RESEARCH ARTICLES

Shear sense analysis of the Higher Himalayan

Crystalline Belt and tectonics of the South
Tibetan Detachment System, Alaknanda–
Dhauli Ganga valleys, Uttarakhand Himalaya
M. Shreshtha1, A. K. Jain2,* and Sandeep Singh1
1
Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee 247 667, India
2
CSIR-Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee 247 667, India

the northeast, the Higher Himalayan Crystalline (HHC)

In the central parts of Uttarakhand Himalaya, more
than 20 km thick homoclinally NE-dipping Higher Belt and its Tethyan cover in the middle and the Jutogh
Himalayan Crystalline (HHC) Belt is thrust over the nappe (the Lesser Himalayan metamorphic nappes) in the
Lesser Himalaya Sedimentary Belt along the Main south.
Central Thrust (MCT), and is almost continuously The STDS was first recognized in southern Tibet
exposed between Helang and Malari along the within the contractional Himalayan orogen, having top-
Alaknanda and Dhauli Ganga valleys. The upper con- to-north downward movement sense in contrast to the
tact of this belt with the Martoli Formation of the southward thrusting along the MCT6,7. Since then it has
Tethyan Himalayan Sequence is demarcated by the been documented almost everywhere along the strike of
South Tibetan Detachment System (STDS). The belt is the Himalayan belt from western Himalaya to Nepal and
ubiquitously marked by small-scale asymmetrical Bhutan4,8–19. Initially, it was also identified as a thrust by
structures like S–C and S–C foliation, porphyroclasts
the Chinese researchers20.
and porphyroblasts, mineral fishes, intrafolial folds,
duplex structures, ductile–brittle shear zones, and The STDS corresponds to a series of north-dipping
asymmetric shear boudins. Sense of ductile to brittle– structures accommodating top-to-north normal motion of
ductile shearing has been determined from these the Tethyan Himalayan Sequence (THS) in southern
structures across the whole belt, the MCT and the Tibet with respect to the underlying HHC Belt 6,10. The
STDS, and reveals two phases of shear deformation: STDS is also known as the Zanskar Shear Zone9, Rohtang
(a) an older top-to-SW upwards phase throughout the Shear Zone15, Trans-Himadri Fault21,22, Dar-Martoli Fault23
HHC, having an overall thrust geometry (DS1), and and North Himalayan Normal Fault 24. The description of
(b) a younger superposed top-to-NE downwards phase the Zanskar Shear Zone as a NE-dipping normal fault by
with normal fault sense from the middle to upper Herren9 is similar to the faults in southern Tibet6. How-
parts (DS2). These shear senses provide invaluable ever, it also exhibits both ductile and brittle shear senses
constraints on various tectonic models currently in use
with top-to-southwest overthrust and top-to-northeast
for the evolution of the Himalayan metamorphics.
normal sense of movements11,25, separating the highly
metamorphosed Zanskar metamorphics from the overly-
Keywords: Higher Himalayan Crystalline Belt, shear ing slightly metamorphosed late Precambrian to Early
structures, tectonic models. Cambrian Phe Formation9.
In southern Tibet, normal slip has occurred on several
T HE India–Asia convergence since ~55 Ma has remobi- parallel low-dipping structures along the STDS that
lized and deformed the Proterozoic crust along the north- exhibit from top to bottom: (i) a few brittle normal faults
ern margin of the erstwhile Indian subcontinent and in the THS, (ii) a detachment between THS and the un-
dismembered it into numerous tectonic zones of regional derlying metamorphic belt, and (iii) the STDS ductile
dimensions such as the South Tibet Detachment System shear zone at the top of the HHC, having highly deformed
(STDS), Main Central Thrust (MCT), Vaikrita Thrust gneisses with NE-trending lineation and numerous shear
(VT), Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and Main Frontal structures indicating normal slip26.
Thrust (MFT)1–5. This crust presently occurs as an exten- The extension associated with the STDS was initially
sive Himalayan Metamorphic Belt (HMB) as a conse- attributed to gravitational collapse of the Himalayan topo-
quence of an initial continental subduction to produce graphic front during crustal thickening8,10,27. The STDS
