INSTITUT SUPERIEUR LA PERLE

ANALYSIS 1
CHAPTER ONE: NUMERICAL FUNCTIONS OF REAL VARIABLES

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Chapter 1: Numerical functions of real variables
1.1 Logarithmic and exponential functions
1.1.1. Logarithmic functions
1.1.1.1 Definition
1
A logarithmic function is the primitive of the function 𝑥 in the domain ]0, ∞ [ and which turns to
1.
Logarithmic functions are denoted by In.
1.1.1.2 Properties
∀ a, b𝜖ℝ∗+ , ∀ n𝜖ℤ,
 𝐼𝑛(𝑎𝑏) = 𝐼𝑛(𝑎) + 𝐼𝑛(𝑏)
1
 𝐼𝑛 (𝑎) = −𝐼𝑛(𝑎)
𝑏
 𝐼𝑛 (𝑎) = 𝐼𝑛(𝑏) − 𝐼𝑛(𝑎)
 𝐼𝑛(𝑎𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝐼𝑛(𝑎)
1.1.1.3 The limits of a logarithmic function are given below.

 Lim 𝐼𝑛(𝑥) = −∞
x→ 0
 Lim 𝐼𝑛(𝑥) = +∞
x→ +∞
𝐼𝑛(𝑥)
 Lim 𝑥−1 = 1
x→ 1
 Lim x 𝐼𝑛 ∕ 𝑥 ∕ = −∞
x→ 0
1.1.1.4 Derivative
The derivative of the function is gotten by using the formula
Given a function In(u(x)), the derivative of the function is denoted by (Inu(x)), and calculated
using the formula
𝑢, (𝑥)
(Inu(x)), =
𝑢(𝑥)
Where 𝑢, (𝑥) is the derivative of the function 𝑢(𝑥).
Therefore the derivative of In(x) is gotten as;
1
(Inx), = 𝑥 ∀𝑥𝜖]0, ∞[

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Truth table
X 0 +∞
,
(Inx)

In +ꝏ

-ꝏ

The graph of the logarithmic function In(x) is drawn as shown below.

1.1.1.5 Logarithmic functions of base a.

Definition
Given a∈ ]0, 1[∪]1, +ꝏ[, a logarithmic function of base a is the function noted by 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 ,
define in the interval ]0, +ꝏ[
(𝑥) 𝐼𝑛(𝑥)
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 =
𝐼𝑛(𝑎)
The study of this function is deduced from the study of In(x)

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Note
 In=𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 , since In(e) = 1
Key points to note
 A function of the form f(x) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎𝑥 (where a > 0 and a 6≠ 1) is called a logarithmic
function.
 The function f(x) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎𝑥 for a > 1 has a graph which is close to the negative f(x)-axis
for x < 1 and increases slowly for positive x.
 The function f(x) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎𝑥 for 0 < a < 1 has a graph which is close to the positive f(x)-
axis for x < 1 and decreases slowly for positive x.
 For any value of a, the graph always passes through the point (1, 0). The graph of f(x)
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑥1 is a reflection, in the horizontal axis, of the graph of f(x) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑎𝑥 .
𝑎
 A particularly important logarithm function is f(x) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑒𝑥 , where e = 2.718 . . .. This
is often called the natural logarithm function, and written f(x) = ln x
1.1.2 Exponential function
The function in(x) is continues and strictly increasing in the interval ]0, +ꝏ[. Its reciprocal
function is call the exponential function, denoted as exp
Properties

 𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑥) ∗ 𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑥)

𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑥)
 𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑥 − 𝑦) = 𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑦)
1
 𝑒𝑥𝑝(−𝑥) = 𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑥)
 𝑛
(exp(𝑥)) = exp(𝑛𝑥)
This exponential function is also 𝑒 𝑥

Limits

 lim 𝑒 𝑥 = +∞
x→ +∞
 lim 𝑒 𝑥 = 0
x→ −∞
𝑒 𝑥 −1
 lim =1
𝑥
x→ 0
 ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 = 0
x→ −∞
𝑒𝑥
 lim = +∞
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥

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Exponential functions are continuous and derivable in ℝ and the derivative of
𝑒 𝑥 , (𝑒 𝑥 ), = 𝑒 𝑥
Truth table
X -∞
+∞
𝑥
𝑒
+

exp +∞

Note
 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ ℝ+ , 𝑎 = 𝑒 𝐼𝑛(𝑥)
 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛(𝑒 𝑥 )
,
 (𝑒 𝑢(𝑥) ) =𝑢(𝑥), 𝑒 𝑢(𝑥)

