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Principles of E-learning Systems
Engineering
 CHANDOS
INFORMATION PROFESSIONAL SERIES

Series Editor: Ruth Rikowski

(email: [email protected])

Chandos’ new series of books are aimed at the busy information professional. They have
been specially commissioned to provide the reader with an authoritative view of current
thinking. They are designed to provide easy-to-read and (most importantly) practical
coverage of topics that are of interest to librarians and other information professionals. If
you would like a full listing of current and forthcoming titles, please visit our web site
www.chandospublishing.com or contact Hannah Grace-Williams on email
[email protected] or telephone number +44 (0) 1993 848726.

New authors: we are always pleased to receive ideas for new titles; if you would like to write
a book for Chandos, please contact Dr Glyn Jones on email [email protected]
or telephone number +44 (0) 1993 848726.

Bulk orders: some organisations buy a number of copies of our books. If you are
interested in doing this, we would be pleased to discuss a discount. Please contact
Hannah Grace-Williams on email [email protected] or telephone number
+44 (0) 1993 848726.
Principles of E-learning
Systems Engineering

LESTER GILBERT
AND
VERONICA GALE

Chandos Publishing
Oxford · England
 Chandos Publishing (Oxford) Limited
TBAC Business Centre
Avenue 4
Station Lane
Witney
Oxford OX28 4BN
UK
Tel: +44 (0) 1993 848726 Fax: +44 (0) 1865 884448
Email: [email protected]
www.chandospublishing.com

First published in Great Britain in 2008

ISBN:
978 1 84334 290 8 (paperback)
978 1 84334 291 5 (hardback)
1 84334 290 1 (paperback)
1 84334 291 X (hardback)

© L. Gilbert and V. Gale, 2008

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means (electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the prior written permission of the Publishers.
This publication may not be lent, resold, hired out or otherwise disposed of by way of trade in
any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published without the prior consent
of the Publishers. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may
be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.
The Publishers make no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the
information contained in this publication and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability
for any errors or omissions.
The material contained in this publication constitutes general guidelines only and does not
represent to be advice on any particular matter. No reader or purchaser should act on the basis
of material contained in this publication without first taking professional advice appropriate to
their particular circumstances.

Typeset by Domex e-Data Pvt. Ltd.

Printed in the UK and USA.
 List of figures and tables
Figures
1.1 General systems theory informing e-learning
development and content 2
1.2 ELSYE development stages 4
1.3 E-learning transaction 5
2.1 System diagram 8
2.2 Control subsystem 9
2.3 Management project control 11
2.4 Management project control arranged linearly 12
3.1 Basic technical components of the ELSYE
process 14
3.2 The basic ELSYE model technical phases 14
3.3 Overview of the complete ELSYE project 15
3.4 ELSYE phases 15
3.5 Software engineering development model
based on SSADM 16
3.6 ELSYE project technical stages 17
3.7 ELSYE project steps 18
3.8 The full ELSYE life cycle: stages, steps and
forward paths 20–1
3.9 ELSYE project terminology 22
3.10 ELSYE stage diagrams 25
3.11 ‘Handcuff’ model for e-learning development 27

ix
Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering

4.1 A first-order system incapable of learning 32

4.2 A second-order system capable of learning 33
4.3 The teacher and student modelled as
second-order systems 34
4.4 The basic learning and teaching situation 36
4.5 Laurillard’s ‘conversational framework’ 36
4.6 Simple presentation in the conversational
framework 37
4.7 Simple tutorial in the conversational
framework 38
4.8 Simple practical training in the conversational
framework 39
4.9 General features of an ‘ELSYE icon’ 40
4.10 Structure of an e-learning transaction 41
4.11 Alternative representation of the learning
transaction 42
4.12 Structure of a learning and teaching session
or lesson 45
4.13 Structure of a unit, course or module 47
4.14 Structure of a programme of study 48
4.15 Four-level structure of learning and teaching 49
4.16 Programme within a higher education
institution 50
5.1 Feasibility stage in the ELSYE life cycle 56
5.2 Feasibility report technical steps 56
5.3 System diagram components of a problem
situation 59
5.4 Illustrative system diagram for UK HE and FE 62
5.5 Example system diagram 63
5.6 Engineering problem-solving approach 65
5.7 Medical problem-solving approach 65

x
 List of figures and tables

5.8 Appropriateness of ELSYE to causes of

performance gaps 67
5.9 Needs analysis in the form of control
subsystem 68
5.10 CBA layout 74
6.1 Front-end analysis stage in the ELSYE
life cycle 78
6.2 Front-end analysis technical steps 91
6.3 Inputs to ELSYE development 80
6.4 Task analysis for facts 82
6.5 Task analysis for concepts 83
6.6 Task analysis for procedures 84
6.7 Task analysis for principles 84
6.8 Bloom’s domains 86
6.9 Components of a fully specified e-learning
objective 89
7.1 Project plan stage in the ELSYE life cycle 104
7.2 Project plan steps 104
7.3 Conversion table for risk likelihoods 107
8.1 Initial design stage in the ELSYE life cycle 122
8.2 Initial design steps 123
8.3 Enabling objectives hierarchy example 124
8.4 Characteristics of an objectives hierarchy 125
8.5 MCQ versus essay test effort against
class size 130
8.6 KR-20 formula for internal consistency 133
8.7 Scaling formula 136
9.1 Detailed design in the ELSYE life cycle 150
9.2 Detailed design steps 151
9.3 Primary presentation forms 155