ultrahigh pressure Tso Morari Crystalline (TMC) Belt in and MCT are used to model the movement of the HHC
either as a (i) southward-moving crustal wedge6,8,12,13,28,29,
*For correspondence. (e-mail: [email protected]) or (ii) defining the base and top of a low-viscosity channel
CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 108, NO. 6, 25 MARCH 2015 1107
RESEARCH ARTICLES
flow expelled from beneath the Tibetan plateau within the (Figure 1). Though lithological, structural and isotopic
lower crust30,31, or (iii) accommodating the southward ex- criteria have been used to decipher whether the MT or
trusion of the HHC32–34. VT defines the actual MCT1,35,40–44, according to the pre-
This article documents various ductile and brittle– sent authors the southernmost boundary of this metamor-
ductile shear structures across one of the most accessible phic belt, defining the most distinct boundary, should be
and continuous cross-sections of the HHC between the treated as the MCT, as was originally defined by Heim
MCT at the base and the STDS at its top along the and Gansser35.
Alaknanda–Dhauli Ganga valleys in the central part of The lowermost parts of the HHC contain a highly
the Uttarakhand Himalaya. These structures are then ana- imbricated and mylonitized Paleoproterozoic low to
lysed in deciphering shear movements across the HHC medium-grade Munsiari Group of rocks of dominant
and the role of the STDS in the overall tectonic model. mylonitic augen gneiss (207Pb/206Pb zircon age of 1848 
5 Ma from Jharkula, about 10 km west of Joshimath on
the main Rishikesh–Joshimath road and 1830  6 Ma age
Geological setting
from Tapovan (Locality 7) 44 ) and fine-grained biotite-rich
gneiss, garnetiferous mica schist, phyllonite, sheared am-
Along the Alaknanda–Dhauli Ganga valleys of central
phibolite and a persistent imbricated horizon of sericite-
Uttarakhand Himalaya, the HHC Belt represents more
bearing sheared and foliated quartzite; the latter bears a
than 20 km thick homoclinal NE-dipping crystalline core
strong lithological resemblance with the Lesser Himala-
of the orogen, bounded by the MCT at its base, and the
yan Berinag Group quartzite (Figure 1 a). It is likely to
STDS1,2,18,22,35–41 near its top (Figure 1 a). This belt is
have been incorporated within the basement Munsiari-
thrust southwards over the very low-grade metamor-
type of rocks due to imbricated Lesser Himalayan rocks.
phosed Proterozoic Lesser Himalayan sedimentary belt
The overlying Vaikrita Group is divided into three forma-
(LH) at its base along the MCT, as was originally recog-
tions: (i) the lower Joshimath Formation of garnetiferous
nized by Heim and Gansser 35 in this very section.
biotite–muscovite schist and psammitic gneiss, (ii) the
Two thrusts bound an imbricated Munsiari Group
middle Suraithota Formation containing banded and
of rocks within the MCT ductile shear zone at the base of
flaggy psammitic gneiss, kyanite–garnet–biotite gneiss/
the HHC: the Munsiari Thrust (MT) at its lowermost part
schist and amphibolite, and (iii) the upper Bhapkund
of the section and the Vaikrita Thrust (VT) at the top
Formation of sillimanite (fibrolite)–kyanite–garnet–biotite
gneiss/schist, psammitic gneiss/schist with pervasive
migmatite, concordant to discordant pegmatite veins and
small, tourmaline-rich leucogranite lenses/dykes and the
Malari leucogranite. Structural control on five distinct
phases of melt accumulation has been identified in this
formation where stromatite layers and concordant leu-
cogranite bands, paralleling the main foliation Sm, mark
the oldest migmatite phase Me1 (ref. 41). Superposed
Me2, Me3 and Me5 younger melt phases are along small-
scale ductile thrusts, extensional fabric and structureless
patches respectively, while the Me4 melting phase is only
evidenced by large-scale migration along cross-cutting
irregular veins as possible melt conduits for migration
and accumulation into larger leucogranite bodies like the
Malari granite (19.0  0.5 Ma)39. Within the HHC, the
Malari leucogranite is a narrow and poorly exposed body,
which is unmappable on 1 : 50,000 scale. About 200 m
wide exposure of deformed megacrystic granite gneiss
occurs between the Malari village and a bridge on
the road approaching the village, and is intruded by leu-
cogranite small sills and dykes 39.

