UNIVERSITY OF BUEA

FACULTY OF SOCIAL AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

MANGROVE DEGRADATION,
A RESEARCH PROJECT ON: WATER QUALITY AND

HEALTH IMPACT IN TIKO MUNICIPALITY

A Research Project Submitted to the Department of Geography, Faculty of Social

and Management Sciences, University of Buea, in Partial Fulfillment
of the requirements for the award of a Bachelor of
Science (B.Sc.) Degree in
Geography

By

Forbiteh Blaise Waindim

(SM21A492)

Supervisor

Dr. EPALLE GUY

July, 2024
i
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that long essay titled “Mangrove Degradation, Water Quality And

Health Impact In Tiko Municipality” Submitted to the department of geography,

faculty of social and management sciences, of the University of Buea as partial

fulfillment of the requirements of the award of the Bachelor of science (B.S.c) Degree

in geography is the original work of Forbiteh Blaise Waindim with student registration

number (SM21A492)

Signature………………. Date……

Dr. EPALLE GUY

(Supervisor)

Signature…. ………. Date……

Dr. TOULBA OUMAROU

(Head of department)

i
 DEDICATION

I wish to dedicate this piece of work to my parents Mr and Mrs Forbiteh Augustine and

Forbiteh Mercy and the whole of The Forbiteh’s family.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to many people who contributed in one way or the other towards the

realization of this project.

My profound gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. EPALLE Guy who sacrificed most of his

time and effort reading and correcting, verification and correcting this work.

Special thanks to my helper, mentor guardian Mis EGBE Gina Egbe. I owe her a lot.

Special thanks to my parents Mrs and Mrs Forbiteh Augustine and Forbiteh Mercy and

the whole of The Forbiteh’s family.

Above all special thanks to God Almighty for his care, guidance and protection through

my life.

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 ABSTRACT

Mangrove forests play a crucial role in maintaining water quality and supporting the
health of ecosystems. However, the degradation of mangroves can have significant
impacts on water quality and human health. This abstract explores the relationship
between mangrove degradation, water quality, and health impacts in Tiko . Mangrove
Degradation: Mangrove forests are facing degradation due to various anthropogenic
activities such as pollution, deforestation, and climate change these activities can lead to
the loss of mangrove habitat and a decline in their ecological functions. The degradation
of mangroves can have detrimental effects on water quality. Mangroves act as natural
filters, trapping sediments, nutrients, and pollutants from entering the water. When
mangroves are degraded, these pollutants can flow freely into the water, leading to
increased water pollution. The degradation of mangroves and the subsequent decline in
water quality can have significant health impacts on both humans and marine life.
Polluted water can lead to the spread of waterborne diseases, affecting the health of
local communities. Additionally, the loss of mangroves can disrupt the natural balance
of ecosystems, leading to a decline in fish populations and the loss of a vital food
Source for coastal communities. While the specific impacts of mangrove degradation on
water quality and health in Tiko are not mentioned in the search results, it is important
to recognize the potential relevance of this issue in the context of Tiko global reach and
the importance of raising awareness about environmental degradation and its
Consequences.

In conclusion, the degradation of mangroves can have significant impacts on water

quality and human health. Understanding and addressing the causes and consequences
of mangrove degradation is crucial for the preservation of these valuable ecosystems
and the well-being of coastal Communities.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATION ............................................................................................................. i

DEDICATION .................................................................................................................. ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................. iii

ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................... iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................. v

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ x

LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... xi

CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study ............................................................................................ 1

1.2 Statement of Problem.................................................................................................. 4

1.3 Research Question ...................................................................................................... 6

1.3.1. Main Question......................................................................................................... 6

1.3.2. Specific Question .................................................................................................... 6

1.4 Research Objectives .................................................................................................... 6

1.4.1 Main objective ......................................................................................................... 6

1.4.2 Specific Objectives .................................................................................................. 6

1.5 Research Hypothesis ................................................................................................... 7

1.5.1 Null hypothesis ........................................................................................................ 7

1.5.2 Alternative hypothesis ............................................................................................. 7

1.6. Literature Review ...................................................................................................... 7

1.6.1. Review objective..................................................................................................... 7

1.6.2 Review objective 2................................................................................................... 8

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1.6.3 Review objective 3................................................................................................... 9

1.7. Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................ 10

1.7.1 The theory of urban planning................................................................................. 10

1.8. Conceptual Definitions ............................................................................................ 11

1.8.1. Spatial Growth ...................................................................................................... 11

1.8.2 Mangroves ............................................................................................................. 11

1.8.3. Health Impact ........................................................................................................ 11

1.9. Methodology ............................................................................................................ 11

1.9.1. Research Design ................................................................................................... 11

1.10. Scope of the study .................................................................................................. 12

1.10.1. Spatial scope ....................................................................................................... 12

1.10.2 Temporal scope .................................................................................................... 13

1.10.3. Thematic scope ................................................................................................... 13

1.11. Significant of the study .......................................................................................... 13

1.11.1. To Science........................................................................................................... 13

1.11.2 To the local population ........................................................................................ 13

1.11.3. To the state .......................................................................................................... 14

1.12. Summary chapter ................................................................................................... 14

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 15

2.2 Physical Settings ....................................................................................................... 15

2.2.1 Climate ................................................................................................................... 15

2.2.2 Geology .................................................................................................................. 16

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2.2.3 Relief ...................................................................................................................... 16

2.2.4. Vegetation ............................................................................................................. 16

2.2.5. Soil ........................................................................................................................ 17

2.2.6 Drainage ................................................................................................................. 17

2.3 Human Settings ......................................................................................................... 17

2.3.1 Population .............................................................................................................. 17

2.3.2. Demography.......................................................................................................... 18

2.3.3 Settlements ............................................................................................................. 19

2.3.4. Economic Activities .............................................................................................. 20

2.3.4.1. Agriculture ......................................................................................................... 20

2.3.4.1.1. Livestock production ...................................................................................... 21

2.3.4.1.2 Fishing ............................................................................................................. 21

2.3.4.1.3. Forest exploitation .......................................................................................... 22

2.3.4.2. Industry .............................................................................................................. 22

2.3.4.2.1The tertiary sector ............................................................................................. 23

2.3.4.2.2. Commercial activities ..................................................................................... 24

2.3.4.3 Tourism ............................................................................................................... 24

2.3.4.4 Transport ............................................................................................................. 24

2.3.5. Landscape ............................................................................................................. 25

2.4 Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................... 25

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 26

3.1 Objective one ............................................................................................................ 26

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3.2 Objective Two........................................................................................................... 30

CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

4.0. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 33

4.1 Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents ................................................... 33

4.2 Information on Water Quality and Quantity ............................................................. 37

4.2.1 Heard of Waterborne Diseases .............................................................................. 37

4.2.2 Means of Contamination ........................................................................................ 37

4.2.3 Source of Drinking Water ...................................................................................... 39

4.2.4 Distance from the Main Source ............................................................................. 40

4.2.5 Presence of taste, Ordor and color in water ........................................................... 41

4.2.6 Taste of Available Water ....................................................................................... 42

4.3. Health vulnerability ................................................................................................. 43

4.3.1 Waterborne Diseases Suffered Before ................................................................... 43

4.3.2 Treatment Preferences ........................................................................................... 44

4.3.3 Most Vulnerable Groups to Waterborne Diseases ................................................. 45

4.4 Prevention of Waterborne Diseases .......................................................................... 46

4.4.1 Methods Used to Reduce Waterborne Diseases .................................................... 46

4.4.2 Duration to Treat Waterborne Diseases ................................................................. 47

4.4.3 Amount Paid for Treatment ................................................................................... 47

4.4.4 Distance from Hospital .......................................................................................... 49

4.5 Test of Hypothesis .................................................................................................... 49

4.6 Chapter Summary ..................................................................................................... 50

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 CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION

5.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 52

5.1 Discussion of Findings.............................................................................................. 52

5.2 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 54

5.3 Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 55

5.3.1 Recommendations to the Government ................................................................... 55

5.3.2 Recommendations to Local Municipality .............................................................. 56

5.3 3 Recommendations to Future Researchers .............................................................. 57

REFERENCE.................................................................................................................. 59

APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE ................................................................................ 61

APPENDIX II: AUTHORIZATION TO CARRY OUT RESEARCH .......................... 64

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Statistical results of land cover land use change from 1986-2024. .................. 27

Table 2: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents ........................................... 34

Table 3: Distance from the Main Source ........................................................................ 41

Table 4: Presence of taste, Ordor and color in water ...................................................... 42

Table 5: Most Vulnerable Groups to Waterborne Diseases ........................................... 46

Table 6: Amount Paid for Treatment .............................................................................. 48

Table 7: Hypothesis cross-tabulation .............................................................................. 50

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: land use land cover map of Tiko ..................................................................... 29

Figure 2: Heard of Waterborne Diseases ........................................................................ 37

Figure 3: Means of Contamination ................................................................................. 38

Figure 4: Dirt Water found around mangrove areas ....................................................... 39

Figure 5: Source of Drinking Water ............................................................................... 40

Figure 6: Taste of Available Water................................................................................. 43

Figure 7: Waterborne Diseases Suffered Before ............................................................ 44

Figure 8: Treatment Preferences ..................................................................................... 45

Figure 9: Methods Used to Reduce Waterborne Diseases .............................................. 46

Figure 10: Duration to Treat Waterborne Diseases ........................................................ 47

Figure 11: Distance from Hospital.................................................................................. 49

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 CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Mangroves are complex inter-tidal forests that thrive at the interface between dry land

and open seas, in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. This ecosystem is the

mainstay of enormous biological and abiotic resources (Alogi, 2020).

