and is thought to contain the most species rich formations of woody plants in South Africa.
It is characterized by sparse to dense, spiny, evergreen shrub vegetation, with a tree component
of varying proportions. Four vegetation types ranging from Dune thickets to varying types of
succulent thickets are present in this biome.

Forest biome
Forests are restricted to frost-free areas with mean annual rainfall of more than 525 mm in the
winter rainfall region and more than 725 mm rainfall in the summer rainfall region. They occur
from sea level to over 2100 m above sea level. Forests rarely burn, mainly due to the high humidity
- under extremely hot and dry conditions fires may occur and destroy the forest structure.

Forests tend to occur in patches, few of which cover areas greater than 1 km2, with areas greater
than this only common along the Garden Route and Lowveld Escarpment. Even added together,
forests cover less than 0.25% of southern Africa's surface area, making this the smallest biome
on the subcontinent. The canopy cover of forests is continuous, comprising mostly evergreen
trees, and beneath it the vegetation is multi-layered. Herbaceous plants, particularly ferns, are
only common in the montane forests, whereas lianas and epiphytes are common throughout. The
ground layer is almost absent due to the dense shade. On the edges of the patches are distinctive
communities, the so-called fringe and ecotonal communities, which are able to tolerate fire.

Some 649 woody and 636 herbaceous plant species are recorded from forests. However, forests
are not floristically uniform. Three separate forest types are recognized in this account.
Specialized forests that occur in small areas and very sporadically - such as mangrove, swamp
and fringe forests are not separated from these three types. Partly because of their rarity, their
grandeur and their setting, forests are an important tourist attraction in South Africa. They have
been exploited in the past for valuable timber, including Black Stinkwood (Ocotea bullata) and
Outeniqua Yellowwood (Podocarpus falcatus). Some forests were removed for the establishment
of exotic plantations. A major plant invader of forests is Blackwood Acacia melanoxylon.

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Forest conservation has two facets: the maintenance of components and critical processes in the
forests - which requires the conservation of the large mammals and birds which disperse seeds
and maintain gap processes which allow succession within the forests - and the maintenance of
gene flow - which requires allowing seed dispensers and poillinators to move along the corridors
between forest patches. Thus, the proclamation of isolated stands of forests as reserves may be
insufficient for their conservation. Sustainable use of forests may require that their fauna be
effectively conserved!

6.2 Ecosystems
Ecology cannot be studied without knowing what an ecosystem or ecological system is. Ecologists
take a variety of genetic, taxonomic, physiological, climatologic, pedological (soil) and geological
characteristics into account to explain why a particular organism is found in a particular
environment. The ecologist often has to use experimental and sampling techniques to understand
the lifestyle and adaptation of the organism. All the data must be analysed and integrated in order
to make hypotheses about the ecological system, which is formed by the interactions of abiotic
(non-living) and biotic (living) components that combine to form a unit.

All the biotic and abiotic environments which control the ecosystem are inseparable from each
other and react as the functional unit. Sometimes ecosystems are referred to as ``open'' systems,
as they are not isolated from other ecosystems and are constantly exposed to various changing
environmental and also human influences (management). Ecosystems vary in size from micro-
ecosystems such as a fishpond, to a macro-ecosystem such as a rain forest or an entire ocean
and are found both on land and in the water. The whole earth with all its biotic and abiotic
components forms one ecosystem, also known as the biosphere.

When describing an ecosystem, ecologists collect information on the following important aspects:
• Specific locality, including delineation of the borders of the ecosystem;
• Approximate size of the ecosystem;
• Site description (e.g. broad habitat features);
• Vegetation structure;
• Biotic components;
• Abiotic components;
• Limiting factors (conditions to which the species in these ecosystems need to be adapted
to)
• Ecological interactions
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6.3 Ecosystem dynamics
it is also important to investigate the biotic (living) components of an ecosystem and how they
interact with each other, as well as how they can influence the functioning of an ecosystem. These
interactions between the living components could be positive (the growth of at least one
component or species is positively influenced), negative (the growth of at least one component
or species is negatively influenced) or neutral (the growth of the living components or species is
neither positively nor negatively influenced by the interaction). Depending on the type and extent
of these interactions, the growth, composition, abundance, density, etc of the living (biotic)
components can change over time. This phenomenon can also be referred to as the dynamics of
an ecosystem, since populations (group of the same species) do not exist in isolation.

