II B.Sc.

BOTANY
ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY
UNIT:II & IV

UNIT : II Anatomy of Root and Stem Sub. Code:18UBT4

Primary structure of Dicot stem:

ANATOMY OF DICOT STEM - DEFINITION

1.Epidermis

• It is a protective outermost single layer of parenchymatous cells without

intercellular spaces.
• The outer walls of the epidermal cells have a layer called cuticle and
multicellular hairs (trichomes).

2.Cortex
• Below the epidermis, cortex is differentiated into few layers of
collenchyma cells that make hypodermis which gives mechanical strength
to the stem.
• A few layers of chlorenchyma cells are present with conspicuous
intercellular spaces. Some resin ducts also occur here.
• The third zone is made up of parenchyma cells. These cells store food
materials.

3.Endodermis:

• The cells of this layer are barrel shaped arranged compactly without
intercellular spaces.
• Due to abundant starch grains in these cells, this layer is also known as
starch sheath.

3.Stele

• It consists of pericycle, vascular bundles and pith.

A)Pericycle(Bundlecap)

• Pericycle occurs between the endodermis and vascular bundles in the

form of a few layers of sclerenchyma cells.

B)Vascularbundles

• In dicot stem, vascular bundles are arranged in a ring around the pith.
• Each vascular bundle is conjoint, collateral, open and endarch.

C)Pith

• The large central portion called pith composed of parenchyma cells with
intercellular spaces.
• The extension of pith between vascular bundles are called as pith ray or
medullary rays.
• Function of the pith is storage of food.

Primary structure of dicot root:

Epidermis:

It is single-layered and composed of thin- walled cells. The outer walls of

epidermal cells are not cutinised. Many epidermal cells prolong to form
long hairy bodies, the typical unicellular hairs of roots. Epidermis of root
is also called epiblema or piliferous layer (pilus = hair; ferous—bearing).

II. Cortex:

It is quite large and extensive in roots. Cortex is made of thin-walled living

parenchymatous cells with leucoplasts, which convert sugar into starch
grains. The last layer of cortex is endodermis. It is of universal occurrence
in roots.

Endodermis is composed of one layer of barrel-shaped cells which are

closely arranged without having intercellular spaces. The endodermal
cells have thickened radial walls, which are called Casparian strips, after
the name of Caspary, the gentleman who first noted them.
III. Stele or Central Cylinder:

Next to endodermis there is a single-layered pericycle made up of thin-

walled parenchyma cells. Pericycle is the seat of the origin of lateral roots.
Vascular bundles are typically radial in roots. Xylem and phloem form
separate patches and are intervened by non-conducting cells. In
dicotyledonous roots the number of bundles is limited.

Xylem has protoxylem towards circumference abutting on pericycle and

metaxylem towards centre. This is called exarch arrangement (of endarch
arrangement of stems). Phloem with sieve tubes, etc., form patches
arranged alternately with xylem. A small patch of sclerenchyma cells is
present outside every group of phloem.

Conjunctive Tissue:

Thin-walled parenchymatous cells lying in between xylem and phloem

groups constitute the conjunctive tissue.

Pith:

At the centre there is a small parenchymatous pith. It may be even absent

in dicotyledonous roots.

Anatomy of monocot stem:

1.Epidermis
• It is the outermost layer made up of single layer of tightly packed
parenchymatous cells with thick cuticle.
• There are no epidermal outgrowths.

2.Hypodermis

• A few layer of sclerenchymatous cells lying below the epidermis constitute

the hypodermis, gives mechanical strength to the plant.

3. Ground tissue

• It is not differentiated into cortex, endodermis, pericycle and pith.

• The ground tissue is represented by several layers of loosely arranged
parenchyma cells enclosing prominent intercellular spaces.
• The ground tissue is meant for storage of food.

Vascularbundles

• Vascular bundles are scattered in the parenchymatous ground tissue.

• Vascular bundles are numerous, small and closely arranged in the peripheral
portion.
• Towards the centre, the bundles are comparatively large in size and loosely
arranged.
• Each vascular bundle is surrounded by a sheath of sclerenchymatous
fibres called bundle sheath.
• The vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral, endarch and closed.

Phloem:

• The phloem in the monocot stem consists of sieve tubes and

companion cells.
• Phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres are absent.

Xylem:
• The two metaxylem vessels are located at the upper two arms and one or
two protoxylem vessels at the base. (Y shaped)
• In a mature bundle, the lowest protoxylem disintegrates and forms a cavity
known as protoxylem lacuna.

Anatomy of monocot root:

Epidermis/Epiblema/Rhizodermis:

▪ It is the outermost layer composed of compact parenchymatous cells

having no intercellular spaces and stomata.
▪ The tubular unicellular root hairs are also present on this layer
▪ Both epiblema and root hairs are without cuticle.
▪ In older parts, epiblemma either becomes impervious or is shed.
▪ Epiblemma and root hairs absorb water and mineral salts.

Cortex:

▪ It lies just below the epidermis.