Global mangrove forest cover has however declined by 50% in the last decade

attributed to anthropogenic, physical, chemical, and biological disturbances (Valiela et

al., 2011; FAO, 2013; McGowan et al., 2010, UNEP, 2011). Physical deforestation and

overexploitation of mangrove forests, due to harvesting of timber products by local

communities is widespread in tropical regions throughout the world and is probably as

old as coastal settlements (Singh et al., 2010).

Based on the studies carried out by Valiela (2011) on the effects of mangrove areas in

the Eastern coast of Southern China, destroying the mangroves contributes to changes in

the coastlines such as coastal erosion. The rapid destruction of the mangrove forest for

economic activities in Eastern china has led to the increase in the sediment load in the

water that leads to the increase in siltation. The surrounding land becomes useless for

any other useful activities leaving the locals in problems.

The paradox of mangrove loss is that the mangrove ecosystem provides human beings

and other species with many benefits yet the ecosystem continues to experience

destruction year in year out. Human activities account and will continue to account for

the largest reasons for mangrove loss in the world. In addition, climate change will also

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contribute to the loss of mangrove distribution. The mangrove ecosystems in the world

are declining even though the rate gas been on the decline lately. The coastal wetlands

are disappearing due to the anthropogenic reasons and the climate change and natural

disaster. The statistics on mangrove losses are not conclusive but the available data

shows that close to thirty-five percent of the mangroves forests have disappeared (Singh

et al., 2018).

In Western India, loss of mangrove ecosystem has exposed the coastline to storms and

hurricanes (Valieta et al., 2011), which causes loss of life and land and soil degradation.

Despite their importance, mangroves are disappearing at a global loss rate of 1-2% per

year, and the loss rate reached 35% during the last 29years. Climate changes and human

activities represent major threats for mangrove habitats.

Due to increasing human population and rapid economic development, mangrove

communities are experiencing s significant decline globally. The decline of mangrove

communities leads to the shortening of shorelines, which has decreased from 198km in

1980 to 158km in 1990, with only 147 km remaining in 2003(Food and Agriculture

Organization FAO 2011).During the past several decades, the extent of mangroves

along the south china coast sharply decreased as a result of land reclamation in the

1970s and aquaculture in the early 1980s; the area of mangroves dropped from

400,000-420,000 ha in 1956 to 21,283 ha in 1986 and then to 15,122 hectares in the

early 1990s.

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In sub-Saharan Africa, the loss of mangrove forest leads to changes in the climate

(Valieta et al; 2011). The changes in the climate is severe and affects even the shrimp

aquaculture that is responsible for the destruction of large tracts of mangrove forest for

conversion to shrimp ponds such as in Ethiopia where the total mangrove forest today is

less than half of its original size about two decades ago. Africa is richly endowed with

mangroves which cover over 3.2million hectares extending from Mauritania to Angola

on the Atlantic coast from Somalia to South Africa along the Indian Ocean. Mangrove

covered countries in west and central Africa including Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia,

Guinea Bissau, Guinea Conakry, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Sao Tome and

Principe, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo,

democratic republic of Congo and Angola (UNEP, 2011).

The mangrove forest of west-central Africa is critically threatened due to minimal

management and policy efforts. Despite the recognized benefits, mangrove forest

remains over-exploited. This is because mangroves are marginalized in national and

regional political agendas this is partly caused by insufficient knowledge about the

ecological value of mangrove ecosystems, which provide important ecosystem services,

such as fish, flood prevention, water regulation, and timber products.

Cameroon mangrove forest found east and west of Mt. Cameroon with smaller

formations dispersed along the estuaries of the other rivers. The main stands of trees are

the Rio-del Rey and the Cameroon estuary, respectively. The latter covers an estimated

surface area of about 75,000hectares which is approximate 50kmof the coastline while

the former covered an estimated area of about 175,000hectares (approximately 60km of

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the coastline from river Sanaga to the Bimbia estuary). Din et al2017) the floristic

composition of Cameroon mangrove is a characteristic of the Atlantic mangrove of

West Africa.

Human activities in coastal areas such as physical alteration of the habitat,

overexploitation of the resources, and pollution cause significant pressure on the

environment. These pressures have steadily increased as the human population

increases.

Coastal areas, including mangroves, are characterized by high productivity creating

important nurseries for offshore fish, but they are among the most exploited ecosystems.

Frequent but low-intensity anthropogenic disturbance such as fuel wood extraction may

strongly affect forest structure and species composition in tropical forests.

In the Tiko subdivision, mangroves degradation has led to climate change, loss

mangrove biodiversity through deforestation and urbanization, decline in marine species

and increase in shoreline erosion and storm surges. The Tiko creeks which harbors large

areas of mangrove forests is one of the most depleted ecosystems due to degradation

which results in the dynamics and evolution of this ecosystem in relation to the

development of the Tiko coast.

1.2 Statement of Problem

Water with no doubt remains one of the most supportive resources to public health. Its

distribution varies over space both in terms of quality and quantity. Most inhabitants in

the Tiko community are victims of water borne diseases due to poor water quality. The

4
dwindling of water resource remains a topical issue in the community of Tiko today

because of its unfriendly consequences. The natural change in the state of the

environment and the careless exposure of some anthropogenic activities which result

into pollution and chemical infiltration pose threats on water quality which has resulted

into the development of water borne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, typhoid fever,

giardia, and hepatitis A in the Tiko Community.

The issue of water quality has been a night mare to the inhabitants of Tiko. Here, the

problem is that, the quality and quantity of water poses public health problem due to the

prevalence of water borne diseases in the locality. Most of the available water sources

have been contaminated through both the natural and the anthropogenic activities. The

application of chemical fertilizers on farming zones near sources of water catchments,

digging of opened pit toilets near water sources, creation of opened waste dumped areas

close to water sources, flooding during torrential rain, acid rain, change in climate

condition and domestic activities are responsible for water contamination in

the Tiko locality. These have greatly affected the population of Tiko as most of them

become vulnerable to typhoid, rheumatism, malaria, and other water borne diseases.

This has resulted to poor health condition and consequently, high infant mortality in this

area. This situation is further complicated by the irregular maintenance of drainage

infrastructure, limited financial and human capacity, poor land-use planning. What

bewilders the inhabitants of the Tiko community is that upon their plethora of measures

to control water quality and prevent the development of water borne diseases,

everything seems to be futile.

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Therefore, identifying these challenges stemming from poor water quality has caused

the researcher to do a coherent and a plausible research which will go a long way to

propose the solutions to the problems faced by the inhabitants of the Tiko Community

1.3 Research Question

To assess the expansion on mangrove areas and health impacts in Tiko.

1.3.1. Main Question

What are the effects of urbanization on mangrove areas and the impact on health on the

inhabitant of Tiko.

1.3.2. Specific Question

1. What are the causes of urban growth on the mangrove areas of Tiko

2. What are the health impacts of urbanization on the mangrove areas in Tiko.

3. Are there any Solutions to the adverse effects on mangrove areas in Tiko.

1.4 Research Objectives

1.4.1 Main objective

The main objective of this study is to assess why the inhabitants of Tiko are expanding

towards the mangrove areas and the health impacts of this expansion.

1.4.2 Specific Objectives

1. To assess the spatial growth on mangrove areas in Tiko.

2. To examine the water quality and quantity on mangrove areas and health impact

in Tiko Municipality.

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1.5 Research Hypothesis

This study is guided by the following hypothesis;

1.5.1 Null hypothesis

Spatial growth of city has no significant effect on mangrove areas and health impacts in

Tiko municipality.

1.5.2 Alternative hypothesis

Spatial growth of city has a significant effect on mangrove areas and health impacts in

Tiko municipality.

1.6. Literature Review

The growth of cities is a worldwide phenomenon, and it often comes at the expense of

natural resources such as mangroves. Mangroves are important coastal ecosystems that

provide many benefits, including coastal protection, habitat for fish and other wildlife,

and carbon storage. However, they are often cleared for urban development, leading to a

decline in their ecological functions. This literature review focuses on the spatial growth

of the Tiko town on mangrove areas and its health impact in Tiko, Cameroon.

1.6.1. Review objective

1. Tiko is a town in Cameroon that has experienced rapid urbanization in recent years.

This growth has led to the clearance of mangroves in the area.

