PHY166 Fall 2005

12 – Oscillations and waves

Oscillations or vibrations are periodic motions in physical systems (such as mass on a
spring) under the influence of restoring forces. Waves are motions of distributed systems
(such as string) that are periodic in both time and space.

Oscillations
Example: mass on a spring
Restoring force: m
F = −kx, k > 0 (stiffness constant)
Kinetic energy: Potential energy:
mv 2 kx 2 x (<0)
Ek = Ep =
2 2
Conservation of energy: m
mv 2 kx 2
Ek + E p = + = const
2 2
F k x (>0)
Newton’s second law: F = ma a= =− x
m m

a + ω2x = 0 − General equation for all kinds of oscillating systems (oscillators)

In our case ω =
k ω is the angular frequency of oscillations 1
m
Note that Newton’s second law does not result in the case of oscillations to a motion with
constant acceleration because the force is not constant and depends on the displacement.
Solutions of Newton’s second law for oscillations in the general form

a + ω2x = 0
can be easily obtained with the calculus. It has a sinusoidal form x = A cos(ωt + ϕ0 )
where A is the amplitude of oscillations, ω is the anguilar velocity and ϕ0 is a phase
that depends on the initial conditions. Once x(t) is known, one obtains the
acceleration:
a = −ω x = −ω A cos(ωt + ϕ 0 )
2 2

the velocity v can be obtained with the calculus or, alternatively, from the energy conservation law.
At the turning points of the motion where x = ±A the velocity is zero and the whole energy is
potential energy kA2/2 . Thus the energy conservation can be written in the form
2



mv 2 kx 2 kA2 v
+ = + x 2 = A2



ω


2 2 2
It follows then
v = ω A 2 − x 2 = ωA 1 − cos 2 (ωt + ϕ 0 ) = ωA sin 2 (ωt + ϕ0 ) = ±ωA sin(ωt + ϕ0 ) − ωA sin(ωt + ϕ 0 )


Thus, all together, x = A cos(ωt + ϕ 0 ) (Correct sign can be easily
obtained with calculus)
v = −ωA sin(ωt + ϕ 0 )
a = −ω 2 A cos(ωt + ϕ 0 ) − for all oscillators! 2
 Problem
Find the phase ϕ0 and the dependence x(t) for the oscillatory motion that starts at t = 0 in the
state where (a) velocity is zero and the displacement is maximal; (b) velocity is zero and the
displacement is minimal; (c) displacement is zero and velocity is positive; (d) displacement is
zero and velocity is positive.
Solution: (a) take the general solution x = A cos(ωt + ϕ 0 ) and plug t = 0 and x = A:
A = A cos(ϕ 0 ) 1 = cos(ϕ0 ) ϕ0 = 0
x = A cos(ωt )

(b) take x = A cos(ωt + ϕ 0 ) and plug t = 0 and x = −A:

− A = A cos(ϕ 0 ) − 1 = cos(ϕ0 ) ϕ0 = π

x = A cos(ωt + π ) = − A cos(ωt )

(c) take x = A cos(ωt + ϕ 0 ) and plug t = 0 and x = 0:

π
0 = A cos(ϕ0 ) 0 = cos(ϕ0 ) ϕ0 = ±



2
We see that there are two solutions. To find the proper one consider the velocity at t = 0:
π

  

  
v (t = 0) = −ωA sin(ϕ 0 ) = −ωA sin ±
= µωA
2
Positive velocity corresponds to the lower sign, thus take the lower sign to obtain
π


x = A cos ωt − = A sin(ωt )
2
Here we take the upper sign in (c) and obtain
π
  

  

x = A cos ωt + = − A sin(ωt ) 3
2
Plots for (a-d)
x
4
(a)
A=4
2
(c)