▪ Cortex consists of thin walled multilayered parenchyma cells having
sufficiently developed intercellular spaces among them.
▪ Usually in an old root of Zea mays, a few layers of cortex undergo
suberization and give rise to a single or multi-layered zone- the
exodermis.
▪ This is a protective layer which protects internal tissues from outer
injurious agencies.
▪ The starch grains are abundantly present in the cortical cells.
 ▪ Cortex functions :

▪ a) conduction of water and mineral salts from root hairs to inner

tissues
▪ b) storage of food
▪ c) protection when exodermis is formed in older parts.

Endodermis:

▪ The innermost layer of the cortex is termed as endodermis.

▪ It is composed of barrel-shaped compact cells that lacks intercellular
spaces among them.
▪ Young endodermal cells have an internal strip of suberin and lignin
which is called casparian strip.
▪ The strip is located close to the inner tangential wall.
▪ There are some unthickened cells opposite to the protoxylem vessels
known as passage cells which serve for conducting of fluids.
▪ The function of endodermis is to regulate the flow of both inward as
well as outward.

Pericycle:

▪ It lies just below the endodermis and is composed of single layered

sclerenchymatous cells intermixed with parenchyma.

Vascular tissue:

▪ The vascular tissue contains alternating strands of xylem and phloem.

▪ The phloem is visualized in the form of strands near the periphery of
the vascular cylinder, beneath the pericycle.
▪ The xylem forms discrete strands, alternating with phloem strands.
 ▪ The center is occupied by large pith which maybe parenchymatous
or sclerenchymatous.
▪ The number of vascular bundles is more than six, hence called as
polyarch.
▪ Xylem is exarch i.e. the protoxylem is located towards the periphery
and the metaxylem towards the center.
▪ Vessels of protoxylem are narrow and the walls possess annular and
spiral thickenings in contrast, metaxylem are broad and the walls
have reticulate and pitted thickenings.
▪ Phloem strands consist of sieve tubes, companion cells and phloem
parenchyma.
▪ The phloem strands are also exarch having protophloem towards the
periphery and metaphloem towards the center.

Conjunctive tissues:

▪ In between the xylem and phloem bundles, there is the presence of

many layered parenchymatous or sclerenchymatous tissue.
▪ These help in storage of food and help in mechanical support.

Pith:

▪ It is the central portion usually composed of thin-walled

parenchymatous cells which appear polygonal or rounded in T.S.
▪ Intercellular spaces may or may not be present amongst pith cells.
▪ In some cases pith becomes thick walled and lignified.
▪ Pith cells serve to store food.

Monocot Root T. S.
Secondary Growth in Dicot Stem of plants.

Primary growth produces growth in length and development of lateral

appendages. Secondary growth is the formation of secondary tissues from
lateral meristems. It increases the diameter of the stem. In woody plants,
secondary tissues constitute the bulk of the plant. They take part in
providing protection, support and conduction of water and nutrients.
Secondary tissues are formed by two types of lateral meristems, vascular
cambium and cork cambium or phellogen. Vascular cambium produces
secondary vascular tissues while phellogen forms periderm.

Secondary growth occurs in perennial gymnosperms and dicots such as

trees and shrubs. It is also found in the woody stems of some herbs. In
such cases, the secondary growth is equivalent to one annual ring, e.g.,
Sunflower.

Formation of Secondary Vascular Tissues:

They are formed by the vascular cambium. Vascular cambium is produced

by two types of meristems, fascicular or intra-fascicular and inter-
fascicular cambium. Intra-fascicular cambium is a primary meristem
which occurs as strips in vascular bundles. Inter-fascicular cambium
arises secondarily from the cells of medullary rays which occur at the level
of intra-fascicular strips.

These two types of meristematic tissues get connected to form a ring of

vascular cambium. Vascular cambium is truly single layered but appears
to be a few layers (2-5) in thickness due to presence of its immediate
derivatives. Cells of vascular cambium divide periclinally both on the
outer and inner sides (bipolar divisions) to form secondary permanent
tissues.

The cells of vascular cambium are of two types, elongated spindle-shaped

fusiform initials and shorter isodiametric ray initials. Both appear
rectangular in T.S. Ray initials give rise to vascular rays.

Fusiform initials divide to form secondary phloem on the outer side and
secondary xylem on the inner side . With the formation of secondary
xylem on the inner side, the vascular cambium moves gradually to the
outside by adding new cells.
Ray initials produce radial system (= horizontal or transverse system)
while fusiform initials form axial system (= vertical system) of secondary
vascular tissues.

Vascular Rays:

The vascular rays or secondary medullary rays are rows of radially

arranged cells which are formed in the secondary vascular tissues. They
are a few cells in height.

Depending upon their breadth, the vascular rays are uniseriate (one cell in
breadth) or multiseriate (two or more cells in breadth). Vascular rays may
be homo-cellular (having one type of cells) or hetero-cellular (with more
than one type of cells). The cells of the vascular rays enclose intercellular
spaces.

The part of the vascular ray present in the secondary xylem is called wood
or xylem ray while the part present in the secondary phloem is known as
phloem ray. The vascular rays conduct water and organic food and permit
diffusion of gases in the radial direction. Besides, their cells store food.