According to a study by Ngwese and colleagues (2016), the mangroves in Tiko have

decreased by 50% in the past three decades due to urbanization. The study also found

that the expansion of the city has caused the destruction of the mangrove forests that act

7
as natural barriers against storm surges and floods. As the human population on earth

continues to grow, so too does the need for space. From small-scale housing and

agriculture, to mass urbanization and tourism, urban encroachment into mangrove

forests poses a real threat to this delicate ecosystem.

Mangrove coastal development and urbanization in mangrove forests inevitably leads

to the direct loss of the habitat through the removal of forest. In its wake, however, it

is nearly always replaced with man-made structures such as roads, hotels and marinas,

which in turn effect the hydrology, sedimentation, salinization and erosion of the

original habitat.

According to Wang (2020), Urbanization and encroachment often then leads to an

increase in the amount pollution from agricultural and industrial run-off entering

adjacent sea grass meadows, mudflats and coral reefs, of which mangroves serve as

important bio- filters. The alteration of this topography, hydrology and sedimentation

not only impacts the survival of the current forest, but prevents its ability to regenerate

through seed propagation and adapt to environmental change (Kondolf, 2014).

1.6.2 Review objective 2

The destruction of mangroves can have significant health impacts on the local

population. Mangroves are known to provide many ecosystem services, including air

and water purification, which are important for human health. The destruction of

mangroves can lead to increased air pollution and water contamination, which can cause

respiratory and other health problems.

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A study by Fongang et al. (2019) found that the loss of mangroves in Tiko has led to an

increase in the incidence of waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever. The

study also found that the destruction of mangroves has led to an increase in air pollution,

which can cause respiratory problems such as asthma.

The spatial growth of Tiko city on mangrove areas has led to the destruction of

important coastal ecosystems, which has significant health impacts on the local

population. The loss of mangroves in Tiko has led to an increase in waterborne diseases

and air pollution, which can cause respiratory problems. This literature review

highlights the need for sustainable urban development practices that take into account

the importance of preserving natural ecosystems such as mangroves.

1.6.3 Review objective 3.

One of the most effective ways of mitigating the destruction of mangroves is by

educating the local people on the importance of mangroves and also setting laws and

regulations that can help reduce its effects. From projects the Environmental law

Alliance worldwide has empowered the local communities and stakeholders through the

mangrove action projects community based ecological mangrove restoration

workshops (CBEMR) allows communities to tackle the threats posed to mangrove

forest from the bottom up.

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1.7. Theoretical Framework

1.7.1 The theory of urban planning

It is a technical and political process that is focused on the development

and design of land use and the built environment, including air, water, and the

infrastructure asses into and out of urban areas such as, transportation,

communication, and distribution networks and their accessibility Traditionally, urban

planning followed a top-down approach in master planning the physical layout of

human settlements, The primary concern was the public welfare which included

considerations of efficiency, sanitation, protection and use of the environment,[1] as

well as effects of the master plans on the social and economic activities.[3] Over time,

Over time, urban planning has adopted a focus on the social and environmental

bottom-lines that focus on planning as a tool to improve the health and well-being of

people while maintaining sustainability standards. Sustainable development was added

as one of the main goals of all planning endeavors in the late 20th century when the

detrimental economic and the environmental impacts of the previous models of

planning had become apparent similarly, in the early 21st century, Jane Jacob’s

writings on legal and political perspectives to emphasize the interests of residents,

businesses and communities effectively influenced urban planners to take into broader

consideration of resident experiences and needs while planning.

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1.8. Conceptual Definitions

1.8.1. Spatial Growth

According to Alongi, D. M. (2015) spatial growth is a phenomenon that consists of a

series of expansions of built areas over the landscape. A combination of topographic

and physical conditions affects the spatial patterns of this expansion.

1.8.2 Mangroves

Ellison (2016) defined mangrove as a tree or shrub which grows in tidal, chiefly,

tropical, coast swaps, having numerous tangled roots that grow above ground and from

dense thickets. This ecosystem is the mainstay of enormous biological and abiotic

resources.

1.8.3. Health Impact

According to world health organization (WHO) health impacts refers to both positive

and negative changes in community health that are attributable to a policy, program, or

projects.

1.9. Methodology

This chapter describes the study area and its mangroves. It also addresses the various

data collection techniques such as the use of questionnaires. This chapter also presents

the research design, data presentation and the various techniques used in data analysis

which is principally the chi square (x2) method to test the hypothesis.

1.9.1. Research Design

The study design is a plan by which specific data relating to a particular problem is

collected and analyses. The study design therefore refers to the general approach
11
adopted in carrying out this study. According to cooper and Schindler (2001), the study

design constitutes a blue print for the collection, analysis and measurement of data. It is

a stated structure and process of conducting a research project, detailing the procedure

fir systematically and scientifically obtaining the data to be analyzed. This study seeks

to examine the influence of urban growth on mangrove areas and health related impacts

in Tiko municipality, also it seeks to bring out strategies to reduce the extension of the

Tiko town in to the mangrove areas. The study focuses on the causes- effects

relationship which is the relationship between the key independent and dependent

variables. The relation is between urban growth, health impacts and mangrove areas.

My unit of analysis is the mangrove areas which are been affected by urban growth.

This research will be carried out using cross-sectional study. This is because data will

be collated at one point in time and in different households. This research will be

carried out using non- experimental survey, which involves the use if questionnaires

that will be randomly distributed to the various households.

1.10. Scope of the study

1.10.1. Spatial scope

The study will be carried out in the south west region of Cameroon. It will be carried

out in the neighborhood such as; Bwenga, Monkey Kombo, Ombe rein. It will include

variations in urban expansion on the mangrove areas.

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1.10.2 Temporal scope

The variability and intensity if urban expansion on the south western region of

Cameroon has increased drastically since 1992-2022 to meet up with the food demand

of the growing population in the region

1.10.3. Thematic scope

This study will examine the spatial growth of the Tiko town along the south western

region of Cameroon and its health impacts on the inhabitants as a result of this

expansion towards the mangrove areas, factors that led to this expansion and the

importance of mangrove to the local population.

1.11. Significant of the study

This study is important to the following,

1.11.1. To Science

This study is important to the scientific community, it will guide scientists to understand

the importance of mangrove ecosystem in storing CO2. Mangroves support sustainable

coastal and marine ecosystems, they protect nearby areas from tsunamis and extreme

weather events. Mangrove forests are also effective at carbon sequestration and storage

and mitigate climate change.

1.11.2 To the local population

To the local people it will provide them knowledge on the health impacts of mangrove

destruction, also the importance of mangroves in providing herbal medicines, numerous

medicines derived from mangrove (ashes or bark infusions) can be applied for skin dis

13
orders e.g. lumnitzera racemosa and sores including leprosy. They have been reported to

treat different kinds of disease (headaches, boils, ulcers and diarrhea).

1.11.3. To the state

The study will equally help the government by providing knowledge on how to mitigate

the disaster associated with urban growth on mangrove areas.

1.12. Summary chapter

The long easy is divided into five chapters. This chapter talks about the general

introduction, in which the background of the study is examined, statement of problem,

research questions, research objectives, research hypothesis, literature review,

theoretical framework, conceptual framework, methodology, scope of study, significant

of study.

14
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Tiko is located between latitude 30-120 and 4-300 East of the Greenwich Meridian and

between longitude 9-120 and 90-90 North of the Equator (FONJI 2014). It is bounded to

the west by mount Cameroon with approximate height of 4100 m above sea level and

bounded to the East by Limbe, Equatorial Guinea and North by Douala. The entire Tiko

covers a surface area of more than 30,000 hectares of land and above 600 meters above

sea level.

2.2 Physical Settings

2.2.1 Climate

The Tiko municipality has a coastal equatorial climate. There are two distinct seasons: a

long rainy season of about 8 months and a short dry season of about 4 months. . The

annual amount of rainfall ranges from 2000mm to 4000mm.The rainfall pattern

provides suitable conditions for both perennial and annual crops to grow; thus providing

ideal conditions for two cropping seasons a year. The rainfall is one of the most

important climatic factors influencing agriculture, having the highest effect in

determining the potential of the area, the crops grown, the farming system and the

sequence and timing of farming operations. It is the supplier of soil moisture for crops.

Daily temperatures are high throughout the year and range from 28°C to 33°C The

atmospheric humidity varies with the absolute value and the seasonal distribution of

15
rainfall, being uniformly high throughout the wet season and falling to lower levels

during the dry season, (Pembema, 2016).

Recently, the area has experiencing climatic change which has affected agriculture,

fishing and commerce which are the economic activities. Monthly variation of

temperature, rainfall and relative humidity in Tiko 2018 can be seen in the table below;

2.2.2 Geology

Tiko is underlined by an old sedimentary rock layer Gneiss, quartz and plutonic rock of

the pre cambia age which is dominant ( MBELA 2019 ).