Figure 1. a, Geological map of the Higher Himalayan Crystalline

Belt along the Alaknanda–Dhauli Ganga Valleys. (Source: authors’ ob- Martoli Formation
servations and published literature.) b, Orientation data of 41 lineations
developed on main foliation S m plotted equal area projection using The basal THS is best exposed around the village Malari
GEOrient. c, Orientation data of 138 main foliation S m, plotted on equal as the Martoli Formation, which dominantly contains
area projection using GEOrient. Location of photographs used in this
article are shown as latitude and longitude, and our original field loca-
grayish-green slate and quartzite. Overall dip of the Mar-
tions in bracket. toli is due N-to-NE.

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Figure 2. Characters of various kinds of foliations from the HHC. a, Tight fold on psammite/pelite alternations
S0/S1 (lithological banding) and development of intense axial plane foliation S2 near Helang. Loc.
1: 303142 : 793203 (RM 45). Scale: Hammer head. b, S–C and C shear fabrics within schist of the Munsiari
Thrust zone near Helang. Note top-to-SW upwards thrust geometry of planes. Top of photograph points SW. Loc.
2: 303140 : 793008 (RM 36). c, Idealized diagram of S–C and C shear fabric and angle  between S and C
planes. d, Measurements of angle  (n = 132) within the MCT thrust zone. Distance measured from surface trace
of the Munsiari Thrust.

Shear sense indicators within the HHC on earlier S1–S2 and/or C-foliation, axial plane crenula-
tion foliation (S3) and L3 mineral lineation are developed
The HHC incorporates a very large component of late parallel to the Himalayan orogen; the F3 folds sometimes
Paleoproterozoic metamorphics44 and relict structures produce very large folds in Zanskar and Himachal
such as rare, isolated, tight and ‘flame-type’ F1 folds on Pradesh. Kink bands, tension gashes, slickensides and
lithological banding and/or metamorphic layering (S0), joints are developed on earlier foliations during D4
representing the D1 deformation phase15. However, the deformation. One of the important features of the D4
most prominent, intense and widespread deformation D2 event is the presence of large-scale open and upright
is characterized by penetrative foliation (S2), which cross-folds that produce culminations and depressions,
parallels the axial surfaces of tight to isoclinal reclined to and control outcrop patterns of many tectonic units.
recumbent F2 folds on S0/S1 foliation (Figure 2 a). In the As a consequence of non-coaxial deformation within
absence of fold hinges of these folds, all these foliations the whole HHC belt along the Alaknanda–Dhauli Ganga
become indistinguishable from each other and are valleys from Helong to Malari–Niti, a number of asym-
grouped as the main foliation (Sm; Figure 1 b). Like other metric, small-scale deformational structures provide
parts of the HHC in NW Himalaya, the S2 foliation has extremely useful and invaluable information regarding
undergone extreme flow due to ductile shearing and the direction of tectonic transport and evolution of this
becomes essentially a composite S–C planar shear fabric belt. Most useful shear sense indicators in this belt are the
with regional NW–SE trend and NE dips11,45 (Figure 2 b). S–C and S–C fabrics, asymmetric porphyroclasts and
Measurements of angle between S and C planes indicate porphyroblasts, mineral fishes, asymmetric boudins and
that it decreases from 45 to 15 within the MCT shear duplex-type shear zones. From the asymmetry of the struc-
zone (Figure 2 c and d). This superposed ductile shearing tures shear sense was determined in the field and from ori-
along the S2 foliation has resulted in transposition and ented thin sections in planes perpendicular to the main
obliteration of all the earlier planar structures. Extensive foliation and paralleling the stretching lineation (XZ plane).
flow within the HHC has developed a prominent L2
stretching lineation (Figure 1 c). Such a deformation pat-
tern is not only confined to the HHC, but extends to the S–C and S–C foliation
STDS, the overlying THS cover to the Proterozoic base-
ment, the MT and VT zones, and footwall of the Lesser Shear bands or C-surfaces are shear foliation that tran-
Himalayan Sedimentary Zone11,15,46–48. sects a well-developed simultaneous foliation S at a small
During subsequent superposed D3 deformational phase, angle, and the combined texture is called a shear band
close to isoclinal recumbent to gently inclined F3 folds foliation or S–C foliation/fabric49,50 (Figures 2 and 3).
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The S-surfaces become sigmoidal in character and gradu- Porphyroclasts
ally deflect near the C-surfaces paralleling the main shear
zone. Sense of shear is determined from acute angle Relict, more rigid porphyroclasts within the HHC of these
between the S- and C-foliations (Figures 2 c and 3 a and valleys consist of a central sigmoidal-shaped single crystal
b). Within the HHC S–C fabrics are developed both in the within highly sheared, fine-grained, foliated matrix
granite mylonite and psammitic gneiss/schist where C- (Figures 3 a and 4 a). They typically develop from more
fabric is superposed upon the S-fabric and both are dis- resistant feldspar in a strongly foliated quartz, feldspar
tinguishable (Figure 3 a). At other places within the MCT and mica matrix in sheared granite mylonite. During the
zone, the C-fabric dominates over the S-fabric or folia- course of deformation, the porphyroclasts develop asym-
tion is mainly marked by C-plane with S-plane denoting metric recrystallized tails showing stair-stepping geome-
the pre-existing foliation (Figure 3 a). try (Figure 3 a). The most common is -type, whose
C-foliation, described originally as C-bands51 or asymmetry and stair-stepping define the shear sense
extensional crenulation cleavage (ecc)52, is observed (Figures 3 a and 4 a). Rarely -type tails are also seen;
within the HHC as oblique discrete bands causing both of them are useful in shear sense determination.
sigmoidal curvature of S-planes. C-planes make angles
of 15–35 with the main C-shears (Figure 2 a and b). Porphyroblasts
These are usually later than the S–C-fabric and more
weakly developed, shorter and wavy than the C-planes. Syntectonically growing, asymmetrical garnet and feld-
One set of C-shears is commonly developed at low angle spar porphyroblasts are recorded from the kyanite-
and exhibits the same sense of movement as the C-shears bearing garnetiferous mica gneiss/schist of the Suraithota
(synthetic) or may also show opposite dip (antithetic) and and Bhapkund Formations within the HHC, while migma-
shear sense as the C-shears. tite from the latter formation contains porphyroblastic
feldspar (Figure 4 b–d). Reaction rims of mafic and feld-
spar–quartz mineral aggregates in the Bhapkund Formation
of the HHC may be classified as mantled porphyroblasts
(Figure 4 d), having sigmoidal inclusion trails of other
minerals, and are themselves bounded by the S–C folia-
tion.
Sigmoidal shapes of numerous quartz and mica inclu-
sion trails, trapped inside the porphyroblasts during their
growth and simultaneous rotation, provide the evidences
of top-to-SW (thrust) shear sense.