2. Secondary Phloem (Bast):

It forms a narrow circle on the outer side of vascular cambium. Secondary

phloem does not grow in thickness because the primary and the older sec-
ondary phloem present on the outer side gets crushed with the
development of new functional phloem . Therefore, rings (annual rings)
are not produced in secondary phloem. The crushed or non-functioning
phloem may, however, have fibres and sclereids.

Secondary phloem is made up of the same type of cells as are found in the
primary phloem (metaphloem)— sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem
fibres and phloem parenchyma.

Phloem pairenchyma is of two types— axial phloem parenchyma made

up of longitudinally arranged cells and phloem ray parenchyma formed of
radially arranged parenchyma cells that constitute the part of the vascular
ray present in the phloem.
Elements of secondary phloem show a more regular arrangement. Sieve
tubes are comparatively more numerous but are shorter and broader.
Sclerenchyma fibres occur either in patches or bands. Sclereids are found
in many cases. In such cases secondary phloem is differentiated into soft
bast (secondary phloem without fibres) and hard bast (part of phloem with
abundant fibres).

3. Secondary Xylem:

It forms the bulk of the stem and is commonly called wood. The secondary
xylem consists of vessels, tracheids (both tracheary elements), wood
fibres and wood parenchyma.

Wood parenchyma may contain tannins and crystals besides storing food.
It is of two types— axial parenchyma cells arranged longitudinally and
radial ray parenchyma cells arranged in radial or horizontal fashion. The
latter is part of vascular ray present in secondary xylem.

Secondary xylem does not show distinction into protoxylem and meta-
xylem elements. Therefore, vessels and tracheids with annular and spiral
thickenings are absent. The tracheary elements of secondary xylem are
similar to those of meta-xylem of the primary xylem with minor
differences. They are comparatively shorter and more thick-walled. Pitted
thickenings are more common. Fibres are abundant.

Width of secondary xylem grows with the age of the plant. The primary
xylem persists as conical projection on its inner side. Pith may become
narrow and ultimately get crushed. The yearly growth of secondary xylem
is distinct in the areas which experience two seasons, one favourable
spring or rainy season) and the other un-favourable (autumn, winter or dry
summer).

In favourable season the temperature is optimum. There is a good

sunshine and humidity. At this time the newly formed leaves produce
hormones which stimulate cambial activity. The activity decreases and
stops towards the approach of un-favourable season. Hence the annual or
yearly growth appears in the form of distinct rings which are called annual
rings .

B. Formation of Periderm:

In order to provide for increase in girth and prevent harm on the rupturing
of the outer ground tissues due to the formation of secondary vascular
tissues, dicot stems produce a cork cambium or phellogen in the outer
cortical cells. Rarely it may arise from the epidermis (e.g., Teak,
Oleander), hypodermis (e.g., Pear) or phloem parenchyma.

Phellogen cells divide on both the outer side as well as the inner side
(bipolar) to form secondary tissues. The secondary tissue produced on the
inner side of the phellogen is parenchymatous or collenchymatous. It is
called secondary cortex or phelloderm. Its cells show radial arrangement.
Phellogen produces cork or phellem on the outer side. It consists of dead
and compactly arranged rectangular cells that possess suberised cell walls.
The cork cells contain tannins. Hence, they appear brown or dark brown
in colour. The cork cells of some plants are filled with air e.g., Quercus
suber (Cork Oak or Bottle Cork). The phelloderm, phellogen and phellem
together constitute the periderm.

Cork prevents the loss of water by evaporation. It also protects the interior
against entry of harmful micro-organisms, mechanical injury and
extremes of temperature. Cork is light, compressible, nonreactive and
sufficiently resistant to fire.

It is used as stopper for bottles, shock absorption and insulation. At places

phellogen produces aerating pores instead of cork. These pores are called
lenticels. Each lenticel is filled by a mass of somewhat loosely arranged
suberised cells called complementary cells.

Lenticels:

Lenticels are aerating pores in the bark of plants. They appear on the
surface of the bark as raised scars containing oval, rounded or oblong
depressions. They occur in woody trees but not in climbers. Normally they
are formed in areas with underlying rays for facilitating gas exchange.
Lenticels may occur scattered or form longitudinal rows.

A lenticel is commonly produced beneath a former stomate or stoma of

the epidermis. Its margin is raised and is formed by surrounding cork cells.
The lenticel is filled up by loosely arranged thin walled rounded and
suberised (e.g., Prunus) or un-suberised cells called complementary cells.

They enclose intercellular spaces for gaseous exchange. The

complementary cells are formed from loosely arranged phellogen cells
and division of sub-stomatal parenchyma cells. The suberised nature of
complementary cells checks excessive evaporation of water.
In temperate plants the lenticels get closed during the winter by the
formation of compactly arranged closing cells over the complementary
cells.