2.2.3 Relief

Tiko municipality is mainly characterized by coastal lowlands with wetlands and flood

zones and to a lesser extent by gentle undulating and rolling hills around Likomba and

Mutengene. The lowland areas are the sites favorable for human settlement.

2.2.4. Vegetation

Eighty percent (80%) of the forest land of Tiko municipality has been converted to oil

palm, rubber and banana plantations by CDC and only patches of secondary forests

exist. The creeks harbor large areas of mangrove forest which is very highly exploited

for wood. These swamps form important breeding sites for fish, shrimp and other

aquatic wildlife. Small patches of grassland also exist in some of the elevated areas (hill

tops). There also exist artificial forests of oil palms Rubber.

16
2.2.5. Soil

The soil of Tiko is dark brow in color, deep and is composed of aluminum and volcanic

nutritive components which makes the soil fertile for agriculture.

2.2.6 Drainage

The main water courses in the Tiko municipality include River Mungo, the Ombe River,

Ndongo and Benyo streams. Many smaller streams feed the main rivers and streams.

These rivers and streams empty into the Atlantic Ocean. The river Mungo has many

species of fish and sand that are highly exploited by villagers in the Mungo area. The

streams and rivers are also used as sources of water for domestic use (washing, cooking,

and even drinking) in most of the villages There also exist a few springs in the area (1 in

Missellelle in Muten’gene at quarter one, and one in Likumba along the bank of

Ndongo stream). These springs are also used as water sources for domestic use and

drinking.

No lakes are found in the area. However, there are many marshy areas, which are

temporary wet during the rainy season.

2.3 Human Settings

2.3.1 Population

Tilco, is a small town characterized with a moderate population size of about 80-90,000

people. As of the 2005 census, the town was estimated to have had a population of

about 555914 inhabitants. But as of 2012- 2914, the population grew up to 78.88%.

Presently, the population statistic of Tilco shows that the population size has doubled up

17
to 80- 90,000 people. Tiko has grown to be highly cosmopolitan (people of different

tribes or from different countries and influenced by their culture).

It composed of the native of Bakweria, Bassa, and Balondo. Poiners do include Ibos,

and Yorubafrom Nigeria, Malians and Chadians are also present. These foreigners have

contributed significantly to the development of Tiko; hence Tiko is highly cosmopolitan

and developing.

Considering the cosmopolitan nature of Tiko and its multi lingual atmosphere, 75.16%

of inhabitants in Tiko are Cameroon, 10.18% are Nigerians, 6.5% are Chadian's and

4.16% are Malians. The population data for Tiko can be seen below:

From the above observation, Tiko is composed of 41.84% of makes and 58.16% if

females which portray increasing fertility rate in Tiko. Throughthe increasing

population rate and the multi lingual atmosphere, the rate of hunam activities has been

enormous resulting to increasing waste disposed. As a result, epidemic diseases in Tiko

have been frequent in the area. These include cholera; typhoid diarrhea etc. to

eutrophication, the rate of malaria has increased in Tiko.

2.3.2. Demography

No census information is readily available. However, according to the 2010 Population

estimate of the Tiko health district, the Tiko municipality has a total population of

134,649 inhabitants distributed in eight (08) health areas. This gives an average

population density of 28 inhabitants per Km2 for the Municipality.

18
2.3.3 Settlements

Tiko and Likumba area was originally a hunting ground for one hunter from Molyko

called Joke Malisonge. He discovered the place in the late 18th Century and used to

come and stay there for about three months hunting. At times he came along with his

family and he used to exchange meat for fish from Edjo people. Other hunters, farmers

and fishermen also discovered the area and started coming there to exchange their

products. Some of them started settling there and by 1903, the settlement had grown.

The first settlers in the area were, Bakweri hunters and farmers from Molyko, Bwenga,

Bulu and Bokova and fishermen from Douala. In 1911, the Tiko City was formally

created by the Germans, who gave 300 hectares of land with titles to some 35 Douala

and Bakweri families. In 1922, the Tiko native Council was created under Chief Joke

Nasoa though administered by the Victoria Federated Native Authority.

Tiko is mostly a linear nucleated settlementpattem, the settlement grew as a market

town for Douala fishermen, Bakweri farmers, and hunters from Molyko, Bwenga, Bulu,

and Bokova. The core quarters in Tiko are street 1-7, Motombolombo, Down beach,

Longstreet, Likomba, gulf club, Mutengene, Ombe. Tiko has an elevation of 64m, with

a population of 78,885(2012), the Tiko creeks which harbors large areas of mangrove

forests is one of the most depleted ecosystems due to degradation which results in the

dynamics and evolution of this ecosystem in relation to the development of the Tiko

coast.

19
2.3.4. Economic Activities

The dominant economic activities in Tiko are fishing, agriculture and transport. Field

survey revealed that most inhabitant of Tiko are fanners, plantation workers and

fishermen. The mosteffective crips cultivated in Tiko are, maize, okra, cassava and

groundnut which are being cultivated for domestic consumption. The cash crops in Tiko

are being produced by the CDC, these crops include; banana, rubber and palm mainly

for export.

With regards to the plantation agriculture, the CDC banana dominates the labor force of

Tiko and employs a large number of locales who work in the modernized farms. About

48.6% of the labor force in the entire population in Tiko work in the agricultural sector,

14.36% fishermen, 37% of the population are either traders or students. (FONJI 2018 ).

2.3.4.1. Agriculture

Agriculture is the economic base of the Municipality. Over 70% of the entire surface

area of the Municipality is under farming and about 90% of the population of the

municipality practice agriculture. The highly fertile soils and favorable ecological

conditions are ideal for the cultivation of a variety of crops. However, farmers are not

getting the best yields for their labour because of poor farming practices and other

drawbacks like crop pests and diseases.

The biggest farmers in the area are the Cameroon Development Corporation CDC,

Delmonte and PHP who are into large scale production of banana and oil palm

20
production for exportation. A substantial percentage of the population is also engaged in

the cultivation of bananas, plantains, maize, cassava, yams, coco yams, okro, cocoa,

mangoes, palm, coconut, etc. Most of the small land farming is for household use

(subsistence) Njoh Ambe 2020).

2.3.4.1.1. Livestock production

Besides crop fanning the population also practice livestock farming, livestock rabbits

and Guinea pigs are also reared in the municipality. Cattle in the municipality are

brought in from other areas for sale.

The prevalence of animal diseases, inadequate veterinary facilities and high cost of

inputs are affecting livestock production in the area.

2.3.4.1.2 Fishing

A major part of the population in the Tiko Municipality is engaged in fishing from its

creeks, rivers and streams and in the high sea. Both artisanal and industrial fishing is

done in the municipality. Fresh water fish like Yenga. Cameroon Telga, Molette,

Groupa, Clarias (Mud fish) and many other varieties are caught by local fishermen. Sea

fish like; Bar Fish, Sea Groupa, Sharks, snake fish, kuta are caught by local fishermen

and fishing companies from the Atlantic Ocean. Fishing is the main source of income

for the inhabitants of the creeks where it is either sold in the fresh state or smoked state.

As far as fishing is concerned, problems faced include the non-respect of quotas and the

use of wrong net sizes. In order to safeguard the ecosystem, Fishing permits are

21
withdrawn from fishing companies who do not respect the laws. Another main problem

faced is the use of toxic chemical by some local fishermen in fishing.

2.3.4.1.3. Forest exploitation

About 80 % of forestland in the Tiko municipality has been converted to farm land (oil

palm, rubber and banana plantations) by CDC and Delmonte. There is no timber

exploitation in the area. Timber is imported from Kumba, Mbanga and Limbe into the

sub division.

However, the Mangrove forest of Tiko Sub division is highly exploited as fuel wood for

sale and as construction wood. The mangrove forest is also highly exploited by

fishermen as wood for drying of fish. Most of the exploiters are foreigners (Nigerian)

who do it illegally and unsustainably.

2.3.4.2. Industry

Tiko Municipality harbors many industrial establishments that contribute in oneway or

another to the economic development of the municipality. They Include:

- Cameroon Development Corporation (CDC) which has a palm oil processing plant

and a number of rubber plants.

- Delmonte Corporation which has large Banana plantation and carries out processing

and packaging operations and exportation.

- The Brasserie Brewery has beverage bottling and distribution centre

- Volcanic which is a water bottling company

22
- Neo-TP and CDL (Carriere Du Litoral) are construction companies and produce

gravels.

- SAMCO-Paper production Company

- Chiongxi (Chinese egg, chicken and feed production company).

There are no mining industries in the area. No research has been carried out to discover

the types of minerals available in the area, but it is obvious that valuable mineral

resources could be found in the area. However, there are stone deposits in Ombe and are

being exploited by two construction companies NEO-TP and CDL (Carrier du Litoral).