The dynamics of populations are influenced by the growth and survival patterns, the availability
of the environmental resources and the interaction with the biotic and abiotic components of the
ecosystem. This also includes the flow of energy in an ecosystem, how the energy is produced
and then passed from one level to the next in the productivity pyramid, e.g. from plants which are
the primary producers in the lowest level, to animals which are primary or secondary consumers
in the higher levels.

• Age distributions and survivorship curves describe the age structure of populations.
• The growth of populations over time is limited by environmental resources.
• The growth of populations depends on reproductive patterns.

6.3.1 Age distribution

Plant demography is the study of changes in the population size with time. It provides information
about the dynamics of the population, including the rate at which one individual is replaced by
another. Plant demographic studies are mainly based on determining the birth and death rates of
the individuals at each age or stage in the population. These studies also determine the
survivorship rate of the species in the population. Survival of plant populations is determined by
many factors, such as whether the plants are annuals, bi-annuals or perennials. The age
distribution of plants in a population is determined according to the number of individuals that
survive within the population over a certain time period or the increasing of the age of the
population.

6.3.2 Survivorship curves and growth patterns

The rate of survival by the species over time can be expressed in survivorship curves. No plant
population can increase indefinitely or exponentially (r) (geometric). Limitations of space and

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environmental resources will prevent further growth in size of the population. The environment
has a certain carrying capacity (K). The carrying capacity refers to the number of individuals of a
species that can be supported by the environment. As the population size (numbers) approaches
K, the environment restricts the growth, resulting in a logistic population growth curve. The
demographic parameters, such as birth (reproductive) and death rates, that determine the size of
a population are influenced by a whole range of factors, such as herbivores, pollinators, diseases,
seed dispersal, the density of the population itself, and many abiotic factors, especially soil and
climatic conditions.

Take note that the size and growth of the population, as well as the survival of species is
dependant on the limiting factors or resources of the environment. The carrying capacity of the
population cannot be described by only the density (size or number of individuals) or the biomass
(yield of the species), but also by the size of the plants and how they are arranged in the
population (e.g. distance to the neighbours). All these factors together will influence the carrying
capacity of the population. This crowding affect of the population affects individual plants by
limiting their growth, which determines the mean plant size and size variation.

The mortality (death rate) and fecundity (birth rate) of the individuals in the population are affected
by this crowding process. A population that shows clear limits on population size is said to be
regulated. Population regulation operates via density dependent processes which alter the
numerical impact of fecundity (birth rate) or mortality (death rate) on population size as the density
of the population changes. Density-dependent factors therefore regulate the density of the
population within upper and lower limits.

Factors other than the density and/or crowding of the population can also affect the size and
growth of a population. These external factors, which are called density-independent factors,
include droughts, frost, or the physical damage of the plants. Density-independent factors play a
major role in the mortality and fecundity of especially short-lived plants, often referred to as the r-
selected plants or populations. The survivorship curves found in these plants are usually of Type
I and Type II. Life history patterns including morphological, physiological and reproductive traits
(characteristics), are used to classify species into r- or K-selected populations. Species of r-
selected populations have a rapid growth rate, high production of seed and generally a short life-
span (annual or bi-annual). K-selected populations refer to the carrying capacity and represent
the number of individuals of a population that can co-exist in a given habitat. K-selected species

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allocate a greater proportion of their available resources to functions that increase the competitive
ability and survival and a lesser proportion to the reproductive output.

The life-span of K-selected species is generally longer (perennial—survivorship curve type III)
and experience fewer fluctuations in population numbers and are therefore more resistant to
environmental fluctuations. r-selected populations are more driven by density-independent factors
and can rapidly occur in unpredictable (or uncertain) or highly variable climatic conditions. K-
selected populations on the other hand are density-dependent and occur in habitats where the
climatic conditions are more predictable (certain) and constant. These traits and the reactions of
the species in different populations play an important role in population dynamics (change over
time) and are important in the successional processes that characterise the changes in an
ecosystem.