Bark:

In common language and economic botany, all the dead cells lying outside
phellogen are collectively called bark. The outer layers of the bark are
being constantly peeled off on account of the formation of new secondary
vascular tissues in the interior. The peeling of the bark may occur in sheets
(sheets or ring bark, e.g., Eucalyptus) or in irregular strips (scaly bark).

The scaly bark is formed when the phellogen arises in strips instead of
rings, e.g., Acacia (vem. Kikar). Bark formed in early growing season is
early or soft bark. The one formed towards end of growing season is late
or hard bark.

Bark is insect repellent, decay proof, fire-proof and acts as a heat screen.
Commercially it is employed in tanning (e.g., Acacia), drugs (e.g.,
Cinchona— quinine) or as spice (e.g., Cannamon, vem. Dalchini). The
cork of Quercus suber is employed in the manufacture of bottle stoppers,
insulators, floats, sound proofing and linoleum.
Importance of Secondary Growth:

1. It is a means of replacement of old non-functional tissues with new

active tissues.

2. The plants showing secondary growth can grow and live longer as
compared to other plants.

3. It provides a fire proof, insect proof and insulating cover around the
older plant parts.

4. Commercial cork is a product of secondary growth. It is obtained from

Quercussuber (Cork Oak).

5. Wood is a very important product of secondary growth. It represents

secondary xylem.

Secondary growth of dicot root:

The roots of some herbaceous dicotyledons and of all gymnosperms and
woody dicotyledons show secondary increase in thickness, whereas most
of the monocotyledonous roots, like those stems, are entirely primary.

The secondary tissues formed in the dicotyledonous roots are

fundamentally similar to those of the stem, but the process is initiated in
a different way .
The dicotyledonous roots have limited number of radially arranged
vascular bundles with exarch xylem. Pith is usually absent. A few
parenchyma cells beneath each phloem group become meristematic and
thus form strips of cambium, the number of strips being equal to the
number of phloem groups present.

Cambial cells go on dividing and produce secondary tissues. The cells of

the uniseriate pericycle against the protoxylem group now divide and
form a few layers. The first- formed cambium now extends both ways and
reaches the innermost derivatives of the xylem groups.

As already stated, the secondary vascular tissues are fundamentally

similar to those of the stem. They form a continuous cylinder and the
primary xylem gets completely embedded in it.

At this stage the root structure is revealed only by the radially arranged
exarch primary xylem located at the central region, the strands of
secondary vascular tissues being collaterally arranged like those of the
stem . The sieve elements of the primary phloem often get crushed.
The cambial cells originating from the pericycle against protoxylem
groups function as ray initials and produce broad bands of vascular rays.
These rays running between xylem and phloem through the cambium are
characteristic of the roots. They are also called main medullary rays.

Periderm is formed in the outer region. Phellogen arises in the outer cells
of the pericycle . It produces phellem or cork cells on the outer side, and
probably some phelloderm on the inner.

The pressure caused by formation of secondary tissues inside ruptures the

cortex with endodermis, which is ultimately sloughed off. Lenticels may
be formed. They usually occur in pairs as transversely elongated rough
areas, one on each side of a lateral root.
1. Anatomy of Monocot Leaf

Epidermis:

1. Two epidermal layers are present, one each on upper and lower
surfaces.

2. Uniseriate upper and lower epidermal layers are composed of more or

less oval cells.

3. Few big, motor cells or bulliform cells are present in groups here and
there in the furrows of upper epidermis.

4. Stomata, each consisting of a pore, guard cells and a stomatal chamber,

are present on both the epidermal layers.

5. A thick cuticle is present on the outer walls of epidermal cells.

6. Bulliform cells help folding of leaves.

Mesopbyll:

7. It is not clearly differentiated into palisade and spongy parenchyma but

the cells just next to the epidermal layers are a bit longer while the cells
of the central mesophyll region are oval and irregularly arranged.

8. The cells are filled with many chloroplasts.

9. Many intercellular spaces are also present in this region.

10. Sub-stomatal chambers of the stomata are also situated in this region.

Vascular System:

11. Many vascular bundles are present. They are arranged in a parallel
series.
12. The central vascular bundle is largest in size.

13. Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral and closed.

14. Each vascular bundle remains surrounded by a double-layered bundle

sheath.

15. Outer layer of bundle sheath consists of thin-walled cells while the
inner layer is made up of thick-walled cells.

16. On the upper as well as lower surfaces of large vascular bundles are
present patches of sclerenchyma which are closely associated with the
epidermal layers. There is no such association between the sclerenchyma
and small vascular bundles.

17. Xylem occurs towards the upper surface and phloem towards to lower
surface.

18. Xylem consists of vessels and tracheids. Sometimes small amount of

xylem parenchyma is also present.

19. Phloem consists of sieve tubes and companion cells.

Xerophytic Characters:

(i) Thick cuticle on epidermis.

(ii) Presence of motor cells.

(iii) Sclerenchyma patches are present.

(iv) Stomata in furrows.

Anatomy of Dicot Leaf:

Epidermis:

1. An epidermal layer is present on the upper as well as lower surfaces.

2. One-celled thick upper and lower epidermal layers consist of barrel-

shaped, compactly arranged cells.