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1.2 Reciprocal of a circular function
A circular function is a trigonometric functions that has the coordinates of a point, p, define
using the two fundamental trigonometry functions sine and the cosine, traveling around a unit
circle of radius 1. The sine and cosine repeat their outputs at regular intervals.
If (x, y) is any point on the unit circle, and t, the distance from (1, 0) to (x, y) along the
circumference of the unit circle (figure 1), then
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑥,
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑦,
𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡 = (𝑥 ≠ 0) ,
𝑥

As we travel around the unit circle starting at (1, 0), the points we come across all have
coordinates (cos t, sin t), where t is the distance we have travelled. (Note that t will be positive if
we travel in the counter clockwise direction but negative if we travel in the clockwise direction.)
The circular functions mention above have their corresponding reciprocals
1
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑥, its reciprocal is gotten by , which corresponds to
cos 𝑡
1
sec 𝑡 = 𝑥 (𝑥 ≠ 0),

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = 𝑦, has reciprocal denoted cosec t (csc t) which is given as

1
𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑦 (𝑦 ≠ 0),
𝑥
and that for tan is given by cot 𝑡 = 𝑦 (𝑦 ≠ 0),

Note
 Never write these reciprocal functions as 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1 (x), 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (x) or 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (x). Those
expressions are for the inverse functions.
 You can use the unit circle to evaluate the reciprocal trigonometric functions
directly.

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1.2.2 The cosecant,(cosec x).
The cosecant function has a period of 360° (2in radians) to match that of the sine function.
It is undefined whenever sin x = 0, i.e. when x = 180n° or n radians for integer n.
Like the graph of sin x, it has rotational symmetry of order 2 about the origin and all points on
the x-axis at multiples of 180° (radians) from it. It is also symmetrical through every line x =
½n 180° (or ½nin radians) where n is odd.
Note also that, whereas
y = sin x cannot take values outside the range –1  y 
y = cosec x cannot take values within the range –1 < y <

1.2.3 The secant, (sec x).

The secant function has a period of 360° (2in radians) to match that of the cosine function. Its
graph is the same as that of cosec x translated by 90° (/2 radians) to the left. It is undefined
whenever cos x = 0, i.e. when x = 90n° or ½n radians for any odd integer n. Like the graph of
cos x, it has rotational symmetry of order 2 about the point (/2,0) and all points on the x-axis at
multiples of 180° (radians) from it. It is also symmetrical through every line x = 180n° (or
nradians) where n is an integer. Again, just as y = cos x cannot take values outside the range
–1  y 
y = sec x cannot take values within the range –1 < y <

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1.3.4 The cotangent, (cot x).
The cotangent function has a period of 180° (radians) to match that of the tangent function.
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
Just as tan x is undefined when cos x = 0, cot x is undefined whenever sin x = 0. (𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ).
Its graph is the same as that of tan x reflected in the line x = /4 (45°) or any other line at a
multiple of (180°) from it. It also has rotational symmetry of order 2 about the origin and all
points at multiples of /2 (90°) from it

1.4 Examples
5𝜋 𝜋
1. What are the exact values of cot (- ) and csc( 6 )? Do not use a calculator.
6
Solution
Step 1
5𝜋
Find the point where the unit circle intersects the terminal side of the angle - 6

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 Step 2
5𝜋
Find the exact value of cot (- )
6
5𝜋 𝑥
cot (− )=
6 𝑦
√3
− 2
= = √3
1
−2

5𝜋
cot (− ) = √3
6
𝜋
Same approach is applied in the case of csc ( 6 )

𝜋 1
csc ( ) =
6 𝑦
1
= =2
1
2
𝜋
csc ( ) = 2
6
2. Determine the value of cos (θ), given that csc(θ) = -√5 and θ is a Quadrant IV angle
Solution
1 1 √5
We are given 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = −√5 𝑠𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = − =−
√5 5