Mineral fish

The HHC exhibits numerous instances of asymmetrical,

elongate, sigma-shaped mineral fish in a fine-grained
matrix along these valleys (Figure 5 a and b). The most
commonly observed fishes are of feldspar, quartz and
white mica (Figure 5 a and b)50. Mica fishes are lenticular
in shape and belong to Group 1 and Group 2 (ref. 53; Fig-
ure 5 b). Rarely, asymmetrical garnet porphyroblasts also
form elongate fishes (Figure 4 b).
At places lenticular polycrystalline aggregates of fine
mica flakes preserving an earlier shear fabric form the
fishes (Figure 5 c); these are designated as foliation fish
or tectonic fish.

Duplex structure
Figure 3. S–C and C shear fabric/foliation as top-to-SW (thrust)
shear sense indicators from the HHC metamorphic. a, S–C and C
shears within the porphyroclastic granite mylonite of the MCT zone of
Rare duplex structures are observed within the HHC,
the Munsiari Group west of Tapovan along the Dhak Nala. Loc. 7: where low-angle floor and roof thrusts linked by ramps
303128 : 793728 (RM 68). Scale: Width of photograph is 12 cm. bound ‘lozenge’-shaped rock masses due to overlapping
b, Schist of the Munsiari Thrust zone (MCT) near Helang with subpar-
allel S–C fabric. Loc. 3: 303132 : 793030 (RM 35). Scale: Width
characters of thrust surfaces (Figure 5 d). Duplex struc-
of photograph is about 20 cm. tures of both the contractional and extensional regimes
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Figure 4. Asymmetrical porphyroclast and porphyroblast systems in the HHC showing top-to-SW upward
thrust shear sense. a, Large feldspar porphyroclast within granite mylonite of the Munsiari Group, MCT zone,
west of Tapovan along the Dhak Nala. S–C shear fabric is also seen having same shear sense. Loc. 7:
303128 : 793728 (RM 68). Scale: Photograph width is about 10 cm. b, Winged garnet porphyroblast in silli-
manite–kyanite–garnet gneiss within Bhapkund Formation after crossing the Bhapkund bridge. Loc. 15:
304015 : 795010 (RM 10). Scale: 1 cm. c, Tailed garnet porphyroblast in kyanite–garnet gneiss within the
Suraithota Formation at Vishnuprayag. Loc. 6: 303354 : 793436 (RM 48). Scale: 2 cm. d, Garnet porphyro-
blasts with asymmetrical rim of feldspar-quartz in the Bhapkund Formation of the HHC near Bhapkund. Loc. 11:
303931 : 79500 (RM 95). Scale: Photograph width is about 8 cm.