3. A thick cuticle is present on the outer walls of epidermal cells.

Comparatively, thick cuticle is present on the upper epidermis.

4. Stomata are present only on the lower epidermis.

Mesophyil:

5. It is clearly differentiated into palisade and spongy parenchyma.

6. Palisade lies just inner to the upper epidermis. It is composed of

elongated cells arranged in two layers.
7. The cells of palisade region are compactly arranged and filled with
chloroplasts. At some places the cells are arranged loosely and leave small
and big intercellular spaces.

8. Palisade cells are arranged at a plane at right angle to the upper

epidermis, and the chloroplasts in them are arranged along their radial
walls.

9. Parenchymatous cells are present above and below the large vascular
bundles. These cells interrupt the palisade layers and are said to be the
extensions of the bundle sheath.

10. Spongy parenchyma region is present just below the palisade and
extends upto the lower epidermis.

11. The cells of spongy parenchyma are loosely arranged, filled with
many chloroplasts and leave big intercellular spaces.

Vascular Region:

12. Many large and small vascular bundles are present.

13. Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral and closed.

14. Each vascular bundle is surrounded by a bundle sheath.

15. Bundle sheath is parenchymatous and in case of large bundles it

extends upto the epidermis with the help of thin-walled parenchymatous
cells.

16. The xylem is present towards the upper epidermis and consists of
vessels and xylem parenchyma. Protoxylem is present towards upper
epidermis while the metaxylem is present towards the lower epidermis.

17. Phloem is situated is present towards the lower epidermis and consists
of sieve tubes, companion cells and phloem parenchyma.
Nodal anatomy:

Nodal Anatomy in Leaf Traces and Leaf Gaps:

A shoot bears nodes’ and internodes. At each node, portions of the

vascular system are deflected into the leaf, which is attached at this node.
A vascular bundle located in the stem but directly related to a leaf, to
represent the lower part of the vascular supply of this leaf, is termed the
leaf trace.

The leaf trace is defined as follows— The leaf trace is a vascular bundle
that connects the vascular system of the leaf with that of the stem. A leaf
trace is extended between the base of a leaf and the point where it is
completely merged with other parts of the vascular system in the stem.
One or more leaf traces may be associated with each leaf.

In the shoot of a pteropsid (seed plants and ferns) where the leaf trace
diverges into a leaf, it appears as though a portion of the vascular cylinder
of the stem is deflected to one side. Immediately above the diverging
trace, a parenchymatous tissue is being differentiated instead of vascular
tissue in the vascular region of the stem for a limited distance.

The parenchy-matous regions in the vascular system of the stem, located

adaxially from the diverging leaf traces, are called leaf gaps or lacunae.
Actually these gaps are not breaks in the continuity of the vascular system
of the axis. Lateral connections occur between the tissues above and
below the gap. In transverse sections of an axis at the level of a leaf gap,
the gap resembles an inter-fascicular area.

The gaps are quite conspicuous in the ferns and angiosperms where the
vascular system in the inter-nodal parts of the stem forms a more or less
continuous cylinder. In some ferns the leaves are so crowded that the gaps
formed at the successive nodes overlap one another and the vascular
cylinder appears highly dissected.

The transverse sections of such stems show a circle of vascular bundles

with the parenchymatous leaf gaps. In certain ferns, gymnosperms and
most angiosperms the vascular system consists of anastamosing strands.
In such cases, the parenchyma that occurs above the diverging leaf trace
becomes confluent with the interfascicular areas, thus the recognition of
the gaps become uncertain.

There are three common types of nodes in the dicotyledons. The node with
a single gap and a single trace to a leaf is known as unilacunar; the node
with three gaps and three traces to a leaf (one median and two lateral) is
known as trilacunar; and the node with several to many gaps and traces to
a leaf is known as multi-lacunar.

The most accepted concept is that the trilacunar condition is primitive in

the dicotyledons and that the unilacunar and the multi-lacunar have been
derived from it. Several monocotyledonous plants possess leaves with
sheathing bases and nodes with a large number of leaf traces separately
inserted around the stem.

In ferns the number of traces to a leaf varies from one to many, but they
are always associated with a single gap. In gymnosperms a unilacunar
node is common.

The leaf trace relationships at the nodes are thought to be of phylogenetic

importance, and therefore, nodal anatomy is concerned with the study of
systematics and phylogeny of angiosperms.

