Final Project Celia Garcia Munoz

TITLE: EVOLUTION OF NUMBER SYSTEMS: LOOKING

THROUGH EGYPTIAN, MAYAN, INCA, AND SUMERIAN NUMERAL
SYSTEMS

1. Introduction

Since the beginning of the evolution and human being´s life the mathematics has

a reality important role, appearing in almost every area, from the Music to the Nature.

There are different studies and discussions related to the history of mathematics.

Ones show that human being invented it while others, such as the contemporary

cosmologist Max Tegmark think that the universe itself is made of math (Lamb).

I believe that reach a unique solution in this discussion is impossible, because the

solution goes beyond human intelligence. However, the important fact is that

mathematics help humans to improve their lives in many ways, and due to that reason

throughout the years different civilizations around the world created their owns number

systems according to their different cultures, traditions, and necessities.

2. Different systems in the evolution of mathematics

2.1 Egyptian numeral system

This civilization arose near to Nile River around year 4300 B.C.E., however it

reached its peak and apogee from year 3000 B.C.E. (Appendix 1)

The Sumerians created the first useful writing system, so some historians think

that the Egyptian numeral system is based on this one. However, Egyptologists have

demonstrated that this writing was indigenous to Egypt and developed without foreign

influences. The Egyptians began to use their numeral system in pottery, lime-stone
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plaques, and the fragile, brittle fiber of papyrus, converting drawings to numeral around

the end of the fourth millennium B.C.E.

Their numeral system is additive, base ten. It does not matter the placement of

the signs, because each one has a specific value, although in many representations it can

be observed that if the signs are oriented to the left implies that the number will be read

from right to left, placing the symbols representing the greater values to the right. All the

symbols represent everyday things of the Egyptians such as sticks, shells or other objects

(Appendix 2). Moreover, there is not any symbol to represent the value of nothing, the

zero did not exist.

In order to operate with numbers, they used a similar system to ours, working on

base ten. Nevertheless, one of the most special things of this system is that they knew

fractions, but only the ones with 1 in the numerator. This is because to transform numbers

to fractions they just put a specific symbol over the rest of the symbols (Appendix 3).

2.2 Mayan numeral system

There are different dates for the beginning and end of this civilization, but

different researches says that this Civilization could be dated from 1500 B.C.E to 1700

C.E., being placed in Centre America with Mexico as principal scene (Appendix 4).

Their numeral system was mostly overseen and developed by the priestly class,

and it is quite different from ours.

It is a system of vigesimal base, working in groups of five symbols. The Mayans

just have three possible symbols with which they represent all numbers, so the most

important thing in this system is the position of each symbol, writing everything in a

vertical way.
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In addition, it is said that this civilization could be the first to create a symbol to

represent absence of elements (the zero).

The creation of this system is related to the Mayans' interest in astronomy, the use

of their hands to count and especially the structure of their calendars. They created two

different calendars: the secular solar calendar and the sacred one. The first one structured

the year in 365 days, being structured in 18 uinals (20 days months with a free period of

5 days at the end of each month). The second one contained 20 periods of 13 days, giving

as a result 260 days, for that reason this system is a vigesimal base system.

In addition, the addition and subtraction work in a similar way of our system. For

example, in the addition we should take into account that 5 dots (1 unit) are represented

with a line, and 4 lines (20 units) should reach one position vertically. Working in the

opposite direction for the subtraction.

The Appendix 5 shows the number representation from 1 to 100.

2.3 Inca numeral system

This civilization first apperared during the 12th century, reaching its peak between

the 14th and 15th centuries, until the spanish army began fighting in these terrotories, and

they took control of all territories in 1572, bringing the Inca Empire to an end.

It was located in South America, along tha Pacific coast and Andean highlands,

occuping the territories that are now Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru (Appendix 6).

There is not a lot of information to know deeply the mathematics in this

civilization due to a lack of specilization and the secrets guarded by the ancient

mathematics. However, thanks to researchers like Leland Locke and Erland Nordenskiold

we have data about how Incas used the Peruvian quipu in their mathematics.
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Their numerical system works like a decimal system, as our system and also it is

positional. While the Mayans were doing computations related to their rituals an their

calendar, the Incas found the most practical and easiest way to record cuantities in their

circumstances.

For this purpuse they used the quipus, which were tools to store numerical data by

doing differents types of knots: the single, the long and the figure eight knots. The first

ones were used at the top of the string to represent positions greater than units such as

thousands, hundreds or tens. The second ones were used to represent numbers between 2

and 9, and the last ones were used to represent the number one. However, other studies

show that Incas also used this system symplifying it, doing the same kind of knots for

every number and taking into consideration just the position.

We can see an example of symbolic representation using quipus in Appendix 7.

Finally, is very interesting to notice that there are more places around the world in

which they civilizations used knotted strings as a numerical device, such as Greece, or

Persia in the first millennium B.C, or also in China before writing was fully developed.

2.4 Sumerian numeral system

This civilization was settled by humans around 4500 B.C.E., whereas is possible

that some settlers arrived before. It was founded in the Mesopotamia region, located

between Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and its peak as civilization was around 2800 B.C.E.,

representing the largest city in the world (Appendix 8).