xi
Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering

9.4 Structure of an e-learning transaction 166

9.5 The e-learning transaction to remember
a fact 168
9.6 The e-learning transactions for concepts 171
9.7 The e-learning transactions for procedures 173
9.8 The e-learning transaction for principles 176
10.1 Techniques for lesson plan development 180
10.2 E-learning lesson 180
10.3 Interactivity cycle 188
10.4 Characteristics of the interactivity cycle 189
10.5 The events of instruction 194
10.6 Screen mock-up 200
11.1 Linear development with feedback 207
11.2 Development with prototypes and feedback
opportunities 208
11.3 Example evaluation form, closed questions 215
11.4 Sample evaluation form, open questions 215
11.5 List of open-question responses 216
11.6 Histogram analysis of evaluation data 217
11.7 Box plot for repeated evaluations 218
11.8 Dendogram analysis 219
11.9 Factor analysis 220
12.1 Production stage in the ELSYE life cycle 221
12.2 Steps of the production stage 223
12.3 Boundary value analysis 230
12.4 Flow-graph notation for basis path testing 231
12.5 Example program for basis path testing 231
12.6 Flow graph for example program 231
12.7 Regions of the example flow graph 232
12.8 Distinct paths through the example flow
graph 233

xii
 List of figures and tables

12.9 Test-case data for example basis paths 234

12.10 Every possible combination to test example
program 234
13.1 Pilot stage in the ELSYE life cycle 238
13.2 Steps of the pilot stage 239
13.3 Review points in the ELSYE life cycle 240
13.4 Steps of the distribution stage 244
13.5 Steps of the use stage 245
13.6 Steps of the evaluation stage 246
14.1 Quality management in the ELSYE life cycle 250
14.2 Infinite regress of quality criteria 252
14.3 The plank in your eye and the speck in
others’ eyes 253
14.4 Product quality management 254
14.5 Process quality management 255
14.6 Component activities of a project 256
14.7 Quality management concerns 256
14.8 Generic project and quality management
activities 257
14.9 General quality management activities 258
14.10 General quality and project management
steps at each ELSYE stage 260
14.11 Structured inspection 261
14.12 Inspection process 263
14.13 ‘Chaos’: level 1 of the ELSYE capability
maturity model 265
14.14 ‘Repeatable’: level 2 of the ELSYE capability
maturity model 266
14.15 ‘Managed’: level 3 of the ELSYE capability
maturity model 268
14.16 ‘Quantified’: level 4 of the ELSYE capability
maturity model 270

xiii
Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering

14.17 ‘Optimised’: level 5 of the ELSYE capability

maturity model 271
15.1 Project management within the ELSYE
life cycle 274
15.2 Project management general activities 274
15.3 Generic structure of the ELSYE life-cycle
stage 275
15.4 Project management overview: activities
within each technical stage 276
15.5 Preparation 277
15.6 Development 279
15.7 Delivery 281
15.8 Post-mortem 281
15.9 Milestone chart 286
15.10 Gantt chart example 286
15.11 CPM or PERT chart 288
15.12 Example timesheet 290
15.13 Schedule tracking example 292
15.14 Four kinds of project organisation 298
15.15 Suitability of various project organisations 299

Tables
3.1 ELSYE stages and steps 23–4
3.2 ELSYE stages relevant to various materials’
development 29–30
4.1 The e-learning transactions relevant for
various materials 51–2
5.1 Causes of and solutions to performance
gaps 66

xiv
 List of figures and tables

5.2 Needs analysis 68

5.3 Net present value of two options 73
5.4 Internal rate of return of two options 75
6.1 Issues addressed in the steps of front-end
analysis 78
6.2 Audience characteristics checklist 81
6.3 Components of a basic e-learning objective 87
6.4 Fully specified e-learning objective 88
6.5 Standard learned capability verbs, after
Gagné et al. 89
6.6 Observable ability verbs, after Merrill 90
6.7 Performance verbs for the cognitive domain,
after Bloom 91
6.8 Performance verbs for the affective domain,
after Bloom 92
6.9 Instructional architectures 94
6.10 Some learning and teaching media 96
6.11 Some learning and teaching methods 97
6.12 Learning and teaching methods appropriate
to objectives 98
6.13 Technical criteria for TBLT project viability 99
6.14 Business requirements for TBLT project
viability 100
7.1 Sources of project risk 106
7.2 Primary areas of risk impact 108
7.3 The most serious project risk outcomes 108
7.4 Formula for risk exposure 109
7.5 Risk exposures 109
7.6 Risk control measure examples 110
7.7 Risk leverage formula 111
7.8 Risk control measure leverages 111

xv
Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering

7.9 Alternatives to an e-learning project 113

7.10 Example options within an e-learning
project 114
7.11 Impact analysis within an organisation 117
8.1 Types of student test item 128
8.2 Guidelines for the introduction of MCQ
assessment 129
8.3 Effort required for MCQ assessment 129
8.4 Guidelines on MCQ item construction 130
8.5 Psychometric evaluation of tests 132
8.6 Example MCQ templates for Bloom’s
cognitive domain 138–9
8.7 Content outline format and example
entries 141
9.1 Definition of CDT categories of subject
matter 152
9.2 CDT types of objective or cognitive skill 156
9.3 Summary of 23 CDT teaching acts 157
9.4 Teaching acts for facts 157
9.5 Teaching acts for concepts 159
9.6 Teaching acts for procedures 161
9.7 Teaching acts for principles 163
9.8 CDT e-learning transactions summary 167
9.9 CDT e-learning transaction for facts 168
9.10 Example CDT e-learning transaction to
remember a fact 169
9.11 CDT e-learning transactions for concepts 170
9.12 Example CDT e-learning transaction to use
a concept 172
9.13 CDT e-learning transactions for procedures 172
9.14 Example CDT e-learning transaction to use
a procedure 174

xvi
 List of figures and tables

9.15 CDT e-learning transactions for principles 175

9.16 Example CDT e-learning transaction to
remember a principle 177
10.1 CDT secondary presentation forms 181
10.2 Program versus student control 185
10.3 Audience analysis for control of materials 186
10.4 Task analysis for control of materials 186
10.5 Characteristics of questions, answers and
feedback 192
10.6 Lesson script layout 201
11.1 Scottish Higher Education Funding
Council quality criteria 213–14
14.1 Level 2 ELSYE CMM capabilities 267
14.2 Level 3 ELSYE CMM capabilities 269
14.3 Level 4 ELSYE CMM capabilities 271
14.4 Level 5 ELSYE CMM capabilities 272
15.1 Simple ELSYE project budget 283
15.2 ELSYE project budget by phase 283
15.3 Budget tracking spreadsheet 290
15.4 Example metrics for inspection 293
15.5 Project roles 296
15.6 Generic project management activities 297
15.7 Decision-taking situations 301
15.8 Tactics of organisational politics 306–8