6.4 Plant and their adaptations

The special characteristics that enable plants and animals to be successful in a particular
environment are called adaptations. Plants adapt to their environment from
necessity. Plants may also adapt by growing lower and closer to the ground to shield themselves
from wind and cold. For example, desert environments may have some of the following
adaptations, these help the plant to conserve food, energy and water and still be able to
reproduce effectively.

The environmental factors affecting trees are climate, soils, topography, and biotic. Each species
of tree adapts to these factors in an integrated way—that is, by evolving specific subpopulations
adapted to the constraints of their particular environments. As discussed above, the major factor
is the decrease in temperature with increasing elevation or extremes in latitude. Each
subpopulation adapts to this by modifying the optimum temperature at which the all-important
process of photosynthesis takes place.

Many tree species that survive in unfavourable habitats actually grow better in more-favourable
habitats if competition is eliminated. Such trees have a low threshold for competition but are very
tolerant of extremes. For example, the black spruce is found in bogs and mountaintops in the
northeastern United States but cannot compete well with other trees, such as red spruce, on
better sites. Consequently, in the White Mountains of New Hampshire in the northeastern United
States, red spruce is found at the base of the mountains and black spruce at the top, with some
development of subspecies populations (hybridization) at intermediate elevations.

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Competition within a species (and in some cases genus) is often most intense because the
individuals compete for the same environmental resources. Since trees are unable to move in
search of resources, competition for available space and resources can be important. Competition
aboveground centres on light, space, and symbionts (largely pollinators), while that below ground
is over water, space, nutrients, and symbionts (microorganisms such as mycorrhizae and
nitrogen-fixers).

The ability of a tree to coexist with other members of the species in a given habitat may depend
on the diversification of the space and resources they require. In extreme environments, such as
are found on mountains and in the subarctic, survival depends on the physical factors of the
environment, whereas in more-moderate habitats biotic factors become increasingly important.
Flexibility and efficiency of resource use then become more important in determining survival and
reproduction.

6.5 The microscopes

It remains impossible, of course, to speak about cells without mentioning the significance of
microscopes. Microscopes allow us to observe objects that are less than a millionth the size of a
person. Without them scientists, or cell biologists in particular, would not be able to view amazing
organisms and structures that most people never have seen. There are two major types of
microscopes – light and electron microscopes.

Please watch the video about the microscope: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uEgM3gk8n6k

6.6 Cell structure and cell cycle

All living organisms are classified as either prokaryotes or eukaryotes, based on their cell type.
For example, plants, animals, fungi and protists have eukaryotic cells. In contrast, bacteria and
archaea have prokaryotic cells. It is important to highlight that prokaryotes were the first forms of
life on Earth. For about 1, 4 billion years, no other organisms existed until eukaryotes evolved
from prokaryotes.

Prokaryotic cells lack the true nucleus, whilst eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus and other
membrane-enclosed structures, collectively known as organelles. Eukaryotic cells are more
complex than prokaryotic cells. In general, eukaryotic cells are larger than prokaryotic cells,
ranging in size between 5 and 300 μm, while a typical prokaryotic cell ranges from 1 to 10 μm.
Most prokaryotic cells are unicellular, while many eukaryotic cells are multicellular.

Eukaryotic cells, such as plant cells, have nuclei, mitochondria, plastids and other structures. In
contrast, nuclei and other organelles are absent in prokaryotes. Despite their differences in size
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and structure, prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are similar in their basic metabolism, or chemical
reactions. They are all capable of producing four general kinds of macromolecules that organisms
need in order to survive.

All eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells have at least three components in common: an outer
membrane, also known as a plasmalemma or plasma membrane; internal cytoplasm; and
numerous ribosomes. The cell membrane, which defines the cytoplasm’s outer limit, is composed
of phospholipids, protein and other materials. The cytoplasm is a watery solution that includes
ribosomes and other cell structures. Lastly, ribosomes, composed of protein and RNA, are the
cell’s protein synthesis machinery.

6.7 Parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma

Some tissues consist of only one kind of cell, whereas others may have two to several kinds of
cells. Tissues that contain just one or two cell types are known as simple tissues. Simpler, basic
types of such tissues are discussed in this section.