The presence of industrial establishments is influencing the migration of many people

into the municipality, for employment or commercial purposes. The presence of some

of these companies is accompanied by the construction of basic infrastructures like

roads, portable water and health units. These factors lead to socio economic

development of the

2.3.4.2.1The tertiary sector

This sector in the Tiko municipality is characterized by provision stores, bakeries,

Barbing saloons, hair dressing saloons, bars, restaurants, tailoring workshops, whole

sale shops, discotheques, carpentry workshops, welding workshops, motor mechanic

workshops, saw mills, grinding mills, documentation centers, cyber cafe, hotels, interior

decoration workshops, etc. These businesses contribute to the local economy through

payment of taxes to the council and employment.

23
2.3.4.2.2. Commercial activities

There exist many traders who sell food stuff like palm oil, plantain, cocoyams, yams,

banana, cassava products, maize, fruits and fish. There also exist many wholesale and

retail shops for items like, building materials, electronics, dresses, motor parts etc.

The municipality also has many financial institutions that provide saving and loaning

opportunities to the population of the municipality and money transfers. Table 9 shows

the different financial institution in the municipality.

2.3.4.3 Tourism

There exist natural sites with ecological importance, like wetlands, forest, mangrove

swamps, but without any protection status. This explains the reason why there is high

rate of depletion of natural resources in the municipality. There is need for zoning, to

carve out some of the ecologically important areas for protection. Bonako Mainland has

a sacred forest with a surface area of 0.lHa and the dominant species in this forest is

Black Afara.

2.3.4.4 Transport

Transportation means in the municipality include Buses, taxis, motor bikes and boats

.Taxis, buses and motor bikes are used for transportation in towns and some mainland

villages while villages in the creeks can only be accessed through water ways, using

boats. There also exist three inter urban transport agencies in the municipality. These,

especially the motor bike taxi business are helping to reduce unemployment in the

municipality, as many youths are into it.

24
The transport sector in the area is faced with the problem of poorly organized motor

parks. Motor bikes are usually found crowded at road junctions or on road sides waiting

for passengers. Transport vehicles are either parked on road side while drivers scramble

for passengers or they drive up and down to pick up passengers. These are promoting

accidents, theft and other insecurity on travelers, especially in Mutengene and Likomba.

There is need to create organized parks in order to reduce the level of insecurity.

2.3.5. Landscape

Tiko, originally called Tceka’ by the Bakeries, is a town and important port in the

southwest region of Cameroon. It is situated along the Bimbia River at the Gulf of

Guinea, 12miles (19km) east of Limbe (formerly Victoria). With geographical

coordinates404’ 30” N 9021’36” E. Tiko has an elevation ol'64m, with a population of

78,885(2012), the Tiko creeks which harbors large areas of mangrove forests is one of

the most depleted ecosystems due to degradation which results in the dynamics and

evolution of this ecosystem in relation to the development of the Tiko.

Tiko municipality is mainly characterized by coastal lowlands with wetlands and flood

zones and to a lesser extent by gentle undulating and rolling hills around Likomba and

Mutengene. The lowland areas are the sites favorable for human settlement.

2.4 Chapter Summary

This chapter brings about the location of the study area, physical settings, and the

human settings of the study area (Tiko municipality).

25
 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the research objectives reviewed in chapter one.

3.1 Objective one

ASSIGNMENT OF SPATIAL GROWTH OF MANGROVE CITY.

Land cover to land use conversion is becoming a major trending issue in the context of

climate change which is impending with it repercussions that are quite alarming ranging

from floods, landslide to diseases in modern days society. Mangroves which are

considered as breeding grounds for carbon sequestration (blue carbon pools) are

currently been destroyed to setup cities. The case of Tiko municipality is not

exceptional. Based on the 37 years’ time series analysis of the expansion of the

mangrove city of, evidence based analysis of urban expansion of and its impact on

mangrove encroachment shows a significant increase in land covers to land uses. This

change with regards to mangrove is comparatively a less amphasized scenario as rubber,

oil palm, bananas and cultivated land has taken hold of a large area cover of this

landscape in today’s landscape.

More so, from the analysis it is clearly seen that build up expansion encroached 6.3% of

the area cover of this landscape with the effect of other cultivated areas for food crop

highly seen at 27.34%. It is also evident that other vegetation which includes

transformed terrestrial forest has also been greatly lost on this landscape within this time

26
frame of 37 years. The two satellites classified images below show a clear geovisual

landscape mutation rate.

With all this seen, the implication have been seen on the inhabitants these implications

range from natural disasters to the core human health impacts such as diseases.

Table 1: Statistical results of land cover land use change from 1986-2024.

Land use
1986 1986% cover 2024 2023% cover % change
classes

Mangrove 1995 33.24 1829 30.47 -2.77

Water 320 5.33 335 5.58 0.25

Built up 199 3.32 581 9.68 6.36

Rubber 491 8.18 200 3.33 -4.85

Palm 677 11.28 48 0.80 -10.48

Other
2291 38.17 847 14.11 -24.06
vegetation

Soil 29 0.48 344 5.73 5.25

Other
0 0.00 1641 27.34 27.34
cultivated

Banana 0 0.00 177 2.95 2.95

Total 6002 100 6002 100 0

27
28
Figure 1: land use land cover map of Tiko

29
3.2 Objective Two

MANGROVE EXPANSION AND ITS IMPACTS ON HEALTH

Mangrove expansion in tiko municipality from field base evidence has shown that the

number of patients suffering from the implications of city expansion within year of

2022 was Severe especially with some specific diseases such as gastroenteritis, malaria,

typhoid, and yellow fever.

From the field findings, it was resized that the water samples collected from various

sources of water such as boreholes, streams, and taps, could influence the health of

the inhabitants of Tiko i municipality.

This was closely followed by the water samples which states that, Tap water (T1)is a

grossly polluted ( high risk) contents, this could be seen with a total of 160% which

implies that the is a high number of feacal coliform 100ml of the original water.

Also tap 2(T2) is also grossly polluted (high risk) source of drinking water with a

mean count of 180 number of feacal coliform in 100ml of the original water.

Stream water (S1) also has a grossly polluted ( high risk) source of drinking water with

a mean count of 200 which indicates that there is a high number of feacal

coliform. in 100ml of the original water.

Stream water 2 (S2) also has a grossly polluted ( high risk) source of drinking water

with a mean count of 200. Which indicates that there is a high number of feacal

coliform in 100ml of the original water.

30
Borehole water 1(B1) is also a good source of drinking water accepted ( low risk) since

it contains o6 number of feacal coliform in 100ml of the original water.

Borehole 2(B2), is also a very good source of drinking water accepted(low risk) since it

contains o2 number of feacal coliform in 100ml of the original water.

Also, it was closely followed by the water samples analysis which stated that, control

supermont water is an excellent ( no risk) source of drinking water characterized by

color and clean, colourless and odourless form of drinking water. This is observed from

the mean count table / feacal coliform content that there is 00 number of feacal

coliform in 100ml of the original water collected.

Recommendations

 Treatment methods must be constantly applied on both equipment and water

source.

 The population should be educated on the use of local treatment methods such as

boiling, filtration and most especially the use of sodium hypochlorite (eau de

javel) in the treatment.

 Construction of overhead tanks for water storage.

 Construction of houses should be at least 30m from the water source.

 Periodic physico-chemical and bacteriological analysis should be carried out in

order to determine any form of pathogenic microbes which might be obtained

through external contamination or seasonal changes. Following WHO standards,

31
analysis is best done during early raining/dry season and later raining/dry season

at least four times in a year.

32
 CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS

4.0. Introduction

Mangrove ecosystems play a crucial role in coastal regions by providing habitat for

diverse species, protecting shorelines from erosion, and maintaining water quality. In

the coastal town of Tiko, however, rapid urbanization, deforestation, and unsustainable

agricultural practices have led to significant mangrove degradation. This degradation

poses substantial risks to water quality, potentially impacting the health of residents

who rely on coastal waters for drinking and livelihoods. Chapter 4 explores the nexus

between mangrove decline, water quality deterioration, and their perceived impact on

health conditions in the community of Tiko. Through an analysis of contamination

sources, treatment practices, and health vulnerabilities, this chapter aims to elucidate the

complex relationship between environmental degradation and public health, offering

insights into the challenges and potential interventions necessary to safeguard

community health in the face of ecological change.

4.1 Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents

This section outlines the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents in the

study on the spatial growth of Tiko town and its influence on mangrove areas, water

quality, and health. Understanding the socio-demographic profile of a population is

essential for contextualizing and interpreting research findings within specific

community dynamics. In the coastal town of Tiko, this section provides a

comprehensive overview of the study population's socio-demographic composition. It

examines key variables such as gender distribution, age demographics, educational

33
attainment, occupational diversity, income levels, and marital status among residents.