xvii
 List of acronyms
BVA boundary value analysis
CBA cost-benefit analysis
CBT computer-based teaching/training
CDT component display theory
CER cause-effect relationship
CMM capability maturity model
CPM critical path method
ELSYE e-learning systems engineering
FE further education
HE higher education
IRR internal rate of return
ITT instructional transaction theory
IV interactive video
KR-20 Kuder-Richardson formula 20
LCV learned capability verb
MCQ multiple-choice question
NPV net present value
PERT project evaluation and review technique
PPF primary presentation form
QA quality assurance
SME subject matter expert
SPF secondary presentation form
SSADM structured systems analysis and design
methodology
SSM soft systems methodology
TBLT technology-based learning and teaching

xix
Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering

TEL technology-enhanced learning

TNA training needs analysis
WIFM ‘What’s in it for me?’

xx
 About the authors
Lester Gilbert has an MSc in psychology from the University
of Cape Town, specialising in cognition and learning, and
subsequently spent about ten years working as an academic in
departments of psychology in South Africa. In the 1980s he
was a programmer and manager in UK commerce and
industry, among many other roles leading and managing the
development and delivery of commercial CBT, CAI and
interactive video training solutions for customers such as
Midland Bank, British Aerospace, Abbey National and the UK
Atomic Energy Authority. He re-entered academia in 1992 as
a lecturer in IT subjects, and now works at the University of
Southampton School of Electronics and Computing Science on
the IT in Organisations degree programme, jointly presenting
introductory and advanced modules on e-learning and
technology-enhanced learning.
Lester is particularly interested in the use of technology in
teaching and learning in adult and higher education, and has
completed two textbooks dealing with IT at Advanced
GNVQ level. He is currently involved in a number of funded
projects in the field of technology-enhanced learning, and
has presented various conference and workshop papers,
most recently in the area of e-learning and service-oriented
architectures for virtual learning and research environments.
His extramural interests include radio-controlled racing
yachts: he is a regular competitor, has been selected for the
Great Britain team at recent world and continental
championships and is an accredited national judge.

xxi
Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering

Veronica Gale has a BSc in banking and finance and an MSc

in training. She is an experienced learning consultant:
conducting research and analysing needs, then designing and
implementing education and training solutions using a mix of
media, including technology-enhanced learning, coaching
and paper-based self-study. Veronica has more than 20 years’
experience in needs analysis, instructional and performance
tool design, coaching, assessment and evaluation.

xxii
 Preface
The purpose of this book is to integrate the principles of
software engineering with those of educational theory, and
to apply these principles to the problems of e-learning
development, thus establishing the discipline of e-learning
systems engineering. For the first time these principles are
collected and organised into the coherent framework that
this book provides. Both newcomers to and established
practitioners in the field now have an integrated and
grounded source of advice on theory and practice.
Developing any system is risk- and error-prone. Almost
since the very first commercially available digital computer,
programmers and managers have grappled with the
problems of how to specify what a system should do, how
to design the system to do it, how to implement the design
as software and hardware, how to test the implementation
and how to manage the whole process of development. This
enterprise is known as software engineering, and is now a
well-developed branch of information technology.
In the early days of computers, software was developed in
an ad hoc amateur fashion; there was little recognition, for
example, that it made sense to design the system before
writing the software, or that introducing apparently
innocuous changes to requirements during the coding phases
could cause huge project over-runs. A very large number of
lessons have been learned since those early days, and the
professional software engineer is now as well equipped as

xxiii
Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering

the professional civil engineer to undertake all manner of

small- and large-scale projects effectively and efficiently.
We are, however, in the early days of teaching, training
and learning technologies. These are not early days
chronologically, since computers have been applied to
teaching and training problems for almost as long as to
commercial and scientific problems, but in terms of the
professional maturity with which e-learning projects are
currently developed.
The book presents both strong practical and strong
theoretical frameworks for the design and development of
technology-based materials and environments which have
teaching, training or educational value. It brings together for
the first time a complete range of the specific theories and
detailed techniques involved in the design and development
of materials such as business presentations, web-based
presentations, training courses and academic lessons.
Although the methods and theories discussed are generally
appropriate to all forms and levels of learning and teaching,
the book illustrates their use in and focuses its approach
upon e-learning with adults.
The book is primarily aimed at developers of e-learning
systems from two communities: those who may be familiar
with principles of pedagogy but are new to or inexperienced
in the use of information technology media – business
trainers, professionals, lecturers and teachers – who now need
or wish to use new technology to deliver their message, lesson
or training; and those who may be familiar with information
technology but are new to or inexperienced in principles of
pedagogy – programmers, analysts, technicians – who now
need or wish to use their skills to provide educational or
training experiences for students.
The book would be particularly useful as a student
textbook to accompany any college or university course

xxiv
 Preface

concerned with teaching, training and the effective

communication of information using new technology.
Experienced e-learning developers will hopefully find the
book useful both as a reference source in bringing together
the major techniques of e-learning systems design in one
place and as a source of some of the more specialised
techniques that might be found useful.