Let us look at the parenchyma tissue first. Parenchyma tissue comprises parenchyma cells, which
are the most abundant of the cell types and are more or less spherical in shape when they are
produced. Parenchyma cells have thin primary cell walls and usually do not have secondary walls.
Their thin walls enable them to grow into various shapes to fill the space available, but usually
they are spherical, cubical or elongated. There are two very popular types of parenchyma cells –
aerenchyma (with extensive connected air space) and chlorenchyma (containing numerous
chloroplasts). One function of these cells is to store starch, but parenchyma cells may have a
variety of other roles. Parenchyma cells serve in the photosynthetic process as they store food
and water in roots, stems, leaves and fruits. When you eat a fruit, most of what you take in is
probably parenchyma.

Secondly, let us look at collenchyma. Collenchyma (from the Greek word kolla, meaning “glue”)
is another type of tissue composed of only one cell type. This cell commonly is found under the
epidermis of herbaceous stems or leaf stalks, the petioles. The main function of collenchyma cells
is to provide flexible support, functioning somewhat like an athlete’s elastic knee brace. Their
walls are thickened unevenly with carbohydrate pectin and they lack secondary walls. The
thickened areas lend strength, while the intervening thinner wall areas allow cells to stretch during
rapid growth. One can draw the conclusion from this collenchyma cell functioning that it occurs
on the primary growth part.

Lastly, we look at sclerenchyma (from the Greek word skleros, meaning “hard”). Unlike
collenchyma cells and most parenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells have secondary walls, often

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hardened with lignin. In this case the term “hard” referring to sclerenchyma is reflecting the fact
that the thick secondary cell wall provides rigid support. Indeed, sclerenchyma cell walls are much
harder than those of either collenchyma or parenchyma cells. Accordingly, sclerenchyma cells
are considerably less common in smaller plants than parenchyma or collenchyma. Unlike
parenchyma and collenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells are typically dead at maturity. The main
function of sclerenchyma cells is that they provide structural strength/support in regions that have
stopped growing in length and no longer need to be flexible. There are two types of sclerenchyma
cells that provide protection and support. These are sclereids and fibres.

6.8 Structure and morphology of roots

Did you know that when seeds germinate, the first part/organ of plant to emerge is the embryonic
root (the radicle) and thereafter a primary root soon presents on seedling? The radicle may
develop into a thick, tapered taproot from which thinner branch roots arise, or many adventitious
roots may arise from the stem which is attached to the radicle and continuous with it. You should
understand that the rapidity of root development signifies the importance of roots in anchorage
as well as in the absorption of water and minerals needed by the plant. Roots anchor plants firmly
in the soil so that they can begin the process of absorbing water and minerals from the soil as
soon as possible. This rapid root development occurs because both the shoot development and
photosynthesis process require an early supply of water and minerals.

Many plants can produce enormous amounts of root materials depending on the need for a very
large amount of root absorptive surface area. In most plants, roots are needed and are essential
for anchorage, water and mineral absorption and other functions. Amazingly, roots also play a
significant role in preventing soil erosion by water and wind. For example, grass roots have the
ability to bind large clumps of soil. Note that not all plants require roots for their existence, for
example bryophytes. These plants absorb water and minerals through their leaves from their wet
environment.

There are two main forms of root growth: the taproot system and the fibrous system. Most dicots
and gymnosperms have a taproot system which has a large main root known as a taproot. The
function of a taproot is to “tap” deep sources of water and also to provide a plant with the
necessary support. This taproot develops directly from the radicle (embryonic root) and produces
branch roots called lateral roots. Taproots generally penetrate deeply and are therefore well suited
for plants that become larger each year, such as trees. Most monocots and seedless vascular
plants have a fibrous root system. Instead of one main root developing from the radicle, the
radicle, or embryonic root soon dies and numerous roots arise from the lower part of the stem.

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These are also called adventitious roots simply because they do not come from the usual location;
that is, they do not come from other roots but directly from the stem. Noticeably, in a fibrous root
system, no single root stands out as the main or largest. In a fibrous root system, the roots are
more or less the same in size.