Figure 5. a, b, Photomicrographs of the feldspar, quartz and muscovite fishes from the mylonitized gneiss of
the HHC along the STDS at Timarsain. Loc. 21: 304547 : 795100 (RM 20). c, Foliation fish formed by iso-
lated lens-shaped polycrystalline mica aggregates preserving an earlier shear fabric from the MCT zone near
Helang. Loc. 1: 303137 : 793000 (RM 34). Scale: 4 cm. d, Duplex structure having top-to-SW shear sense in
mica schist of the MCT zone near Helang. Loc. 4: 303152 : 793147 (RM 39). Scale: Width of photograph:
1 m.

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were observed; the former are located within the MCT (Figure 7 b). On the contrary, extensional ductile shear
zone, while the latter are seen within the STDS zone. zones reveal top-to-NE downward movements within
migmatite of the upper parts of the Bhapkund Formation,
and also contain leucogranite melt (Figure 7 c). The
Intrafolial folds within ductile shear zones
STDS is marked by steep NE-dipping steeper brittle–
ductile shear zones with top-to-NE sense of movement
Several kinds of folds characterize the ductile shear zones
(normal) near the northernmost exposure of the HHC
within the HHC and are useful in determining their shear
(Figure 7 d).
sense. Of these, intrafolial asymmetrical folds are most
common (Figure 6), and develop due to folding of the
pre-existing layers and their transposition during ductile Asymmetric shear boudins
shearing. When combined with other criteria, these
become a strong tool for deciphering the shear sense Rectangular or lozenge-shaped asymmetric boudins, dis-
within the HHC. placed by interboudin surfaces at regular intervals55,
Non-cylindrical sheath folds with strongly curved and characterize the HHC in these valleys. The boudins are
bent back hinges54 also characterize the ductile shear developed in interbedded rocks of less competent
zones within the HHC, especially the MCT zone. The leucogranite and more competent hard gneiss (country
interlimb angle is highly reduced, and hinges of the folds rocks) or on quartz veins within pelitic–psammite
are bent like the shape of a ‘hanger’. The convexity of the sequences with both top-to-SW (thrust) shear sense (Fig-
bent axis points to the direction of shearing and appears ure 8 a) and top-to-NE (normal) shear sense (Figure 8 b).
to have evolved due to lateral variations of ductile flow. Both symmetrical and asymmetrical boudins have been
Planar outcrop patterns are highly variable from almost identified across the HHC.
circular to elliptical.
V-pull-aparts
Ductile and brittle–ductile shear zones
In the upper parts of the HHC some rare garnet porphy-
Within the HHC of these valleys, isolated ductile to brit- roblasts are marked by filled ‘V’-shaped gaping cracks,
tle–ductile shear zones are superposed on all the planar which are asymmetrically oriented and taper downwards
structures and display their own shear fabric, which (Figure 9 a). Individual grains still remain intact, but
deflects the earlier one into contractional or extensional smaller fragments appear to have moved upwards, and
modes. Of interest are the top-to-SW upwards thrust-type provide indisputable evidence of top-to-SW (thrust) shear
ductile shear zones within the STDS. These make the sense56.
axial surfaces of tight to isoclinal folds and transpose the
axial surfaces of older, tight to isoclinally folded fabric
Asymmetrical folds
into a new shear fabric (Figure 7 a). At many localities
quartz veins are sheared by NE-dipping top-to-SW thrust-
The whole of the HHC displays a variety of F2/F3 folds
type shear zones branching up from the main foliation
whose asymmetry reveal top-to-SW upwards shear sense
in the lower parts. However, the upper part of the HHC,
mainly in the Bhapkund Formation, is characterized by
asymmetrical tight to isoclinal folds whose vergence
changes and indicates top-to-NE downwards shear sense
(Figure 9 b).

Structures of the South Tibetan Detachment

System

The STDS separates the low-grade Martoli Formation of

the THS from the high-grade Bhapkund Formation of the
HHC (Figures 1 and 10). Near Malari, it consists of a 1–
2 km wide ductile shear zone with typical fine-grained
mylonite/ultramylonite and is overprinted by discrete
brittle–ductile and brittle fracture zones that dip variably
Figure 6. Intrafolial asymmetric folds within the MCT zone, and are 0.5–30 m thick (Figure 11).
Alaknanda Valley Garhwal. Note gradual rotation of axial surfaces par-
allel to shear zones. Loc. 5: 303147 : 793203 (RM 45). Scale: Peak metamorphic temperature calculated from
5 cm. mineral equilibria remains nearly constant (800–850C)
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Figure 7. Ductile to brittle–ductile shear zones within the HHC. a, Top-to-SW thrust-type shear zones within
the STDS zone, transposing the older folded fabric along the shear zones before village Kosa. Loc. 14:
304021 : 795019 (RM 9). b, Sheared quartz vein train transposed along NE-dipping top-to-SW thrust-type
shear zones branching up from the main foliation S m. Loc. 8: 302945 : 794300 (RM 58) near Suraithota.
c, Top-to-NE downward shear bands within migmatite, having leucogranite melt near Bhapkund. Loc. 12:
303955 : 795029 (RM 21). Scale: 3 cm. d, Steep NE-dipping brittle–ductile shear zones paralleling the
STDS. Note the sigmoidal bending of the earlier main foliation. Sense of movement is shown by arrows. North of
Malari near Timarsain. Loc. 22: 304600 : 794955 (RM 20A). Scale: Photograph about 10 m.