xxv
 1

Introduction

The principles of ‘e-learning systems engineering’ or ELSYE

are concerned with the structured development of materials
and environments for learning and teaching. The term
‘e-learning’ is used throughout the text to denote learning
and teaching materials, courses and environments with
significant information technology components. Currently
gaining favour in the UK and Europe is the term
‘technology-enhanced learning’, or TEL, covering the same
area but also including social aspects of learning. In other
parts of the world the term ‘instructional’ is preferred, and
covers much the same ground as ‘learning and teaching’.
Although some distinction can be made between education
on the one hand and training on the other, the distinction is
not a useful one from the point of view of the engineering of
learning and teaching materials and environments. The
focus of the text is on the development of learning and
teaching systems for technology-based rather than lecturer-,
teacher- or instructor-based delivery, but the principles of
such development remain the same.
Underpinning and unifying this broad and comprehensive
approach to the engineering of learning and teaching is a
systems or systemic approach. The systems approach
informs both the way in which instructional materials may
be developed and the design and structure of the materials
themselves. The approach thus offers a methodology for the

1
Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering

engineering of learning and teaching systems on the one

hand, and a theory for the content of learning and teaching
on the other. Figure 1.1 illustrates these two central themes
arising from a systems point of view.
Materials that are intended for information or
entertainment, rather than learning, may also be usefully
developed from an ELSYE perspective. In particular, the
development of webpages and websites can be successfully
approached as ELSYE projects. For such environments, not
all the components and techniques of ELSYE are applicable.
The relevant differences are pointed out in the text as they
occur.
The concept of an ‘engineered system’ is intended to
suggest something rather more than a set of ‘crafted’ or even
‘designed’ materials. An ELSYE project gives attention to
the environment in which the materials are to be used, to
the business case which must underlie a realistic and

Figure 1.1 General systems theory informing e-learning

development and content

ELSYE life cycle

E-learning systems
development methodology

General
systems
theory

E-learning systems
Systems content and structure
diagram

Learning transaction

2
 Introduction

cost-effective project, to the project management and quality

assurance issues which arise during development and to a
complete set of structured techniques which ensure
satisfactory design and implementation. In addition to these
‘process’ concerns, the text pays explicit attention to
‘content’: the nature and structure of e-learning systems and
materials themselves.
Following an introduction to systems theory in Chapter 2,
Chapter 3 establishes a methodology or framework for
e-learning design and development. The theory of effective
project management is illustrated in terms of systems control
theory, and this provides the basis for the overall method
and approach of e-learning design and development that
characterises this book. Figure 1.2 gives a key overview
illustration of this development methodology. In summary,
the development of an ELSYE project proceeds in phases
(feasibility, analysis, design, construction, operation and
evaluation) that are underpinned by project management
and quality management tasks.
Chapter 4 considers the nature of learning and teaching,
beginning with Pask’s theory of a learning system, itself
based upon systems theory. Laurillard (2001) has developed
Pask’s approach into a particular and pertinent view of the
structure of learning and teaching environments. The end
product of ELSYE, an e-learning system or environment, is
an example of a learning and teaching situation which
Laurillard calls a ‘conversational framework’. The chapter
concludes with an outline of the content and structure of
learning and teaching materials, developed from Laurillard’s
‘conversational framework’.
Chapter 5 introduces the start of the ELSYE methodology,
the feasibility phase, while Chapters 6 and 7 introduce the
analysis phase, comprising the stages of front-end analysis
and project plan respectively. The design phase is considered

3
 Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering
Figure 1.2 ELSYE development stages

Feasibility Analysis Design Construction Operation Evaluation

0 Feasibility 1 Front-end 3 Initial

5 Production 7 Distribution 9 Evaluation
Report Analysis Design

System diagram Audience analysis Enabling objectives Materials Packaging plan Evaluation instruments
Needs assessment Task analysis Content outline Video Distribution plan Evaluation report
Preliminary Top-level objectives Student test Audio Instructor training
management Instructional concept Media and methods Graphics Installation
assessment Project and quality Technical, presentation Text
management and design standards Programs
standards Alpha test
4

2 Project 4 Detailed
6 Pilot 8 Use
Plan Design

Risk management plan Instructional transactions Validation Maintenance and

Options and alternatives Lesson plan, Beta test enhancement plans
Schedule and budget storyboards and scripts
Cost-benefit analysis Course management
Impact analysis Prototypes
Evaluability design

Project Management
Schedule Budget Change control Risk

Quality Management
Client involvement Inspection Testing Standards Metrics Improvement plans
 Introduction

in Chapter 8 for initial design; Chapters 9, 10 and 11 cover

detailed design.
The detailed design phase is particularly concerned with
the central component of any learning and teaching
situation, illustrated in Figure 1.3, the e-learning
transaction. This shows the abstracted elements of an
e-learning transaction, the lowest-level ‘unit’ of learning and
teaching, involving the teacher in ‘showing’, ‘telling’ and,
crucially, ‘asking’ the student in using or applying their
knowledge or skills, and the teacher in giving feedback to
the student on how they did. Equally crucially, the
transaction is contextualised and embedded within some
question or problem that the teacher and student are

Figure 1.3 E-learning transaction

Purpose

Teacher Student
role role
Tell

Show

Ask

Response

Feedback

5
Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering

addressing. This context is what gives the learning and

teaching point or purpose, and is the major means by which
student motivation is maintained.
A set of e-learning transactions is assembled into a
learning and teaching session, typically a lesson. An
e-learning session involves transactions which both ‘set up’
and ‘round off’ the lesson, as well as transactions which deal
with the subject matter (the knowledge and skills relevant to
the student’s learning, focused upon a particular problem).
The introductory and terminating transactions are drawn
from the work of Gagné (Gagné et al., 2004) and others,
and include gaining the student’s attention, informing them
of the session objectives, stimulating and assessing prior
learning, supporting reflection and retention, giving
formative assessment and evaluating the session.
In summary, the first four chapters identify and introduce
the content and structure of learning and teaching, as well as
the methods to be employed in the engineering of learning
and teaching, each derived from systems theory. Following
from these, later chapters take the engineering steps in
turn and expand upon them, showing how the content
(e-learning transactions) and structure (sessions, lessons,
modules, units and programmes) of the proposed e-learning
are developed through the ELSYE stages of analysis and
design. The remaining ELSYE phases and stages of
production are discussed in Chapter 12, and piloting,
distribution, use and evaluation are summarised in
Chapter 13.
The final two chapters, 14 and 15, respectively introduce
the quality management and project management issues
relevant to ELSYE.