Modified roots

Some roots have so-called specialised/modified functions. As mentioned above, the main
purpose of roots is to anchor and support the plant and to absorb water and minerals. Some
plants, however, have roots with modifications that adapt them for performing specific functions
as well as absorbing water and minerals in solution. These modifications, among many, serve for
reproduction, storage, respiration, and acquiring adequate nutrition. Firstly, we will take a look at
storage roots. These can be divided into water and food storage roots. Most roots store food,
but in certain plants the roots are enlarged and able to store large quantities of starch and other
carbohydrates, which may later be utilised for extensive growth. Popular examples for food
storage roots are sweet potatoes, carrots, sugar beets, parsnips and yams. The physiological
process that occurs is that extra cambial cells develop in parts of the xylem of branch roots and
produce large numbers of parenchyma cells. As result, the organs swell and provide storage
areas for large amounts of starch and other carbohydrates. Water storage roots can be related to
some members of the pumpkin family (Cucurbitaceae). They produce huge water-storage roots.
These roots are dominant in plants that grow in arid regions where there may be no or limited
precipitation for longer periods. The water stored in the roots is then used by plants when the
supply in the soil is inadequate. The second type of modified roots are prop or stilt roots. Prop
roots develop from adventitious roots on horizontal branches and provide additional anchorage
and support to the plant, for example at the base of corn plants. Among modified roots that provide
additional support or anchorage for a plant, there are aerial roots which are adventitious roots that
arise from stems. In corn, aerial roots known as prop roots grow out of the stem and into the soil,
helping to anchor and support the plant. Pneumatophores are specialised roots of some types
of mangrove trees. Pneumatophores, also known as air roots, provide oxygen for plants in areas
such as swamps where the high rate of aerobic decay reduces the oxygen supply in the water.
Thus, plants growing with their roots in water may not have enough oxygen available for normal
respiration in their root cells. Buttress roots are dominantly found in some tropical trees that grow
in shallow soils. The buttress roots develop toward the base of the trunk giving the tree great
stability. Some herbaceous dicots and monocots have contractile roots that pull the plant deeper
into the soil. This process pulls the shoot deeper into the ground where the soil is relatively warm,
helping these plants survive changeable early spring weather. Some plants, including dodders,
broomrapes, and pine drops, have no chlorophyll and have become dependent on chlorophyll-
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bearing plants for their nutrition. They thus obtain water, minerals and organic food from host
plants using peg-like projections called haustoria (singular: haustorium). These are also known
as parasitic roots.

The mycorrhizae
Plant roots can be remarkably efficient in finding and absorbing mineral nutrients, but the
challenges of growth in soils of low mineral nutrient content often require the aid of beneficial
microorganisms that form symbiotic relationships with plant roots. These include mycorrhizal fungi
and the nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The mycorrhizal fungi are called mycorrhizae (from the Greek
"mukés", meaning fungus, and "rhiza," meaning roots).

When mycorrhizal fungi colonise the plant's root system, they create a network that increases the
plant's capacity to absorb more water and nutrients such as phosphorus, copper and zinc. This
process in turn enhances growth and favours rapid development of roots and plants.

Importance of mycorrhizae
➢ Roots with mycorrhizae spread over the available space more rapidly.
➢ Roots with mycorrhizae have more surface area to absorb water.

➢ Roots with mycorrhizae have a greater capacity to absorb nutrients from the soil. You thus
get plants that are healthier, more vigorous, and more resistant to stress.
➢ Up to 80% of phosphorus absorbed by plants takes place through mycorrhizae.
➢ The root extension (filaments) provided by mycorrhizae holds soil particles together which
reduces erosion.

There are two main types of mycorrhizae, namely endomycorrizae and ectomycorrhizae.
Endomycorrhizae are associated with 80% of plants, thus with most deciduous trees and
herbaceous plants. Ectomycorrhizae are associated with 5 to 7% of plants, i.e. with most
evergreen trees.