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 Using the Pythagorean identity 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜃) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃) = 1
√5
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜃) + (− )2 = 1
5
4
𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜃) =
5
2√5
cos(𝜃) = ±
5
2√5
Since 𝜃 is in the IV quadrant, cos(𝜃) > 0, 𝑠𝑜 cos(𝜃) = 5
3. Find all angles which satisfy the equation cot(θ) = -1
Solution
𝜋
From the table of common values, we see that has a cotangent of 1, which means the
4
𝜋
solutions to cot(θ) = -1 have a reference angle of 4 . To find the quadrants in which our
𝑥
solutions lie, we note that cot(θ) = 𝑦 for a point (x, y) on the Unit Circle where 𝑦 ≠ 0.
If cot(θ) is negative, then x and y must have different signs (i.e., one positive and one
negative.) Hence, our solutions lie in Quadrants II and IV. Our Quadrant II solution is
3𝜋
𝜃= + 2𝜋𝑘
4
and for Quadrant IV, we get
7π
𝜃 = 4 + 2𝜋𝑘
for integers k. Can these lists be combined? Indeed they can - one such way to capture
3π
all the solutions is: 𝜃 = + 𝜋𝑘 for integers k.
4

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1.3 Hyperbolic functions
1.3.1 Definition of hyperbolic functions
a) f(x) = coshx
The hyperbolic functions coshx and sinhx are defined using the exponential function ex. We shall
start with coshx. This is defined by the formula

.
We can use our knowledge of the graphs of ex and e−x to sketch the graph of coshx. First, let us
calculate the value of cosh0. When x = 0, ex = 1 and e−x = 1. So

.
Next, let us see what happens as x gets large. We shall rewrite coshx as

.
To see how this behaves as x gets large, recall the graphs of the two exponential functions.
y

e −x ex
2 2

As x gets larger, ex increases quickly, but e−x decreases quickly. So the second part of the sum
𝑒𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥
+ gets very small as x gets large. Therefore, as x gets larger, coshx gets closer and closer
2 2
𝑒𝑥
to . We write this as
2

for large x.
𝑒𝑥
But the graph of coshx will always stay above the graph of . This is because, even though
2
𝑒 −𝑥
2
(the second part of the sum) gets very small, it is always greater than zero. As x gets larger
and larger the difference between the two graphs gets smaller and smaller.

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Now suppose that x < 0. As x becomes more negative, e−x increases quickly, but ex decreases
𝑒𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥
quickly, so the first part of the sum + gets very small. As x gets more and more negative,
2 2
−x
coshx gets closer and closer to e /2. We write this as

for large negative x.

𝑒 −𝑥
Again, the graph of coshx will always stay above the graph of when x is negative. This is
2
𝑒𝑥
because, even though (the first part of the sum) gets very small, it is always greater than zero.
2
But as x gets more and more negative the difference between the two graphs gets smaller and
smaller.
We can now sketch the graph of coshx. Notice the graph is symmetric about the y-axis, because
coshx = cosh(−x).
y
cosh x

b) f(x) = sinhx
We shall now look at the hyperbolic function sinhx. In speech, this function is pronounced as
‘shine’, or sometimes as ‘sinch’. The function is defined by the formula

.
Again, we can use our knowledge of the graphs of ex and e−x to sketch the graph of sinhx. First,
let us calculate the value of sinh0. When x = 0, ex = 1 and e−x = 1. So

.
Next, let us see what happens as x gets large. We shall rewrite sinhx as

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 .
To see how this behaves as x gets large, recall the graphs of the two exponential functions.
y

ex
2

e −x
− 2

As x gets larger, ex increases quickly, but e−x decreases quickly. So the second part of the
𝑒𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥
difference − gets very small as x gets large. Therefore, as x gets larger, sinhx gets closer
2 2
𝑒𝑥
and closer to . We write this as
2

𝑒𝑥
sinh(𝑥) ≈ for large x.
2

𝑒𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥
But the graph of sinhx will always stay below the graph 2 . This is because, even though − 2
(the second part of the difference) gets very small, it is always less than zero. As x gets larger and
larger the difference between the two graphs gets smaller and smaller.
Next, suppose that x is negative. As becomes more negative, −e−x becomes large and negative
very quickly, but ex decreases very quickly. So as x becomes more negative, the first part of the
𝑒𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥
difference − gets very small. So sinhx gets closer and closer to − . We write this as
2 2 2

for large negative x.