These characteristics are pivotal in delineating the diverse social and economic

backgrounds of individuals participating in the study, offering insights into how these

factors may intersect with environmental perceptions and health outcomes. By

elucidating these socio-demographic dimensions, this section lays the foundation for a

nuanced exploration of the broader implications of mangrove degradation and water

quality issues on community health and well-being in Tiko municipality (Table 2)

Table 2: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents

Socio-Demographic Category Frequency Percentage

Sex Male 30 60.0
Female 20 40.0
Total 50 100.0
Age 10 to 20 12 24.0
20 to 30 22 44.0
30 to 65 16 32.0
Total 50 100.0
Level of education primary 10 20.0
Secondary 20 40.0
Undergraduate 20 40.0
Total 50 100.0
Occupation House wife 3 6.0
Taxi driver 8 16.0
Civil servant 22 44.0
Student 17 34.0
Total 50 100.0
Income 125,000 to 50,000 19 38.0
50,000 to 75,000 6 12.0
75,000 to 100,000 9 18.0
Self-employed 16 32.0
Total 50 100.0
Marital status Married 22 44.0
Single 28 56.0
Total 50 100.0

34
Sex

The respondents were predominantly male, accounting for 60.0%, while females

represented 40.0%. This distribution highlights a higher participation rate of males in

the study, which may reflect gender dynamics and roles within the community

regarding environmental issues and public health.

Age

The age distribution of respondents varied, with the largest group being those aged 20 to

30 years, making up 44.0% of the sample. This was followed by the age group 30 to 65

years, comprising 32.0%. The youngest age group, 10 to 20 years, represented 24.0%.

This age diversity ensures that perspectives from different life stages and experiences

are included in the study, providing a comprehensive understanding of the community's

views on mangrove degradation and water quality.

Level of Education

The respondents' education levels were evenly split between secondary and

undergraduate education, each constituting 40.0% of the sample. Those with primary

education made up the remaining 20.0%. This indicates a relatively high level of

education among the respondents, with a significant portion having completed at least

secondary school, which may influence their awareness and understanding of

environmental and health issues.

35
Occupation

Civil servants were the largest occupational group, representing 44.0% of the

respondents. Students followed at 34.0%, reflecting the significant presence of the

youth in the sample. Taxi drivers made up 16.0%, and housewives were the smallest

group at 6.0%. This occupational diversity highlights the different socioeconomic

backgrounds of the respondents and their varying levels of direct dependence on the

mangrove ecosystem.

Income

Income levels among respondents varied, with the largest group earning between

125,000 to 50,000 FCFA, accounting for 38.0%. Self-employed respondents constituted

32.0%, while those earning 75,000 to 100,000 FCFA made up 18.0%. The smallest

income group earned between 50,000 to 75,000 FCFA, representing 12.0%. This range

of income levels illustrates the economic diversity within the community, which can

affect access to resources and health outcomes.

Marital Status

The majority of respondents were single, making up 56.0% of the sample, while the

remaining 44.0% were married. This distribution provides insights into the household

structures and social dynamics within the community, which can influence health

behaviors and the impact of environmental changes on different family units.

36
4.2 Information on Water Quality and Quantity

4.2.1 Heard of Waterborne Diseases

A significant majority of respondents, 82.0%, have heard of waterborne diseases,

highlighting widespread awareness of the health risks associated with contaminated

water. This awareness is crucial for promoting preventative measures and health

practices among the community. The remaining 18.0% have not heard of such diseases,

indicating a gap in knowledge that needs to be addressed through public health

education campaigns to ensure the entire population is informed about the dangers and

prevention of waterborne diseases (Figure 2)

18%

Yes
No

82%

Figure 2: Heard of Waterborne Diseases

4.2.2 Means of Contamination

When asked about the means of contamination, 64.0% of respondents identified

contaminated water as a primary means, while 36.0% attributed contamination to poor

water quality. This distinction is important as it shows that while many understand the

direct contamination of water sources, a significant portion also recognises the broader

37
issue of overall water quality. This understanding can guide interventions, as it indicates

that solutions must address specific contamination events and ongoing water quality

management (Figure 2)

36%
Contaminated water
Poor water quality

64%

Figure 3: Means of Contamination

Figure 3 depicting very dirty water within the mangrove area is pivotal to understanding

the implications for your work on the impact of mangrove degradation and water quality

on health in Tiko municipality. The image vividly illustrates the extent of environmental

degradation, highlighting severe water pollution likely caused by urbanization,

deforestation, and agricultural activities. This visual evidence directly correlates with

your research, emphasizing how degraded mangrove ecosystems fail to effectively filter

pollutants and maintain water quality. Such polluted water sources can harbor

pathogens and contaminants, leading to increased risks of waterborne diseases among

local residents who rely on these waters for drinking and livelihoods. Moreover, the

image underscores the urgent need for conservation and restoration efforts to mitigate

health hazards associated with poor water quality in Tiko. Integrating Figure 1 into your

38
study visually reinforces the environmental challenges faced by the community and

strengthens the argument for sustainable management practices to protect both

mangrove ecosystems and public health.

Figure 4: Dirt Water found around mangrove areas

4.2.3 Source of Drinking Water

The main source of drinking water for respondents is tap water, used by 58.0% of the

population. This reliance on tap water underscores the importance of municipal water

supply systems and their maintenance. Well water is utilized by 22.0%, and borehole

water by 20.0%. These sources are often considered alternative or supplementary to tap

water, especially in areas where municipal supplies may be unreliable or unavailable.

39
The diverse sources of drinking water reflect varying levels of infrastructure and access

within the community, highlighting areas where improvements in water supply systems

could be beneficial (Figure 5).

70

60

50

40
Percent

30 58

20

10 22 20

0
Tap water Well water Borehole
Source of Drinking water

Figure 5: Source of Drinking Water

4.2.4 Distance from the Main Source

Access to water is relatively convenient for most respondents, with 74.0% having their

main water source at home. This indicates a high level of accessibility for the majority

of the population. However, 20.0% of respondents must travel less than 20 km to access

water, and 6.0% travel between 50 km to 100 km. The latter groups face significant

challenges in accessing water, which can impact their daily lives and health. Ensuring

closer proximity to clean water sources for all residents is a critical goal for improving

public health and reducing the time and effort spent on water collection.

40
Table 3: Distance from the Main Source

Distance from the Main Source Frequency Percent

At home 37 74.0

Less than 20 km 10 20.0

Between 50km to 100km 3 6.0

Total 50 100.0

4.2.5 Presence of taste, Ordor and color in water

While the majority of respondents report no issues with water color (84.0%), odor

(84.0%), or taste (90.0%), a minority experiences problems. Specifically, 16.0% report

the presence of color and odor in their water, and 10.0% note an unusual taste. These

impurities can be indicative of contamination or poor water treatment processes, posing

health risks to those affected. Addressing these issues through improved water treatment

and regular monitoring is essential to ensure safe drinking water for the entire

community (Table 4)

41
Table 4: Presence of taste, Ordor and color in water

ImPurities Category Frequency Percentage

Color Present 8 16.0

Absent 42 84.0

Total 50 100.0

Ordor Present 8 16.0

Absent 42 84.0

Total 50 100.0

Taste Present 5 10.0

Absent 45 90.0

Total 50 100.0

4.2.6 Taste of Available Water

The taste of available water varies, with 50.0% of respondents describing it as salty,

40.0% as bitter, and only 10.0% as sweet. The prevalence of salty and bitter tastes

suggests the presence of certain minerals or contaminants, which could affect the

palatability and safety of the water. These variations in taste highlight the need for

comprehensive water quality testing and treatment to ensure that all residents have

access to pleasant and safe drinking water (Figure 5).

42
 10%

Salty
50% Bitter

40% Sweet

Figure 6: Taste of Available Water

4.3. Health vulnerability

4.3.1 Waterborne Diseases Suffered Before

Respondents in Tiko have experienced various waterborne diseases, with significant

percentages reporting specific illnesses: 22.0% have suffered from cholera, 52.0% from

typhoid, 18.0% from diarrhea, and 8.0% from dysentery. These statistics underscore the

pervasive impact of poor water quality and contamination on public health in the

community, highlighting the urgent need for improved water management and

sanitation practices to reduce the incidence of these preventable diseases (Figure 7)

43
 Dysentery 8
Disease suffered before

Diarrhea 18

Typhoid 52

Cholera 22

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Percent

Figure 7: Waterborne Diseases Suffered Before

4.3.2 Treatment Preferences

When it comes to treating waterborne diseases, respondents show diverse preferences:

30.0% prefer seeking treatment at hospitals, 56.0% opt for traditional methods, and

14.0% resort to prayers. This distribution reflects a blend of conventional medical

practices and cultural beliefs in healthcare seeking behavior. The preference for

traditional methods and spiritual interventions alongside hospital treatments indicates a

multifaceted approach to health management influenced by community norms and

accessibility to healthcare facilities (Figure 7)

44
 16%
29%

Hospital
Traditional
Prayers

55%

Figure 8: Treatment Preferences

4.3.3 Most Vulnerable Groups to Waterborne Diseases

Among those affected by waterborne diseases in Tiko, children are the most vulnerable

group, comprising 68.0% of reported cases. Women follow at 24.0%, and the elderly

make up 8.0% of cases. These findings highlight the differential impact of waterborne

diseases across demographic groups, emphasizing the need for targeted health

interventions that prioritize vulnerable populations. Improving water quality and

sanitation infrastructure is crucial not only for reducing overall disease burden but also

for protecting these at-risk groups from the health consequences associated with

contaminated water sources (Table 5).