Figure 8. Asymmetrical shear boudins from the HHC. a, Series of top-to-SW shear boudins in vein quartz embedded in
psammitic schist south of Suraithota. Loc. 8: 302945 : 794300 (RM 58). b, Series of fish-mouth shear boudins in vein
quartz showing top-to-NE (normal) shear sense near Bhapkund Loc. 9: 303614 : 794811 (RM 26).

throughout the HHC up to the STDS. However, peak From the Malari village, a picturesque view of the
metamorphic pressures increase from 12 to 14 kbar 3 km STDS contact between the steeply-dipping HHC and the
above the VT and then decrease to 9 kbar at the STDS40. gentle THS is available and depicts the overall tectonics
Thus, the HHC belt is typically characterized by inverted of this fault (Figure 11 a, b). As one crosses the Malari
metamorphism with development of sillimanite–K- village going further northwestward, one can observe
feldspar gneiss and migmatite in the uppermost parts of normal faults (Figure 11 b, c) and their fault gouge zones
the Bhapkund Formation. and intense pulverization (Figure 11 c) due to brittle
Brittle structures like normal faults and conjugate frac- deformation by the STDS. Extensional shear bands also
tures increase in frequency up section toward the STDS. affect the Martoli Formation and have top-to-NE down-
Most orogen-parallel normal faults strike subparallel to ward normal shear sense (Figure 11 d).
the STDS and have minor displacements (<10 m) with At the Malari village, rocks on the hanging wall of the
mostly top-to-NE downward motion40. extensional STDS acquire listric geometry, especially
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RESEARCH ARTICLES
granite, which exhibits gentle-dipping ‘apparent’ thrust- structures showing the top-to-SW structures remain the
type duplexes, possibly due to rollover antiform as a con- dominant shear fabric and are continuously observed to
sequence of the extensional movements along the STDS be dominant up to Tamak village. Between Tamak (Loca-
to accommodate the space (Figure 11 e (i) and (ii)). Both tion II – 303549N : 794731E) and the next village
types of shear sense indicators were observed within the Juma, the zone contains several folds and flow structures
Malari granite. Close-up observations of the Malari gran- along with the first appearance of leucogranite material.
ite exhibit both older top-to-SW upwards structures over However, shear sense indicators are absent throughout
which the younger top-to-NE downward structures are this narrow zone. After crossing Juma (Location III –
superimposed (Figure 11 e (iii) and inset in (ii)). 30367N : 794818E), kinematic indicators with top-
to-NE shear sense become dominant with the appearance
Observations and discussion of migmatite for the first time. A large migmatite zone is
observed after crossing the next village Jelam; the mig-
The top-to-SW shear sense indicators are ubiquitously matites are ubiquitously distributed up to Malari, but they
present throughout the HHC. However, kinematic indica- are observed to be dominant only in the upper parts of the
tors having exclusively top-to-SW shear sense are Bhapkund Formation. A few relict structures of top-to-
observed within the Munsiari and Joshimath Formations SW shear sense are also observed along with the domi-
and continue till the upper parts of the Suraithota Forma- nant top-to-NE shear fabric between Bhapkund and
tion. Structures showing top-to-NE shear sense first start Malari. Beyond Malari (Location IV – 3040 52N :
appearing in the middle parts of the Suraithota Formation 795320E), i.e. in the Martoli Formation, we observed
somewhere between Suraithota and Tamak at Location I exclusively top-to-NE downward shear sense indicators.
(303412N : 794456E; Figure 12). However, shear On the basis of our field observations and analysis of
the shear sense indicators, the whole HHC has been sub-
divided into the following five zones between Helang and
Ghamsali–Niti, including parts of the LHS and the THS
(Figure 12). The above classification is based on our
shear sense analysis and the simple fact that older phase
ductile shear fabric (DS1) or the top-to-SW shear sense
indicators represent a compressional/contractional envi-
ronment, while the younger ductile shear phase fabric
(DS2) or the top-to-NE shear sense indicators represent