6
 2

General systems theory

People often discuss an e-learning system without giving

much attention to the accuracy of their description of
something as a ‘system’, and this chapter provides some
background which might help correct this. According to
systems theory, something that is properly called a ‘system’
should have certain characteristics. Figure 2.1, a classic
system diagram, illustrates these major characteristics.
The characteristics of a ‘system’ are that it:

is embedded and operates in an environment;

is distinguished from its environment by a clear system
boundary;

takes input from its environment and processes or
transforms it;

provides resulting output into its environment;

involves internal processes;

contains a control subsystem;

has emergent properties;

uses resources;

involves authorisation to operate.

In order to take a systems approach to the engineering of an

e-learning project, it is useful to be able to identify and
analyse these characteristics in the particular system

7
Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering

Figure 2.1 System diagram

Environment System

Resources
Control subsystem
Processes

Authority

System
boundary
Output
Emergent
properties Input

involved. This idea is taken up in the chapter on the

feasibility report.
Perhaps the most unfamiliar of these system
characteristics is the notion of emergent properties. Taking
the example of an aircraft as a system, its emergent property
is that it flies, a property possessed by none of its parts.
Another conventional example of a system with emergent
properties is any living organism, whose emergent property,
life, is not found in any of its separate parts.

The control subsystem

What is particularly interesting for ELSYE is the control
subsystem, that component of a complete system which
enables it to function correctly. The control subsystem is
illustrated in detail in Figure 2.2. A consideration of control

8
 General systems theory

Figure 2.2 Control subsystem

Control subsystem

Required standard Compare actual

to required

Measure Control output

performance

theory provides suggestions for ELSYE as to the

arrangement of methods and procedures for the
development of e-learning, and on the components that
should be designed into e-learning. The control subsystem
has four components.

First, the control subsystem measures some information

of interest about the current, actual state of the system
being controlled.

Second, the control subsystem itself has some information
about what these measures should be, called the required
standard.

Third, the actual measured system information is
compared to the required standard.

Fourth, the control subsystem generates a correction or
control output which acts on the system.

The goal of this arrangement is that the system’s resulting

effects upon the environment, its outputs, are adjusted
according to the required standard embedded in the control
subsystem.

9
Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering

A concern in the analysis of any system, and particularly

in the analysis of the failure of any system to function
correctly, is to be able to identify clearly the components of
the control subsystem – that is, to be able to identify where
measures of performance are obtained, where relevant
standards are established, where performance is compared
to the required standards and where action is taken to
address any discrepancies between what is required and
what actually happens.
Notice, from Figure 2.1, that the control subsystem is part
of a loop that must pass through the environment as well as
through other components of the system. That is, the
measured system information that the control subsystem
takes as its input is the measured consequence of how
effectively the system operates upon the environment as a
result of the control subsystem’s control output. This is a
somewhat long-winded way of saying that the control
subsystem depends upon feedback in order to achieve its
purpose and function correctly, and that this feedback
results from the system as a whole operating upon and
within its environment.
Notice also that the interesting properties of a system
capable of maintaining some consistent operation upon its
environment are really expressed by that system’s control
subsystem. Because of this, it may be possible to omit the
various other details of a system and deal only with the control
subsystem when modelling the quality of its performance.

Control theory in management

Another way of portraying a control subsystem derives from
management theory. Figure 2.3 illustrates a very common
generic approach to the management and control of any

10
 General systems theory

Figure 2.3 Management project control

Analyse Plan

Evaluate Implement

project, and is often presented as a system of project

management. It has four parts: analyse; plan; implement,
execute or act; and evaluate results. This portrayal provides
a direct and natural model of procedures for the
development of learning and teaching materials. It also gives
a basis for managing and maintaining learning and teaching
materials once developed.
This management approach is an analogue of a control
subsystem. The ‘analyse’ component corresponds to the
‘desired standard’ of the control subsystem. The ‘plan’
component corresponds to the ‘comparator’ of the control
subsystem: something capable of bringing about the
required outcome is identified, specified or designed. The
‘implement, execute or act’ component corresponds to
the ‘control output’ of the control subsystem: a mechanism
designed to bring about the required outcome is activated.
Finally, the ‘evaluate’ component corresponds to the
‘measure performance’ of the control subsystem, where
measures are taken in order to find out whether the intended

11
Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering

Figure 2.4 Management project control arranged linearly

Analyse Plan Implement Evaluate

Feedback

outcome was achieved. The loop is closed by feedback from

the evaluation into the next analysis stage, as illustrated in
Figure 2.4, where the components are laid out in linear
sequence rather than a circle. The way these ideas can be
extended to provide for a methodology for developing
e-learning systems is outlined in Chapter 3. In particular, the
development methodology of e-learning will focus upon
analysis, design, production and evaluation processes.
These ideas can also be extended to provide for the
specification of e-learning, and for the methods of
management of such e-learning. Chapter 4 and subsequent
chapters identify elements of e-learning transactions,
sessions, units and programmes which are suggested by
control theory. In particular, attention is given to ensuring
the e-learning contains elements which aid evaluation, and
that the management of the e-learning involves review and
reflection.

12
 3

Project development
framework

The considerations of management and systems control

theory provide the basic model of the technical components
of the ELSYE process, as illustrated in Figure 3.1. The ‘non-
technical’ components of ELSYE, project management and
quality management, are added subsequently.
The ‘analyse’ component is concerned with establishing the
‘what’ of an e-learning project – what is required, what are the
objectives, what are the constraints and so on. This will be
called ‘analysis’ in ELSYE – ‘front-end analysis’ in particular.
The ‘plan’ component is concerned with establishing the
‘how’ of an e-learning project – how can the objectives and
requirements be met? This is called ‘design’ in ELSYE – in
particular, initial design and detailed design.
The ‘implement’ component is concerned with producing
the materials and environment of an e-learning project, and
then using the materials in learning and teaching. This is
called construction and operation in ELSYE.
The ‘evaluate’ component is concerned with checking
whether the objectives and requirements have been met – did
the e-learning work? Evaluation would be done after a
period of operation.
These basic components are expanded and extended into
a complete model of the phases and stages of an e-learning
project in the following discussion.