In this cylinder approximately half of the bundles are leaf traces from the
nearest leaf above and the other half of the bundles are from the internode
above the insertion of the leaf (Fig. 38.7 E). The peripheral bundles are
mostly leaf traces. The most conspicuous character of grass stems is the
presence of transverse bundles in the nodal regions

When the branch possesses two traces, these bundles unite within a short
distance, forming a complete vascular cylinder; when one trace occurs,
this strand usually possesses the cross-sectional form of a horse-shoe
shaped structure with the opening downward, and the vascular cylinder of
the branch is formed by the closure of the opening as the branch traces
passes out.
UNIT : IV EMBRYOLOGY
Microsporangium:
Microsporangia are sporangia that produce microspores that give rise to
male gametophytes when they germinate. Microsporangia occur in
all vascular plants that have heterosporic life cycles, such as seed
plants, spike mosses and the aquatic fern genus Azolla.
In gymnosperms and angiosperm anthers, the microsporangia produce
microsporocytes, the microspore mother cells, which then produce four
microspores through the process of meiosis. Microsporocytes are
produced in the microsporangia of gymnosperm cones and
the anthers of angiosperms. They are diploid microspore mother-cells,
which then produce four haploid microspores through the process
of meiosis. These become pollen grains, within which the microspores
divide twice by mitosis to produce a very simple gametophyte.
Heterosporous plants that produced microspores in microsporangia and
megaspores in separate megasporangia evolved independently in several
plant groups during the Devonian period. [1] Fossils of these plants show
that they produced endosporic gametophytes, meaning that their
gametophytes were not free-living as in bryophytes but developed within
the spores, as in modern heterosporic vascular plants.[2]:280

In angiosperms, a very young anther (the part of the stamen that contains
the pollen) consists of actively dividing meristematic cells surrounded by
a layer of epidermis. It then becomes two-lobed. Each anther lobe
develops two pollen sacs. Then, a two-lobed anther develops four pollen
sacs that situate at four corners of the anther. Development of pollen sacs
begins with the differentiation of archesporial cells in
the hypodermal region below epidermis at four corners of the young
anther. The archesporial cells divide by periclinal division to give a
subepidermal primary parietal layer and a primary sporogenous layer.
The cells of the primary parietal layer divide by successive periclinal
and anticlinal divisions to form concentric layers of pollen sac wall.
The wall layers from periphery to center consist of:

• A single layer of epidermis between, which becomes stretched and

shrivels off at maturity
• A single layer of endothecium. The cells of endothecium have fibrous
thickenings.
• One to three middle layers. Cells of these layers generally disintegrate
in the mature anther
• A single layer of tapetum. The tapetal cells may be uni-, bi-
or multinucleate and possess dense cytoplasm. The cells of the primary
sporogenous layer divide further and give rise to diploid sporogenous
tissue.

Structure of microsporangium
Micorosporogenesis:

During the development of the microsporangium, the anther is seen at first

as a homogeneous mass of meristematic cells, oblong in cross-section and
surrounded by an epidermis

It then becomes more or less four-lobed and four longitudinal rows of

archesporial cells are differentiated. The archesporial cells are marked off
from the surrounding cells by their more deeply staining cytoplasm and
conspicuous nuclei.

There may be only one such archesporial cell in each of the four lobes as
in Boerhaavia, etc., or there may be more of them forming a plate
(Ophiopogon, etc.).

Longitudinally, also, there may be one to many of them. Each archesporial

cell now cuts off a primary parietal cell towards the epidermis and a
primary sporogenous cell on the inner side.

The parietal cell now divides by periclinal and anticlinal walls giving rise
to several layers of cells forming the wall of the anther while the
sporogenous cell usually divides a few times giving rise to a number of
microspore or pollen mother cells .

The innermost layer of wall cells directly abutting on the sporogenous

tissue forms the tapetum which is a nutritive tissue nourishing the
developing microspores . The wall cells just below the epidermis form the
endothecium which later loses the cell contents, usually becomes fibrous,
and forms the dry coat of the mature anther in which the epidermis
becomes rather inconspicuous.

Between the tapetum and the endothecium there are one to three middle
layers of cells. The middle layers and the tapetum are usually crushed by
the time actual meiosis occurs in the sporogenous cells.
During microsporogenesis (i.e., development of microspores or pollens)
the nucleus of each microspore mother cell undergoes meiosis or
reduction division ultimately giving rise to four haploid (i.e., possessing
‘n’ number of chromosomes) nuclei.

These four nuclei are arranged tetrahedrally and are soon invested with
cell walls. Many variations are known of this typical pattern of meiosis,
e.g., in maize a wall is formed across the dyad (2-nucleated condition).

They are now the microspores or pollens which soon dry up and become
powdery while the tapetum becomes absorbed.

The anther now becomes a dry structure, the partition walls between the
sporangia (i.e., loculi) are usually destroyed and the microspores (pollens)
are soon liberated by dehiscence of the anther.
The tapetal cells often become multinucleate and play a great part in the
nutrition of the pollens. Sometimes they develop a Plasmodium after
disintegration and play a part in the development of the exine of the
pollen. Even a part of the sporogenous tissue may break down and serve
for nutrition instead of developing spores.

While the pollens are dry and powdery in most flowers, peculiar
conditions are often let with. In Annona, Elodea, Typha, etc., the four
spores in a tetrad never separate but form compound pollen grains.
In the Mimoseae 8 to 64 pollens often aggregate together while in the
gynostegium of Calotropis and the gynostemium of orchids all the pollens
of each anther lobe from a characteristic mass called pollinium . Each
pollinium is provided with a stalk called caudicle and a sticky base called
disc or corpusculum.