Figure 9. a, ‘V’-pull-apart in garnet from the HHC along the Dhauli

Ganga Valley. Loc.: On Bhapkund–Malari Road. Arrow points top-to-
SW. Loc. 13: 304010 : 795047 (RM 8). Scale: 2 cm. b, Top-to-NE Figure 10. Geological map of the South Tibetan Detachment System
(normal sense) verging folds in upper parts of the HHC south of Jelam. (STDS) between Malari and Niti areas showing distribution of different
Loc. 10: 303822 : 794945 (RM 93). Scale: Pen 13.5 cm. lithologies.

1114 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 108, NO. 6, 25 MARCH 2015

 RESEARCH ARTICLES

(i)

(iii)

(ii)

Figure 11. STDS near Malari. a, Geological map of the STDS showing various structures in its vicinity of Malari.
b, The STDS above Kailashpur, observed rom Malari. Steeply-dipping HHC gneiss (left) is tectonically overlain by gen-
tly-dipping Martoli Formation. Unfilled rectangles indicate small-scale faults. Lines with rectangles are traces of joints.
Loc. 20: 304500 : 795313. c, Normal fault and its fault gouge and breccia within leucogranite due to isolated splay
extensional fault of the STDS. About 4 km from Malari on the Malari–Niti road. Loc. 19: 304232 : 795252 (RM 14).
d, Martoli quartzite deformed by brittle–ductile extensional fault zone near Malari. Loc. 18: 304137 : 795300 (RM
2). Scale: Pen. e (i), Overall fracture pattern in deformed granite with thrusts, normal faults and joints at Malari village.
Loc. 17: 304100 : 795300 (RM A). e (ii), (Inset) Details of subhorizontal thrust. e (iii) Porphyroclastic Malari granite
having asymmetrical megacrysts having top-to-SW (arrow) overthrust sense, and shear bands with top-to-NE downward
shear sense on the road near village Malari Loc. 16: 304057 : 795345 (RM 80). Scale: 5 cm.

an extensional environment. These zones have been tion up to the village Tamak. This zone extends up to
mapped as A to E in Figure 12, while observational approximately 18 km (map distance) from the (VT); TZ
points of their changes in the field are indicated as I to is the zone between the villages Tamak and Juma. It
IV. starts at a distance of 18 km approximately from the VT
(A) Pure contractional zone (PCZ), exhibiting only the and is around 2 km wide; it is the zone starting after the
DS1 top-to-SW shear phase fabric. village Juma up to Malari. This zone accommodates up-
(B) Dominant contractional zone (DCZ), DS2 move- per parts of the Suraithota Formation and the entire
ment planes with top-to-NE shear sense make their first Bhapkund Formation. It starts at a distance of 20 km
appearance, but the DS1 fabric remains dominant. from the VT; PEZ is the zone which accommodates the
(C) Transition zone (TZ) having no DS1 and DS2 shear entire Martoli Formation and starts at a distance of about
sense indicators, but is marked by considerable rock 30 km from the VT (Figure 12).
flowage. Observation of numerous shear sense indicators along
(D) Dominant extensional zone (DEZ), in which the these valleys revealed two phases of ductile shear defor-
DS2 phase shear fabric is dominant over the DS1 phase mation, DS1 and DS2. The later phase DS2 showing top-
shear fabric. to-NE downward shear sense was superposed over the
(E) Pure extensional zone (PEZ) with only the DS2 older phase DS1 showing top-to-SW upward shear sense.
phase shear fabric within the THS. The DS1 indicates that the HHC has been deformed
According to the above classification, the PCZ is the within a broad non-coaxial ductile shear zone of the over-
zone from the upper parts of the LHS up to the middle thrust type with a consistent top-to-SW sense of move-
parts of the Suraithota Formation; DCZ is the zone ment. It also suggests an early deformation history of the
accommodating the upper parts of the Suraithota Forma- HHC involving large-scale SW-verging ductile shearing
CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 108, NO. 6, 25 MARCH 2015 1115
RESEARCH ARTICLES
within the Higher Himalayan Shear Zone (HHSZ), asso- pure Poiseuille (or parabolic) flow between stationary
ciated with the India – Asia continental convergence and rigid plates where horizontal gradients in lithostatic pres-
compressional tectonics11,45. Though it is difficult to sure and frictional resistance along channel boundaries
envisage precise relationship between the ductile shearing produce greatest velocities in its centre with decreasing
within the HHSZ and its movement along the MCT, it is velocities toward the margins, leading to development of
likely that the latter represents a zone of high ductile opposing shear senses, or (iii) a combination of the
strain. The STDS, on the contrary, is associated with two57,58 (see also Godin et al.17; references therein). The
extensional deformation. critical wedge/extrusion models postulate southward
The present work highlights the distribution pattern of extruding metamorphic belt, bounded by the MCT and
various kinematic indicators along the Alaknanda–Dhauli the STDS at the base and the top respectively10,57.
Ganga section and is useful in understanding the evolu- Shear sense indicators from the HHC belt of
tion of the Himalayan metamorphics within a framework the Alaknanda and Dhauli Ganga valleys can only be
of various recent tectonic models like (i) ductile shear- explained by a combination of the pure Couette (or linear)
ing45, (ii) channel flow30,31 and (iii) critical wedge/ flow and pure Poiseuille (or parabolic) flow within either
extrusion10,29,34. The ductile shear model postulates con- a ductile shear zone or a channel, bounded by the MCT
sistent top-to-SW thrust shear sense from various kine- and the STDS, where top-to-SW shear indicators are
matic indicators within a broad, ductile HHSZ, where superposed by the top-to-NE verging structures over a wide
millimetre-scale ductile shearing along S–C shear fabric zone near the STDS. The Couette (or linear) flow possi-
caused the inverted metamorphism and decompression bly provided top-to-SW shearing throughout the shear
melting in the upper parts; top-to-NE shear sense near its zone/channel to start with, and was subsequently super-
upper margin remained not so well explained45. The posed by the Poiseuille (or parabolic) flow at a later stage;
channel flow model and its different variants visualize ei- both the flows would remain indistinguishable from each
ther (i) a pure Couette (or linear) flow between rigid other in the lower parts of the shear zone/channel. It is
plates where these move relative to one another and pro- only after crossing the Transition Zone that the structures
duce uniform simple shear across the channel or (ii) a of the Poiseuille flow will start showing up in the shear
zone/channel due to their opposite vergence.