13
Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering

Figure 3.1 Basic technical components of the ELSYE process

‘What’ ‘How’ ‘Do’ ‘Check’

Analyse Plan Implement Evaluate

What is How could it Make it Did it

required? be achieved? and use it work?

Analysis Design Construction Evaluation

and operation

ELSYE project phases and stages

First, a prior component of ‘feasibility’ is required for the
technical phases. The feasibility phase is concerned with
establishing whether the requirement for e-learning is likely
to meet the needs of the student and the customer, and
whether it is likely to meet the financial and organisational
constraints of the e-learning project. In short, the feasibility
phase asks ‘Is this worth doing?’ The addition of the
feasibility phase gives the six basic phases of an e-learning
project, as shown in Figure 3.2.
Second, project management and quality management
phases need to be added to complete the ELSYE model.
Project management and quality management activities
occur throughout an e-learning project, so these are shown
as running in parallel with the technical phases in Figure 3.3.
Quality management is considered to ‘embrace’ the entire

Figure 3.2 The basic ELSYE model technical phases

Feasibility Analysis Design Construction Operation Evaluation

14
 Project development framework

Figure 3.3 Overview of the complete ELSYE project

Technical activities

Project management

Quality management

project, so this component is shown as covering both project

management and the technical activities.
The phases of a complete ELSYE project are shown in
Figure 3.4, which expands upon the overview of Figure 3.3.
This figure is the ‘standard icon’ of the principles of
e-learning systems engineering, and expresses a summary of
these principles. The remainder of the text is devoted to
amplifying and explaining them.
There is nothing particularly new in this ELSYE model.
Other authors (e.g. Dick et al., 2004; Gery, 1987) have
proposed similar models, and reviews have identified 80 or
more other variants. The ELSYE model has strong
similarities to the ADDIE model (Molenda, 2003), which is
said to exist in over 100 variants. What is important,
however, is to note that the ELSYE model is very similar to
those used in the systems analysis and design of information
systems. This similarity serves to inform the practice of
ELSYE with the experience and best practice of one of the

Figure 3.4 ELSYE phases

Feasibility Analysis Design Construction Operation Evaluation

Project management

Quality management

15
Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering

largest international industries currently operating in the

world, that of information technology and systems
development. In the discipline of software engineering, the
common systems analysis and design model (e.g. Pressman,
2004) is illustrated in Figure 3.5 in a way that brings out its
similarities to the ELSYE process of Figure 3.4.
The simple (SSADM) model of software engineering of
Figure 3.5 is known to have a number of deficiencies, and
hence has been improved and elaborated in a variety of
ways. The most important of these improvements has been
the provision of checkpoints or reviews at the beginning and
end of each of the stages, to ensure the project remains on
course and under control (Boehm, 1981). Similarly, the
simple linear ELSYE model’s technical phases of ‘feasibility’,
‘analysis’, ‘design’, ‘construction’, ‘operation’ and
‘evaluation’ require improvement, and this is addressed in
the chapters which deal with these phases individually.
Within the phases of Figure 3.4 there are various activities
that can be conveniently assembled into stages. These are
introduced in Figure 3.6. Most of the project technical
phases involve two stages of technical work. The technical
stages are numbered for reference. Each of the project stages
is shown as being enclosed by project management and
quality management activities, as well as the project as a
whole. These project and quality management activities are
mentioned in Figure 3.8; more detail is provided in Chapters
14 and 15.

Figure 3.5 Software engineering development model

based on SSADM

Systems analysis Design Program Operate

System Detailed Maintain and

Requirements Business Code and System Install and
architectural module
specification options unit test test train enhance
design design

16
 Project development framework

Figure 3.6 ELSYE project technical stages

Feasibility Analysis Design Construction Operation Evaluation

0 1 3
Feasibility Front-end Initial 5 7 9
Report Analysis Design Production Distribution Evaluation

2 4
Project Detailed 6 8
Plan Design Pilot Use

Project Management

Quality Management

The technical stages are elaborated in Figures 3.7 and 3.8

to show the technical steps that make up the stages. The
specific details of the activities of each step are covered in
Chapters 5–13.
While considering the ELSYE project structures illustrated
in the preceding figures, it is important to note that there are
a variety of feedback paths which are not shown on these
diagrams. These feedback paths are presented and discussed
in detail in the relevant chapters. Figure 3.8 shows in detail
the forward paths between the ELSYE steps of project
development.
It is also important to note that whether any particular
stage of an ELSYE project is instantiated in any e-learning
project will generally depend upon the nature and scale of
the project. For example, a small e-learning project
involving ten minutes’ study time, developed by a single
lecturer, would not require a feasibility report or a project
plan, whereas a set of learning objects covering 50 hours of
study time, intended for commercial distribution and
developed by a team of consultant designers, graphic artists
and courseware programmers, would probably require

17
 Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering
Figure 3.7 ELSYE project steps

Feasibility Analysis Design Construction Operation Evaluation

0 Feasibility 1 Front-end 3 Initial 5 Production 7 Distribution 9 Evaluation

Report Analysis Design

System diagram Audience analysis Materials Packaging plan Evaluation instruments

Needs assessment Task analysis Enabling objectives Video Distribution plan Evaluation report
Preliminary Top-level objectives Content outline Audio Instructor training
management Instructional concept Student test Graphics Installation
assessment Project and quality Media and methods Text
management Technical, presentation Programs
standards and design standards Alpha test
18

2 Project 4 Detailed 6 Pilot 8 Use

Plan Design

Risk management plan Instructional transactions Validation Maintenance and

Options and alternatives Lesson plan, Beta test enhancement plans
Schedule and budget storyboards and scripts
Cost-benefit analysis Course management
Impact analysis Prototypes
Evaluability design

Project Management
Schedule Budget Change control Risk

Quality Management
Client involvement Inspection Testing Standards Metrics Improvement plans
 Project development framework

extensive documentation of all stages within the project.