45
Table 5: Most Vulnerable Groups to Waterborne Diseases

Most vulnerable group Frequency Percent

Children 34 68.0

Women 12 24.0

Old 4 8.0

Total 50 100.0

4.4 Prevention of Waterborne Diseases

4.4.1 Methods Used to Reduce Waterborne Diseases

Respondents employ various methods to reduce waterborne diseases: 70.0% use boiling

as a method of water treatment, while 30.0% rely on filtering. These practices indicate

community efforts to mitigate health risks associated with contaminated water sources

through basic but effective purification methods (Figure 9)

30%

Boiling
Filtering

70%

Figure 9: Methods Used to Reduce Waterborne Diseases

46
4.4.2 Duration to Treat Waterborne Diseases

In addressing waterborne diseases, 60.0% of respondents reported that treatment

typically lasts for one month, while 40.0% indicated a longer duration of six months.

This insight into treatment duration reflects the persistence and severity of waterborne

illnesses in the community, underscoring the challenges in achieving complete recovery

and the ongoing need for sustained healthcare interventions (Figure 10)

40%

60% One month

Six Months

Figure 10: Duration to Treat Waterborne Diseases

4.4.3 Amount Paid for Treatment

The costs incurred for treating waterborne diseases vary significantly among

respondents: payments range from 500.00 FCFA to 100,000.00 FCFA. Specifically,

14.0% paid 5,000.00 FCFA, 14.0% paid 10,000.00 FCFA, and 6.0% paid amounts

ranging from 20,000.00 FCFA to 50,000.00 FCFA. These financial implications

highlight the economic burden associated with healthcare expenses related to

waterborne diseases, emphasizing the need for accessible and affordable healthcare

services within the community (Table 6)

47
Table 6: Amount Paid for Treatment

Amount paid Frequency Percent

500.00 2 4.0
1000.00 1 2.0
1500.00 1 2.0
2000.00 4 8.0

2500.00 1 2.0
3000.00 1 2.0
3500.00 1 2.0
4000.00 2 4.0
4500.00 1 2.0
5000.00 7 14.0

6000.00 1 2.0
7000.00 2 4.0
10000.00 7 14.0
11000.00 1 2.0
15000.00 2 4.0
17000.00 2 4.0

20000.00 3 6.0
25000.00 2 4.0
30000.00 3 6.0
50000.00 3 6.0
60000.00 1 2.0
63000.00 1 2.0

100000.00 1 2.0

Total 50 100.0

48
4.4.4 Distance from Hospital

Regarding access to healthcare facilities for treating waterborne diseases, 46.0% of

respondents live within 1 km of a hospital, 20.0% live 2 km away, and 34.0% reside 5

km away. This distribution indicates varying levels of proximity to medical care, with a

significant portion of the community living relatively close to healthcare facilities.

However, those residing farther away face challenges in accessing timely medical

treatment, potentially impacting health outcomes and recovery rates (Figure 11)

50

45

40

35

30

25
46
20
34
15

10 20
5

0
1lm 2km 5km

Figure 11: Distance from Hospital

4.5 Test of Hypothesis

A chi-sqaure test of independent was used to examine if Mangrove degradation and

decline in water quality does not have an impact on the health conditions of the local

population in the Tiko municipality (Table 7)

49
Table 7: Hypothesis cross-tabulation

Means of Stats Income Total

contamination
125,000 50,000 75,000 Self
to to to employe
50,000 75,000 100,000 d

Contaminated Count 14 2 6 10 32
water
% 43.8% 6.3% 18.8% 31.3% 100.
0%

Poor water Count 5 4 3 6 18

quality
% 27.8% 22.2% 16.7% 33.3% 100.
0%

Total Count 19 6 9 16 50

% 38.0% 12.0% 18.0% 32.0% 100.

0%

X2=3.266, DF=3, P=0.352

The crosstabulation analysis reveals no statistically significant association (Pearson

Chi-Square = 3.266, df = 3, p = .352). Since the P-value (0.352) is greater than 0.05 we

accept the null hypothesis and reject the alternative hypothesis. Hence it can be

concluded that Mangrove degradation and decline in water quality do not have an

impact on the health conditions of the local population in the Tiko municipality

4.6 Chapter Summary

Chapter 4 delves into the multifaceted relationship between mangrove degradation,

water quality, and their implications for public health in Tiko municipality. The chapter

begins by exploring the socio-demographic characteristics of the study population,

providing insights into the gender distribution, age demographics, educational levels,

50
occupations, incomes, and marital statuses of residents. These demographics set the

stage for understanding community perceptions and vulnerabilities regarding

environmental health risks. The study identifies significant concerns related to

waterborne diseases, with a notable prevalence of cholera, typhoid, diarrhoea, and

dysentery reported among respondents. Treatment-seeking behaviours reveal a blend of

conventional medical treatments, traditional remedies, and spiritual interventions,

underscoring the diverse

51
 CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION

5.0 Introduction

Mangrove degradation significantly impacts water quality, as these coastal ecosystems

act as natural filters that help to purify water by trapping and removing pollutants. As

mangroves are destroyed or degraded, the ability of these areas to maintain water

quality diminishes, leading to increased levels of contaminants in surrounding waters.

This degradation not only affects the health of marine species that rely on these habitats

but also poses a direct threat to human health. This chapter consists of discussions,

conclusions and recommendations.

5.1 Discussion of Findings

According to research findings, Mangrove degradation has been found to have a

significant impact on water quality and subsequently on human health. Research

findings indicate that as mangroves are degraded, the ecosystem services they provide,

such as nutrient filtration and sediment retention, are diminished. This leads to

increased levels of pollutants in the surrounding waters, including heavy metals,

pesticides, and pathogens. Elevated levels of these contaminants have been linked to a

variety of adverse health effects in humans, including gastrointestinal illnesses, skin

infections, respiratory issues, and even neurological disorders. Additionally, the loss of

mangroves can contribute to coastal erosion and increased vulnerability to natural

disasters such as hurricanes or storm surges, further exacerbating health risks for

52
communities living in these areas. Effective conservation strategies and restoration

efforts are crucial in order to protect both the environment and public health from the

negative consequences of mangrove degradation.

Findings also revealed that, water quality and its impact on health has shown alarming

results. Mangroves are crucial ecosystems that provide various ecosystem services,

including filtering pollutants from water sources and protecting coastal areas from

erosion. However, due to human activities such as deforestation, urbanization, and

pollution, mangroves are degrading at an accelerated rate. This degradation directly

affects water quality by increasing levels of pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides,

and organic matter in surrounding waters. These pollutants pose significant risks to

human health through the consumption of contaminated seafood or exposure to polluted

water sources. It is essential for policymakers and stakeholders to take immediate action

in preserving mangrove forests to safeguard both environmental sustainability and

public health.

Again, findings has shown that the destruction of mangrove ecosystems can lead to

decreased water quality and pose serious health risks for nearby communities. As

mangroves act as natural filters by trapping pollutants and sediment, their degradation

results in increased erosion, nutrient runoff, and contamination of surrounding aquatic

environments. This not only affects the availability of clean drinking water but also

exposes individuals to harmful pathogens and toxins that can lead to a wide range of

illnesses such as gastrointestinal diseases, skin infections, respiratory issues, and even

chronic conditions like cancer. The findings underscore the importance of preserving

53
mangrove forests not only for their ecological value but also for safeguarding public

health by maintaining clean water resources and reducing the prevalence of waterborne

diseases in vulnerable coastal populations.

Mangrove degradation has been extensively studied for its impact on water quality and

subsequent health implications. Research findings have highlighted that the loss of

mangrove ecosystems leads to decreased water filtration capabilities, resulting in higher

levels of pollutants, such as heavy metals and organic matter, entering coastal waters.

This contamination not only affects the health of marine life but also poses significant

risks to human health. Studies have shown a correlation between degraded mangroves

and increased incidences of waterborne diseases, respiratory issues, and skin infections

among local communities who rely on these ecosystems for their livelihoods.

Furthermore, degraded mangroves also contribute to the loss of important ecosystem

services, like coastal protection from storms and erosion. Therefore, protecting and

restoring mangrove habitats is crucial for maintaining water quality and safeguarding

public health in coastal regions.

5.2 Conclusion

To conclude, degradation's impact on water quality and subsequent effects on human

health is a critical issue warranting thorough research. As mangroves serve as natural

filters, their degradation can result in increased levels of pollutants entering water

bodies, leading to poor water quality. This deterioration can expose communities living

near these ecosystems to various health risks, such as contaminated drinking water and

increased incidence of waterborne diseases like cholera and dysentery. Furthermore, the

54
loss of mangroves can also contribute to a decline in biodiversity and ecosystem

services, further exacerbating health concerns for vulnerable populations dependent on

these resources for their livelihoods. By conducting research on this topic, we can gain

insights into the extent of mangrove degradation's impacts on water quality and health

outcomes, ultimately informing conservation efforts and sustainable management

practices to safeguard both human well-being and ecological integrity.