(d)
-2

(b)
-4

t
T
Frequency and period of oscillations
ω 1 2π
Frequency: f = Period: T= =
2π f ω 4
Problem
Mass m = 0.5 kg is attached to a spring with the stiffness constant k = 20 N/m on a
horizontal frictionless table. The mass is pushed with the velocity v = 2 m/s in the
positive direction out of the equilibrium position. What is (a) the amplitude of harmonic
oscillations; (b) the maximal acceleration; (c) full time dependence x(t)? (d) Time to
achieve maximal displacement for the first time?
2 2 2
mv kx kA
Solution: (a) Use the energy conservation in the form + =
2 2 2
In the initial state x = 0 and v is known, thus the amplitude A is
m 2 m 0.5
A2 = v A= v= 2 = 0.316 m
k k 20
F k
(b) From Newton’s second F=ma follows a = =− x
m m
The maximal acceleration corresponds to the maximal x, that is, to x=A. One obtains
k k m k 20
amax = A= v= v= 2 = 12.6 m/s 2
m m k m 0.5
k is the only solution that satisfies
(c) Obviously x = A sin(ωt ), ω= = 6.32 s -1
m x = 0 and v>0
(d) The required time satisfies ωt = π/2, so that the sine attains its maximum. Thus
π π
t= = = 0.248 s
2ω 2 × 6.32
5
 Oscillations, pendulum
Pendulum performs a rotational motion, thus we
have to write down the rotational Newton‘s Lsinθ
second law θ
τ = Iα L θ

The torque and the moment of inertia for a point-mass mg

pendulum are given by
θ
τ = −mgL sin θ , I = mL 2

The sign (−) in the torque shows that the torque is restoring. The Newton‘s second law above can be
rewritten as
τ mgL sin θ g
α= =− 2
= − sin θ
I mL L
or
g
α + ω 2 sin θ = 0, ω=
L
For small-amplitude oscillations θ << 1 one can use sinθ ≅θ that leads to the equation

g
α + ω 2θ = 0, ω=
L
This equation is similar to that for a mass on a string above, with the replacements a a and x θ.
Thus the solution for a pendulum is a sinusoidal (harmonic) motion with frequency ω. 6
 Waves
Oscillations occur in localized systems such as mass on a spring or pendulum and they are periodic in
time. Wave occur in distributed (non-localized) systems such as guitar string or water in the sea or the air,
and they are periodic both in time and space. Dependence of the deviation variable X in a plane harmonic
wave has the form
X = A cos(ωt − k • r + ϕ0 )

where A is the amplitude, ω is the frequency, and k is the wave vector that shows the direction of motion of
the wave. Solution for a wave on one dimension (that is, along the x axis) can be written as

X = A cos(ωt − kx + ϕ 0 )
where k > 0 corresponds to a wave that goes to the right (in the positive direction along the x axis) and k < 0
corresponds to a wave that goes to the left. The period T and wave length λ are given by
2π 2π
T= , λ=
ω k
because the periods in time and space T and λ are defined by

ωT = 2π , k λ = 2π

the velocity of the wave is given by ω

v=
k
and the wave equation can be rewritten as

X = A cos(k (vt − x) + ϕ 0 ) = A cos(k ( x − vt ) − ϕ 0 ) 7

In a particular media (such as air) waves with different values of ω and k are possible. However the
speed of the wave v is a constant for a particular material.

Material Speed of sound

In fluids sound can be only in the form of longitudinal waves. In
Rubber 60 m/s
solids that resist shear deformations, there is both longitudinal
and transverse sound waves. In the longitudinal waves, Air 355 m/s
displacement of the media is along the wave vector whereas in
Water 1400 m/s
transverse waves it is perpendicular to the wave vector. In
longitudinal waves pressure oscillates around the equilibrium Glass 4540 m/s
level, that is why they are sometimes called pressure waves. Stone 5971 m/s
Note that the velocities of the media‘s particles in the wave
have no relation to the speed of sound. The former depends on Lead 1210 m/s
the amplitude of the wave whereas the latter does not.
Copper 3100 m/s