This point is discussed in more detail below.
To bring the discussion fully within current terminology,
the ELSYE project structure discussed so far will now be
called the ELSYE project life cycle, as shown in Figure 3.9.
The ELSYE project life cycle provides for six technical
phases. Within these phases there are ten technical stages,
and each of the stages comprises a number of steps. When
each step is discussed in subsequent chapters, it will be made
up of tasks. This terminology follows that of Business
Systems Development (the latest version of SSADM4+
developed by its author, the UK Central Computer &
Telecommunications Agency).
Table 3.1 shows the breakdown of the ELSYE technical
stages into their corresponding steps. The steps are described
and characterised as ‘deliverables’ or ‘products’. While the
ELSYE phases and stages represent the processes of
development, the steps represent the products of
development, those physical documents or materials that
result from the tasks carried out in each step. In particular, the
detailed discussions in the remainder of this text will focus on
the tasks required in each step to construct the step’s product
(also called its deliverable, short for deliverable product), and
on the techniques that are used in these tasks to achieve the
step’s purpose. ELSYE involves a number of e-learning design
and development techniques, most of which are used in more
than one task. These techniques, such as interactivity design,
are discussed with the tasks where they first occur.
Throughout the text the ELSYE stage diagrams illustrate
the linkages between the steps within each stage, and the
linkages with previous stages and steps. Figure 3.10 shows the
general structure of these stage diagrams, using the detailed
design stage as an example. Each task is shown in the
probable sequence it will be undertaken within the stage by
reading from left to right, and from top to bottom. Most tasks

19
Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering

Figure 3.8 The full ELSYE life cycle: stages, steps and
forward paths

Feasibility

SD
Front-end
Analysis
Initial
NA Design
TLO

EO
AA

PMA
ST
TA

M&M
ELC
VTC
TPD
PQM
CO
VOS

Project
Plan

RMP

O&A

S&B

CBA

IA

Project and Quality

Management Prep Devt Rev PM

20
 Project development framework

SD System diagram EO Enabling objectives

NA Needs analysis ST Student test
PMA Preliminary management M&M Media and methods
assessment TPD Technical, presentation
TLO Top-level objectives and design standards
AA Audience analysis CO Content outline
TA Task analysis VOS AV outline script
ELC E-learning concept
VTC AV treatment concept LT Learning transactions
PQM Project and quality LP Lesson plan
management standards VFS AV final script
CMD Course management design
PT Prototypes
ED Evaluability design

Detailed
Design

Production
LT

LP Mat

VFS Vpre
Vprod
CMD Vpost

Pilot
PT
P&I

ED Val
AT

BT

Mat Materials
Vpre AV pre-production
Val Validation
Vprod AV production
BT Beta test
Vpost AV post-production
P&I Programs and integration
AT Alpha test Prep Preparation
Devt Development
RMP Risk management plan Rev Review
O&A Options and alternatives PM Post-mortem
S&B Schedule and budget
CBA Cost-benefit analysis
IA Impact analysis

21
 Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering
Figure 3.9 ELSYE project terminology

Phases Stages Steps

Feasibility Analysis Design Construction Operation Evaluation

0 Feasibility 1 Front-end 3 Initial 5 Production 7 Distribution 9 Evaluation

report analysis design

System diagram Audience analysis Enabling objectives Materials Packaging plan Evaluation instruments
Needs assessment Task analysis Content outline Video Distribution plan Evaluation report
Preliminary Top-level objectives Student test Audio Instructor training
management Instructional concept Media and methods Graphics Installation
assessment Project and quality Technical, presentation Text
22

management and design standards Programs

standards Alpha test
Project
life cycle 2 Project 4 Detailed 6 Pilot 8 Use
plan design

Risk management plan Instructional transactions Validation Maintenance and

Options and alternatives Lesson plan, Beta test enhancement plans
Schedule and budget storyboards and scripts
Cost-benefit analysis Course management
Impact analysis Prototypes
Evaluability design

Project management
Schedule Budget Change control Risk
Quality management

Client involvement Inspection Testing Standards Metrics Improvement plans

 Table 3.1 ELSYE stages and steps

Stage Steps
FR SD NA PMA
Feasibility System diagram Needs analysis Preliminary
report management
assessment
FEA AA PQM TA TLO ELC/VTC
Front-end Audience analysis Project and quality Task/content Top-level E-learning
analysis management analysis objectives concept/AV
standards treatment concept
23

PP S&B CBA O&A IA RMP

Project plan Schedule and budget Cost-benefit analysis Options and Impact analysis Risk management

Project development framework

alternatives plan
ID EO CO/VOS ST TPD M&M
Initial design Enabling objectives Content outline/AV Student test Technical, Media and
outline script presentation and methods
design standards
DD LT LP/VFS CMD PT ED
Detailed E-learning Lesson plans, Course management Prototypes Evaluability design
design transactions storyboards and design
scripts/AV final
script
 Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering
Table 3.1 ELSYE stages and steps (Cont’d)

Stage Steps
Production AV pre-production, Materials (graphics, P&I AT
production, text) Programs and Alpha test
post-production integration

Pilot Val BT
24

Validation Beta test

Distribution Packaging plan Distribution plan User training Installation

plan plan

Use User support plan Enhancement Maintenance

plan plan

Evaluation Evaluation materials Evaluation plan Evaluation Evaluation

results report
 Project development framework

Figure 3.10 ELSYE stage diagrams

Previous Task Stage Major feed-

stage input(s) forward
input(s) paths
Initial
Design

Detailed Design

CO VOS LP VOS
LT

LT VFS
Learning AV Final
Transactions LP
Lesson CMD LP Script
Plan CMD
Course Mgmt
Design CBA IA
Previous
PT
stage
Prototypes
feedbacks
ED
Evaluability
Design

Front-end
Analysis
Initial Major Stage
Design feedback tasks
paths

have feed-forward paths – identifying those tasks that follow

on – and feedback paths – identifying those earlier tasks that
might require review and revisiting following the work of the
current task. Only the expected major feed-forward and
feedback paths are shown, rather than every possible path.
The point of showing these paths is to indicate explicitly that
ELSYE project development is an inherently iterative activity
rather than a perfectly linear one.
Some tasks are not explicitly linked, indicating that work
can probably be undertaken in parallel on these tasks.
Most tasks have their input illustrated, coming either from
earlier tasks in the current stage or previous tasks in earlier
stages.