The pollen or the microspore is a very minute structure (0.025 to 0.125

mm in diameter). It is unicellular and usually round although it may be
oval, pyramidal, polyhedral, etc. It is provided with two coats—an inner,
delicate cellulose layer called intine and an outer tough, cutinised layer
called exine or extine. The exine is often sculptured or provided with
spines, warts, etc. Occasionally, it is smooth.

The exine may have a waxy coating to render the pollen more or less
waterproof. Very often, there are some definitely thinner, circular spots or
slits in the exine called germ pores or slits.

These weak spots are utilised during the germination of the pollen. The
pores are sometimes provided with lids which open out like valves during
germination. Very often, before the pollen is discharged from the anther
it becomes binucleate , the original single nucleus dividing-into a tube
nucleus and a generative nucleus.

The latter, with some cytoplasm surrounding it, becomes the generative
cell (described later). Sometimes the pollen may even become trinucleate
(Fig. 410), as in most cereal crops, by complete development of the male
gametophyte even before it is shed. Fig. 407 shows some different forms
of mature pollens. Palynology is the science involving the study of
pollens.

Development of The Male Gametophyte:

The nucleus of the microspore begins to divide very soon after it is

formed. Its division is usually quicker in the warmer climate than in the
cooler regions. Such division may begin even before the microspores
dissociate from the tetrad condition.

When the pollen is lodged on the stigma, usually its nucleus has already
divided. The microspore cell divides into two very equal cells with the
smaller cell attached to the wall .
The latter soon loses contact with the wall and becomes the lens-shaped
generative cell floating freely in the cytoplasm of the large vegetative or
tube cell.

It is then in the binucleate (or two-celled) stage. As the pollen germinates

and the pollen tube comes out through a germ pore the vegetative nucleus
precedes the generative cell.

The generative cell soon divides mitotically to form two male gametes
and this act is known as spermatogenesis as the male gametes of
Angiosperms are equivalent to the ciliated sperms of the lower groups of
plants. The gamete nuclei are enveloped in cytoplasmic sheaths, this
forming gamete cells. At a later stage the two male gamete cells are seen
to follow the vegetative ‘nucleus .

Soon the vegetative nucleus, which seems to be of no importance being a

mere vestigial organ, disappears. As the pollen is the microspore, the
contents within the pollen and the pollen tube formed by the germination
of the microspore is the male gametophyte of Angiosperms.
While the male gametophyte, thus, usually develops after the pollen has
germinated, there are many instances where it develops within the pollen
before the pollen tube is formed and, in some cases, even before
pollination. Trinucleate pollens with tube nucleus and two gamete cells
are observed in such cases . Such trinucleate pollen formation is the rule
in many plants (e.g., Portulaca), specially the cereal crops like wheat, rice,
maize of Gramineae and sugarcane of the same family.
Development of male gametophyte

Angiosperms are defined by having seeds in the enclosing fruit derived

from the ovary of a flower. The flower consists of primarily sporophytic
tissues, with both male and female gametophytes which are highly
reduced in size in comparison to all other land plants. Angiosperms also
have the unique property of double fertilization, producing a usually
triploid endosperm in addition to the embryo. The male gametophyte is
formed in the anthers of the stamens, and the female gametophyte is
located in the ovules within the pistil.
In the anther, four pollen sacs (locules) contain numerous microspore
mother cells, each of which undergoes meiosis to produce four
microspores in a tetrad . The male gametophyte generation begins with
the microspore. Initially, the microspore has a uniformly distributed
cytoplasm with a centrally located haploid nucleus. A large vacuole later
forms at the center, displacing the nucleus to the side. In many flowering
plants, including the model species Arabidopsis and maize, two mitotic
divisions occur during pollen development. The first division produces a
large vegetative cell and a much smaller generative cell. The vegetative
cell inherits most of the cytoplasm from the microspore cell, has a
relatively loose nucleus that is active in transcription, and completely
envelopes the generative cells. In contrast, the generative nucleus is more
tightly organized and less active in transcription. The generative cell later
undergoes a second mitosis to produce two sperm cells. Pollen
development depends on the function of a surrounding sporophytic tissue
called tapetum.

Megasporangium:

The ovule consists of integument megasporangium. It is a small structure

connected to the placenta by means of a funicle. The hilum is the point of
attachment between ovule and funicle. Each ovule is covered by a protective
covering called integuments which surround the nucellus. At the tip, the
integuments are absent leaving a small opening called the micropyle. The
chalaza is present opposite to the micropylar end and forms the basal part of
the ovule. Nucellus is the main body of the ovule made up of
parenchymatous mass. The embryo sac also called female gametophyte is
present inside the nucellus. The diploid megaspore mother cell undergoes
meiosis to form 4 haploid megaspores by the process of megasporogenesis.
Three out of four megaspores degenerate and only one is functional. The
functional megaspore develops into the female gametophyte. It is a 7 celled
and 8 nucleated structure consisting of two synergids, three antipodal cells,
two polar nuclei and 1 egg cell.