5.3 Recommendations

5.3.1 Recommendations to the Government

1. Strengthen Mangrove Conservation Efforts: Implement robust policies and

regulations to protect existing mangrove forests, prevent further deforestation,

and encourage reforestation efforts. This could include establishing more

protected areas, imposing stricter penalties for illegal mangrove clearing, and

providing incentives for landowners to preserve and restore mangrove

ecosystems.

2. Invest in Mangrove Rehabilitation and Restoration: Allocate funding and

resources towards large-scale mangrove restoration projects in areas where

mangrove forests have been degraded or destroyed. This can help rebuild natural

barriers that protect coastal communities, improve water filtration, and restore

critical habitats for marine life.

3. Strengthen Regulatory Framework and Enforcement: Review and strengthen

environmental regulations related to coastal zone management, wastewater

discharge, and industrial activities that can impact mangrove ecosystems. Ensure

55
 robust enforcement mechanisms are in place to hold polluters accountable and

deter further damage to these vital natural resources.

4. Promote Sustainable Coastal Development: Encourage and incentivize

sustainable practices in coastal development, such as avoiding construction in

sensitive mangrove areas, implementing green infrastructure solutions, and

integrating mangrove conservation into urban planning. This can help minimize

the negative impacts of human activities on mangrove habitats and water

quality.

5.3.2 Recommendations to Local Municipality

1. Implement Mangrove Restoration and Conservation Programs: Allocate funding

and resources to restore degraded mangrove ecosystems and protect remaining

mangrove forests. Mangrove restoration has been shown to improve water

quality by filtering out sediments, heavy metals, and other pollutants.

2. Regulate and Manage Coastal Development: Enact zoning laws and building

codes that limit development in mangrove areas. Require environmental impact

assessments for any proposed coastal projects to ensure they do not adversely

affect mangrove habitats and water quality.

3. Address Upstream Pollution Sources: Work with industries, agriculture, and

communities upstream to reduce the flow of nutrients, pesticides, and other

pollutants that can degrade water quality in mangrove estuaries. Implement best

management practices and wastewater treatment systems to prevent these

pollutants from reaching the coast.

56
 4. Monitor Water Quality and Mangrove Health: Establish a comprehensive water

quality monitoring program to track changes in parameters like turbidity,

salinity, dissolved oxygen, and the presence of contaminants. Additionally,

regularly assess the extent and condition of local mangrove forests to identify

areas in need of restoration or enhanced protection.

5.3 3 Recommendations to Future Researchers

1. Assess Spatial and Temporal Trends: Conduct comprehensive studies to analyze

the spatial and temporal patterns of mangrove degradation and its corresponding

effects on water quality parameters such as turbidity, nutrient levels, and

dissolved oxygen concentrations. This will help identify hotspots, understand the

dynamics, and track changes over time.

2. Investigate Ecosystem Services: Quantify the ecosystem services provided by

healthy mangrove forests, such as their role in water filtration, nutrient cycling,

and coastal protection. Assess how the loss or degradation of mangroves affects

these vital functions and the implications for overall water quality.

3. Integrate Multidisciplinary Approaches: Employ a multidisciplinary approach by

combining field measurements, remote sensing data, and hydrodynamic

modeling to develop a comprehensive understanding of the linkages between

mangrove degradation and water quality. This will enable more accurate

predictions and inform management strategies.

4. Assess Socioeconomic Impacts: Evaluate the socioeconomic consequences of

mangrove degradation and the resulting water quality impacts on local

57
communities, particularly those dependent on coastal resources and ecosystem

services. Understanding these impacts can inform policy decisions and guide

sustainable management practices

58
 REFERENCE

1. Alongi, D.M. (2002). Present state and future of the world's mangrove forests.

Environmental Conservation, 29(3), 331-349.

2. Barbier, E.B., Hacker, S.D., Kennedy, C., Koch, E.W., Stier, A.C., & Silliman, B.R.

(2011). The value of estuarine and coastal ecosystem services. Ecological Monographs,

81(2), 169-193.

3. Bhattacharya, A.K., Chakraborty, S., & Malik, A. (2010). A comparative study on

physico-chemical and biological parameters of Gangetic delta region (Sundarbans), East

Coast of India. Ecology, Environment and Conservation, 16(1), 41-48.

4. Bouillon, S., Borges, A.V., Castañeda-Moya, E., Diele, K., Dittmar, T., Duke, N.C., ...

& Twilley, R.R. (2008). Mangrove production and carbon sinks: a revision of global

budget estimates. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 22(2).

5. Cebrian, J. (2002). Why do some plants succeed in the world's ecosystems while

others fail?. Oikos, 97(1), 3-27.

6. Clement, A.J., Volk, H.R., Silliman, B.R., Bertness, M.D., & Duffy, J.E. (2015).

Coastal ecosystem-based management with nonlinear ecological functions and values.

Science, 349(6250), 776-778.

7. Costanza, R., d'Arge, R., De Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., ... &

Raskin, R.G. (1997). The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital.

nature, 387(6630), 253-260.

59
8. Dahdouh-Guebas, F., Jayatissa, L.P., Di Nitto, D., Bosire, J.O., Lo Seen, D., &

Koedam, N. (2005). How effective were mangroves as a defence against the recent

tsunami?. Current Biology, 15(12), R443-R447.

9. Duke, N.C., Meynecke, J.O., Dittmann, S., Ellison, A.M., Anger, K., Berger, U., ... &

Dahdouh-Guebas, F. (2007). A world without mangroves?. Science, 317(5834), 41-42.

10. FAO. (2007). The world's mangroves 1980-2005 (Vol. 153). Food & Agriculture

60
APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE

My name is Forbiteh Blaise Waindim, a final year student of the Department of

Geography at the University of Buea. Am carrying out research on the topic
'Mangrove degradation, water quality and health impact in Tiko'. The questionnaire is
intended on getting relevant information for academic purpose, I will be Please if you
could provide answers to the following questions. All information collected is strictly
for academic purpose and your confidentiality is guarantee. Thanks for your
understanding (please tick where indicated and fill the blank space corresponding to the
answers you seems most suitable).

Instructions: Please read each question carefully and tick the correct answer

Section A. Socio demographic information.

1. What's your sex

Male [ ] Female [ ]

2 What's your age

a, 10-20 [ ] b, 20-30 [ ]. c,,30-65 [ ]

3. Level of education: primary secondary junior high school, university. a, Secondary

school [ ] b, Undergraduate [ ] c, postgraduate [ ]

4 What's your occupation? a, House wife [ ] b, Taxi driver [ ] c, Civil servants

[ ] d, student

5 What's your level of income?

a, 25000-500000 [ ] b, 50000- 75000 [ ].c, 75000- 100000 [ ] d, self employed

[ ]

6. Status . a,Marriage [ ] b, Single

Section B: Information of water quality and quantity

7, Have you heard of waterborne diseases?

a, Yes [ ] b, No. [ ]

8, If yes which of these diseases have you heard

a, cholera [ ] b, Typhoid [ ] c, Diarrhea [ ] d, Dysentery [ ]

9, how can someone be contaminated with the above decease?

61
a, contaminated water [ ] b, poor water quality [ ],

10, what is the most used of drinking water in your house?

a, tap water. [ ] b, well water. [ ] c, borehole[ ] d, rain water

[ ]e, river [ ]

11, how far is the distance from the Main source of drinking water

a,0km(at home) [ ] b, less than 20km [ ] c, between 50km to 100km [ ]

12, Does the water have color?

a, Yes. [ ] b, No [ ]

13, Does the water have odour?

a. Yes. [ ] b, No. [ ]

14,Does the water have Taste?

a, Yes [ ]. b. [ ]

15, if yes it's

a, salty [ ] b, Sweet [ ] c, bitter [ ]

Section C: Health vulnerability

16, which of these waterborne diseases have you suffer from?

a, cholera [ ] b, typhoid [ ] c, diarrhea [ ] d, dysentery [ ]

Where do you go for treatment?

a, Traditional modicine [ ] b, hospital [ ] c, prayers [ ]

17. Who are mostly suffering from water diseases in your community

a, Children [ ] b, women. [ ] c, old. [ ]

Section D: Prevention of waterborne diseases

17. What method do you use to reduce water borne diseases?

A, Boiling [ ]. b, filtering. [ ]

18. How long those it take to treat waterborne diseases?

62
a, 1 month [ ] b, 6 months [ ], c, 1 year and and above [ ]

19, How much do you pay _______________________________________________

20. What is the distance between your house to the hospital.

a, 1km [ ] b, 2km [ ] c, 5k. [ ]

63
APPENDIX II: AUTHORIZATION TO CARRY OUT RESEARCH

64