The Sumerians began the practice of counting with pebbles, changing its

representation throughout the years. In the ancient period (3200 B.C.E.) the forms were

circular, like that: while in 2700-2600 B.C.E. this shape changed,

becoming to straight lines, like that:

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This numerical system is special because it is additive and it mixes both the

decimal and the sexagesimal systems, depending on the symbol used. To reduce the

complexity, they mostly used these two symbols: , the first one for the units and

numbers working with the sexagesimal system and the second one to create the tens.

This system is one of the hardest systems to understand without any illustration,

so I think that is useful to show different representations:

Moreover, their calculations, from the addition to the division, worked in the same

way than ours, but using the sexagesimal system.

3. Conclusion

This project is useful to understand the evolution of the numeration systems, its

development, and its uses depending on the social necessities and specific circumstances.

Through the different civilization it is shown that mathematics was used to make

daily life tasks easier, and in all of them mathematics started being concrete, for example,

by using pebbles, objects, and even human body parts.

If we look into detail the different and similarities among the numeral systems

showed before, all of them have the same structure and they also work in a very similar

way. The element which differentiates one from the others the most is the base system

used, because it is highly related with specific interests or disciplines of each civilization.

Moreover, we can notice how the actual numeral system have been influenced by

the different systems. For instance, our system keeps the base ten and the importance of

the position from the systems described in this project. We can see also how human being
Final Project Celia Garcia Munoz

have designed in the most easy and practical way, bearing in mind our actual societies, in

where everything goes faster than ever.

4. References

Barba, Blanca Espada. Sobrehistoria. 2022. Website. 11/18/2022.

<https://sobrehistoria.com/sistema-de-numeracion-maya-y-numeros-mayas/>.

Cartwright, Mark. World History Encyclopedia. 2014. Website. 11/20/2022.

<https://www.worldhistory.org/Inca_Civilization/>.

Cronin, Gina. Peru for Less. 2020. Web Site. 11/7/2022.

<https://www.peruforless.com/blog/quipu/>.

Glumac, Bosiljka, y otros. Climate in Arts & History. 2022. Website. 11/20/2022.

<https://www.science.smith.edu/climatelit/beginning-and-end-of-the-maya-

classic-period/>.

Hanson, Roger. Stuff. 2015. Web Site. 11/05/2022.

<https://www.stuff.co.nz/science/71273903/roger-hanson-the-origins-of-the-

number-60-as-a-counting-method>.

History. History. 2019. Website. 11/22/2022. <https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-

middle-east/sumer>.

History, Canadian Museum of. Canadian Museum of History. 2022. Web Site.

11/02/2022.

<https://www.historymuseum.ca/cmc/exhibitions/civil/maya/mmc05eng.html>.

Ifrah, Georges. From One to Zero. New York: Penguin Books, 1987.
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Lamb, Robert. howstuffworks. 2022. Website. 11/23/2022.

<https://science.howstuffworks.com/math-concepts/math5.htm>.

Less, Peru for. Peru for Less. 2020. Website. 11/20/2022.

<https://www.peruforless.com/blog/quipu/>.

Lorenzi, Rosella. ABC Sience. 2004. Web Site. 11/05/022.

<https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2004/02/02/1036168.htm>.

Lumenmaymaker. Mathematics for the Liberal Arts. 2022. Web Site. 11/02/2022.

<https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymakermath4libarts/chapter/the-mayan-

numeral-system/>.

Magazine, Mathematics. Mathematics Magazine. 2022. Web Site. 11/05/2022.

<http://www.mathematicsmagazine.com/Articles/TheSumerianMathematicalSys

tem.php#.Y2nXFMuZPD6>.

Mastin, Luke. Story of Mathematics. 2020. Web Site. 10/31/2022.

<https://www.storyofmathematics.com/egyptian.html/>.

O´Connor, J.J y E. F. Robertson. MacTutor. 2020. Web Site. 10/31/2022.

<https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Egyptian_numerals/>.

Postposmo. Postposmo. 2022. Website. 11/18/2022.

<https://www.postposmo.com/numeros-mayas-del-1-al-100/>.

Saednews. Saednews. 2021. Website. 11/22/2022. <https://saednews.com/en/post/sumer-

civilization-and-its-evolution>.

TimeMaps. TimeMaps. 2022. Website. 11/18/2022.

<https://timemaps.com/history/ancient-egypt-3500bc/>.
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5. Appendices
Appendix 1

Fig. 1 Egypt civilization between 2500-1500 BCE. Fig. 2 Egypt civilization between 3500-2500 BCE.

Appendix 2

Fig. 3 Egyptian symbols representing numbers

Appendix 3

Fig. 4 Fractions in Egyptian numeral system

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Appendix 4

Fig. 5 Map of Mayan civilization

Appendix 5

Fig. 6 Mayan numbers representation from 1 to 100

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Appendix 6

Fig. 7 Map of the Inca Empire (13th-16th centuries)

Appendix 7

Fig. 8 Symbolic representation of different numbers with quipus

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Appendix 8

Fig. 9 Map of Sumerian civilization