Megasporogenesis:

Megasporogenesis
Megasporogenesis refers to the development of megaspores from the
megasporocyte, the cell that undergoes meiosis. Meiosis of the
megasporocyte nucleus results in the formation of four haploid megaspore
nuclei. In most taxa, meiosis is followed by cytokinesis, resulting in four
megaspore cells. This pattern is termed monosporic megasporogene - sis;
because of the four megaspores produced, only one of them contributes to
the female gametophyte . In some angiosperm taxa, however, cytokinesis
occurs after the first meiotic division, but not the second, resulting in two
cells, each of which contain two haploid nuclei. This developmental
pattern is termed bisporic megasporogenesis because one of the
binucleate cells, containing two megaspore nuclei, contributes to the
female gametophyte (Figure 11.9). Finally, in other taxa cytokinesis does
not occur at all after meiosis, resulting in a single cell with four haploid
nuclei. Because all four haploid megaspore nuclei contribute to the female
gametophyte, this pattern is termed tetrasporic megasporogenesis .

Monosporic embryo sac – Polygonum type:

FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE (Embryo sac)

The functional megaspore represents the first cell of the female

gametophyte. As the functional megaspore grows, many small vacuoles
appear in its cytoplasm, which later join together to form a large vacuole.
The nucleus undergo three mitotic divisions and form eight nuclei. After
first mitotic division, two nuclei are formed and due to enlargement of
vacuole one of the nucleus is pushed towards the micropylar end and the
other towards the chalazal end. Both these nuclei towards their respective
pole undergo two mitotic division resulting i the formation of four nuclei
at each pole. One nucleus from each pole migrates towards the centre.
These nuclei are called as polar nuclei.

The three nuclei at the chalazal end from the antipodal cell. Of the three
nuclei at the micropylar end, one nucleus forms the egg or female gamete
and the other two as synergids.

The entire structure, the two polar nuclei, three antipodal cell, one egg
and two synergids represent the mature female gametophyte or embryo
sac. Since this type of embryo sac develop from single megaspore and has
8- nuclei, it is called as monosporic 8-nucleate embryo sac or polygonum
type. It is the most common type and found in 81% of angiospermic plant.
Types of Embryo Sac (Female gametophyte) Besides the monosporic,
embryo sac, which develop from single megaspore, in many cases two or
all the four megaspores take part in the development of embryo sac. Three
different type of embryo sac have been reported on the basis of number of
megaspore involve in the developing of embryo sac.
1. Monosporic
2. Bisporic
3. Tetrasporic

(1) Monosporic embryo sacs

A monosporic embryo sac develops from a single megaspore and

as such all the nuclei present in this type of embryo sac are
genetically alike. Monosporic embryo sacs are of the following
two types. 1. Monosporic 8-nucleate or polygonum type. This
type of embryo sac develops from the chalazal megaspore. Its
nucleus divides thrice to form eight nuclei. This type is generally
referred to as normal type of embryo sac. It is also called
Polygonum type as it was first time described in Polygonum
divericatum by Stransburger (1879).

(2) Bisporic embryo sacs

The bisporic embryo sac develops from one of the two

dyads formed as a result of the first meiotic division
(meiosis I) of megaspore mother cell. One of the dyads
degenerates. Both the nuclei of the functional dyad take part
in the formation of embryo sac. Each nucleus undergoes
two mitotic divisions and as such the mature embryo sac is
8-nucleate. The eight nuclei are organised into antipodals,
egg apparatus and polar nuclei as in Polygonum type of
embryo sac. In this type of embryo sac the 4-nuclei derived
from one megaspore nucleus are genetically different from
the other four derived from the second megaspore nucleus.
On the basis of the position of functional dyad the following
two types have been recognized in bisporic embryo sacs. 1.
Allium type. This type develops from the chalazal dyad.
(3) Tetrasporic embryo sacs
Sometimes meiotic division of the megaspore mother cell
is not accompanied by cytokinesis and hence all the four
haploid nuclei lie in a single cell called coenomegaspore.
All the four nuclei of coeno-megaspore participate in the
formation of embryo sac. This type of embryo sac is called
tetrasporic and it is genetically more heterogeneous than the
bisporic type of embryo sac. On the basis of (i) the position
of haploid nuclei in the coeno-megaspore, (ii) the number
of times these nuclei divide, and (iii) organisation of nuclei
in the mature embryo sac, the following types of tetrasporic
embryo sacs have been recognised. nucleus at the
micropylar end is cut off by a membrane and forms the egg.
There are no synergids. The other three nuclei (i.e., one
chalazal and two lateral) usually disappear but occasionally
they too may be cut off by membranes and appear as
accessory egg cells. The Plumbago type of embryo sac is
thus characterised by the absence of synergids and
antipodals. This type embryo sac is known to occur in the
Plumbaginaceae.

3. Multisporic embryosacPeperomia type.

In this type, the four haploid nuclei of the coeno-megaspore

undergo two successive mitotic divisions forming 16
nuclei. These nuclei arrange themselves in four groups of
four each, one at the micropylar end, one at the chalazal end
.