6.9 Structure and morphology of stems

Vascular plants are those plants that have a conducting system composed of vascular tissue
(xylem and phloem). Vascular plants include all land plants except bryophytes. During the
evolution of plants, stems appeared well before leaves and roots. Evidence for this is the fact that
the earliest known fossils of vascular plants have stems, but not roots or leaves. Among modern
vascular plants’ organs, stems are the oldest and most fundamental. It is interesting to note that
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all other organs or organ systems - roots, buds, leaves, flowers and fruits, or cones - are attached
to stems. It is also obvious that stems enable plants to increase their height or length, mass, and
surface by the activity of apical meristems. There are two forms of stems: herbaceous (non-
woody) and woody stems. Herbaceous stems do not produce a cork cambium. The stems are
usually green and photosynthetic, with at least the outer cells of the cortex containing chloroplasts.
Herbaceous stems commonly have stomata, and may have various types of trichomes (hairs).
Woody stems can persist over a number of years and develop distinctive markings in addition to
the original organs that form. Terminal buds usually extend the length of the shoot during the
growing season.

Modified stems
As in roots and leaves, in most stems there are some modifications that serve a special purpose,
including that of natural vegetative propagation. As you become acquainted with the following
modified stems, keep in mind that stems have leaves at nodes, with internodes between the
nodes, and buds in the axils of the leaves, while roots have no leaves, nodes, or axillary buds.

Bulbs: Onions, lilies, and tulips have swollen underground stems that are really large buds with
adventitious roots at the base. Most of a bulb consists of fleshy leaves attached to a small,
knoblike stem. Corms: Crocuses, gladioluses, and other popular garden plants produce corms
that superficially resemble bulbs. Cutting a corm in half, however, reveals no fleshy leaves.
Instead, almost all of a corm consists of a stem, with a few papery, brown non-functional leaves
on the outside and adventitious roots below. Rhizomes: Perennial grasses, ferns, irises, and many
other plants produce rhizomes, which typically are horizontal stems that grow underground, often
close to the surface. Each node has an inconspicuous scale-like leaf with an axillary bud; much
larger photosynthetic leaves may be produced at the rhizome tip. Adventitious roots are produced
throughout the length of the rhizome, mainly on the lower surface. Runners and stolons:
Strawberry plants produce horizontal stems with long internodes, which, unlike rhizomes, usually
grow along the surface of the ground. Tubers: In Irish potato plants, carbohydrates may
accumulate at the tips of stolons, which swell, becoming tubers. Tendrils: Many climbing plants,
such as grapes and Boston ivy, produce modified stems knows as tendrils, which twine around
supports and aid in climbing.

6.10 Structure and morphology of leaves

A typical leaf of a dicotyledonous plant consists of two main parts: the blade and the petiole. The
blade is thin and expanded, and is supported by a network of veins, while the petiole is slender
and connects the leaf to the stem. The leaf blade varies greatly in shape and there are numerous

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terms to describe its general shape. These terms include apex, base, margin and veins. The leaf
blade has two types of configuration. It may be in one unit, in which case the leaf is called a simple
leaf, or it may be divided into numerous small parts that look like individual leaves and which form
a compound leaf. It may be difficult to tell whether one is looking at a simple leaf or the leaflet
(pinna) of a compound leaf. The distinction can be made by the fact that a leaf (simple or
compound) has an axial bud between the petiole and the stem.

The petiole of a leaf may vary considerably and can be long, short, rounded or flat. Some leaves
have no petioles in which case they are said to be sessile. At the base of the petiole in many
leaves are small leaf-like structures called stipules, e.g. in peas, beans and roses. Between the
petiole and the stem is a bud of a potential branch (an axial bud). Leaves may be arranged on
the stem in a variety of ways. The place on the stem from where the leaves grow is called a node
and the part between the nodes is the internode. If only one leaf arises at a node, the leaves are
said to be alternate, if there are two leaves, they are opposite and if there are more than two they
are whorled. If you have access to the internet, you can follow this link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nnjh0H6ThFc in order to enhance your understanding of
leaf arrangements.

7 IN CLOSING
Kindly take note that you should expand headings and subheadings from the presentation slides.
One should be able to answer related questions, and this can solely be achieved by also referring
to your BOT1501 and BOT1502 notes where deemed necessary. Otherwise, I trust that you will
find this summary notes somewhat helpful and am wishing you the best with the preparation of
your Practical examination.

Kind regards,
AR Mudau

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