The ELSYE life cycle as risk management

The ELSYE life cycle is ‘nothing but’ sound management
theory. In general, the ELSYE life-cycle processes should be

25
Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering

seen as tools of risk management rather than as prescriptive

approaches to e-learning systems development. From this
perspective, the question of whether and how to undertake
and document front-end analysis, for example, is a question
of balancing the risks of inadequate analysis and its
documentation versus the possibly excessive costs of such
analysis and documentation within a given project, rather
than any question of what ought to be done according to
some abstract principle of ‘quality’ or ‘best practice’ in
project development.
There are other models of an e-learning development life
cycle that may suit particular circumstances, in the same
way as there are other models of software engineering. A
useful survey of software engineering models is provided by
Avison and Fitzgerald (2006); very little extrapolation is
needed to apply any of these alternatives to e-learning
systems development.
One particularly interesting alternative is called the
‘handcuff’ model, and is illustrated in Figure 3.11. In this
model there is no attempt to specify separate analysis or
design stages, and no requirement for independent
documentation or formal quality assurance. The model
describes an iteration through the activities of the customer
stating what is required, the technician building something
to meet the customer’s requirements and the two jointly
using the results to develop the required product further.
What this model captures is that the technical designer is
‘handcuffed’ to the customer until such time as a satisfactory
end product emerges from their collaboration. At first sight
the handcuff model may seem laughably trivial, but for
smaller e-learning projects it may be particularly effective.
The project management skills demanded of all parties by
operating such a model are, however, considerable.

26
 Project development framework

Figure 3.11 ‘Handcuff’ model for e-learning development

Requirements Design and

build

Explore/
check

Subject matter Technician

expert (customer) (designer/programmer)

ELSYE stages relevant to various

kinds of materials
The engineering of e-learning systems as presented in the
text is focused on the design and production of e-learning
for education and training. It is also useful for the design
and production of other kinds of material where there is
some information that needs to be provided for specified
purposes, and in these cases there are some aspects of
ELSYE design that are not necessary.
For example, the difference between informational
materials and e-learning materials might be due to the fact
that e-learning materials are characteristically designed to
require the student to demonstrate their knowledge and
skills, to give feedback to the student on their performance
and to test or examine the student on their understanding.

27
Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering

None of these three pedagogical components typically

applies to informational materials, and hence no design
effort is needed on these components when developing such
materials.
For the purposes of the following discussion, materials
can be considered as lying along a dimension that could be
called ‘intentional instruction’, which is the degree to which
the materials are intended to have pedagogical purposes.
Starting with negligible or insignificant overt pedagogical
purposes, the dimension begins with ‘entertainment’, such as
a historical novel or a film dramatisation. The next category
is ‘edutainment’, an awkward term sometimes applied to
computer games which have some educational component;
followed by ‘information presentation’, where there is a
strong intention to convey information which the audience
presumably needs to know. Finally, there are ‘education’ and
‘training’, both of which have the strongest pedagogical
intent of all the materials considered.
Table 3.2 cross-references the various kinds of materials
against the ELSYE phases and stages which would be
involved in their development. The table shows, considered
broadly, that the ELSYE phases of feasibility, analysis,
construction and operation are relevant to all forms of
materials, and only the design phase may vary. Within the
design phase, the stages of initial design and detailed design
may vary according to the steps of these stages shown to be
relevant. For example, entertainment materials do not
characteristically require enabling objectives, and
entertainment, ‘edutainment’ and informational materials
do not characteristically require student test items. Readers
with a particular interest in business presentations or
website design may note that, with the exception of student
test items, the whole of ELSYE is usually relevant to their
enterprise. Within the details of the steps there may be

28
 Project development framework

Table 3.2 ELSYE stages relevant to various materials’

development

Degree of intentional instruction

Information
Entertainment Edutainment presentation Education Training
Examples of Historical Computer Documentary Course on Course
materials novel, film game, film, CD-ROM ‘European on
dramatisation simulation encyclopaedia, history ‘Learning
website, 1919– to drive’
business 1939’
presentation
ELSYE
stages





Feasibility
report, front-
end analysis,
project plan,
production,
pilot,
distribution,
use,
evaluation

Initial design
Enabling –




objectives
Content –/





outline
Media and





methods
Student test – – –


Technical





standards
Detailed
design
E-learning –/
–/




transactions
Lesson plans,





storyboards
and scripts

29
Principles of E-learning Systems Engineering

Table 3.2 ELSYE stages relevant to various materials’

development (Cont’d)

Degree of intentional instruction

Information
Entertainment Edutainment presentation Education Training
Course – – –/
–/
–/

management
Prototypes/





samples
Evaluability –/
–/
–/



design
Key

ELSYE stage usually required for these materials
– ELSYE stage not usually required for these materials
– /
ELSYE stage sometimes required for these materials

further differences according to the kinds of materials under

development, and these are discussed in the chapters
relevant to each step. For example, the form of the lesson
storyboard that is appropriate to website materials is
somewhat different from that appropriate to e-learning
materials, though in both cases some form of storyboarding
is normally required.

30
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