Conclusions

Various small-scale ductile to brittle shear structures such

as S–C and S–C shear fabric, porphyroclasts and porphy-
roblasts, mineral fish, asymmetric boudins, duplex and
shear zones have been used for deciphering the shear
sense within the HHC along the Alaknanda and Dhauli
Ganga valleys of Uttarakhand Himalaya. This analysis
revealed crucial information regarding two phases of duc-
tile shear deformation, DS1 and DS2, where DS1 is the
older phase of SW-verging shearing associated with the
compressional tectonics, and DS2 is the younger phase of
late orogenic NE-verging normal faulting/shearing. On
close examination of these structures, five distinct zones
have been mapped in this section: (i) PCZ with only the
DS1 shear fabric, (ii) DCZ with DS1 fabric dominating
over the DS2 phase, (iii) TZ with extensive flowage
having no shear sense indicators, (iv) DEZ with more fre-
quent DS2 phase dominating over the DS1 phase, and (v)
PEZ having only the DS2 phase within the THS. NE-
verging extensional ductile shearing is distributed in
Figure 12. Geological map of the Alaknanda and Dhauli Ganga Val-
leys showing distribution of contractional DS1 and extensional DS2 nearly 20 km wide zone in the Dhauli Ganga Valley and
phases of shear structures and their transitions (red arrows) on the basis appears to be unrelated to the STDS shear fabric, which
of shear sense analysis in Uttarakhand Himalaya. Black arrows repre- appears to be highly localized in character. These fabric/
sent lithological boundaries within the Vaikrita Group. JF, Joshimath
Formation; SF, Suraithota Formation; BF, Bhapkund Formation. Note: kinematic indicators become strong tools in critically as-
domain boundaries of the DS1 and DS2 shear structures and their tran- sessing various tectonic models like ductile shear, critical
sitions transgress the lithological boundaries. Change of domains indi- wedge and channel-flow models for the evolution of this
cated by I to IV. Locations of photographs used in this article are also
shown. part of the Himalaya, though quantitative work on strain

1116 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 108, NO. 6, 25 MARCH 2015

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207
Pb/206 Pb ages from the Garhwal Himalaya (India): Paleo- Fellowship. A.K.J. thanks to the Indian National Science Academy for
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in the intracontinental ductile shear zone during Himalayan colli- (WIHG, Dehra Dun) for lively discussions and interactions in the field.
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Publ., 2012, vol. 1, p. 264. Received 6 March 2014; revised accepted 22 December 2014

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