𝑒 −𝑥
Now the graph of sinhx will always stay above the graph of when x is negative. This is
2
𝑒𝑥
because, even though (the first part of the difference) gets very small, it is always greater than
2

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zero. But as x gets more and more negative the difference between the two graphs gets smaller
and smaller.
We can now sketch the graph of sinhx. Notice that sinh(−x) = −sinhx.
y

sinh x

𝑒𝑥
We have seen that sinhx gets close to as x gets large, and we have also seen that coshx gets
2
𝑒𝑥
close to as x gets large. Therefore, sinhx and coshx must get close together as x gets large. So
2
sinhx ≈ coshx for large x.
𝑒 −𝑥
Similarly, we have seen that sinhx gets close to − as x gets large and negative, and we have
2
𝑒 −𝑥
seen that coshx gets close to as x gets large and negative. Therefore, sinhx and −coshx must
2
get close together as x gets large and negative. So

sinhx ≈−coshx for large negative x.

We can see this by sketching the graphs of sinhx and coshx on the same axes.

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 y

cosh x

sinh x

c) f(x) = tanhx
We shall now look at the hyperbolic function tanhx. In speech, this function is pronounced as
‘tansh’, or sometimes as ‘than’. The function is defined by the formula

We can work out tanhx out in terms of exponential functions. We know how sinhx and coshx are
defined, so we can write tanhx as

𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
tanh(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 −𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑒 +𝑒 𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑥
2

We can use what we know about sinhx and coshx to sketch the graph of tanhx. We first take x =
0. We know that sinh0 = 0 and cosh0 = 1, so

As x gets large, sinhx ≈ coshx, so tanhx gets close to 1:

tanhx ≈ 1 for large x.

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But sinhx is always less than coshx, so tanhx is always slightly less than 1. It gets close to 1 as x
gets very large, but never reaches it.
As x gets large and negative, sinhx ≈−coshx, so tanhx gets close to −1:

tanhx ≈−1 for large negative x.

But sinhx is always greater than −coshx, so tanhx is always slightly greater than −1. It gets close
to −1 as x gets very large and negative, but never reaches it.
We can now sketch the graph of tanhx. Notice that tanh(−x) = −tanhx.
y

tanh x
x

1.3.2 Identities for hyperbolic functions

Hyperbolic functions have identities which are similar to, but not the same as, the identities for
trigonometric functions. In this section we shall see a variety of this identities
The symmetry relation
.𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ (−𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ (𝑥)
.𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ (−𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ (𝑥)
.𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ (𝑥) = −𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ (𝑥)
the basic identities
sinh(𝑥)
.tanh(𝑥) = cosh(𝑥)

.𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 (𝑥) − sinh2 (𝑥) = 1

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ(𝑥)
.coth(𝑥) = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑥 ≠ 0
sech(𝑥)

.1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 (𝑥)

The addition identities
.𝑆𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑦) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝑦)
.𝐶𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑦) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝑥)𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝑦)

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 tanh(𝑥)+tanh(𝑦)
.tanh(𝑥 + 𝑦) 1+tanh(𝑥)tanh(𝑦)

The double argument

.𝑆𝑖𝑛ℎ(2𝑥) = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑥)
.𝐶𝑜𝑠ℎ(2𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 (𝑥) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 (𝑥)
.𝐶𝑜𝑠ℎ (2𝑥) = 1 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 (𝑥)
.𝐶𝑜𝑠ℎ(𝑥) = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ2 (𝑥) − 1
2tanh(𝑥)
.tanh(2𝑥) = 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 (𝑥)

1.3.3 Reciprocal and inverse of hyperbolic functions

The reciprocal of hyperbolic functions occur frequently and are given special names; cosech,
sech and coth

1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑥 ≠ 0
sinh(𝑥)

1
sech(𝑥) = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥
cosh(𝑥)

1
coth(𝑥) = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑥 ≠ 0
tanh(𝑥)

We noticed that the cosech and the coth functions are undefined when their partner functions are
zero. By contrast, sech(x) is define for all real x since cosh(x) is never zero

2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ(𝑥)
𝑒𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥

2
sech(𝑥)
𝑒𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥

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 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
coth(𝑥) =
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥

The graphs of the reciprocal functions are shown below.

Graph of cosech(x) graph of sech(x) graph of coth(x)

1.3.4 Other related functions

Finally, we shall look at some other functions that are related to the three hyperbolic functions
we have just seen. These are the inverse functions, and the reciprocal functions. It is important to
understand the notation for these types of function, as it can sometimes be confusing. For
example, the function f(x) = sinh2 x refers to the square of the function f(x) = sinhx, so that

sinh2 x = (sinhx)2 ,

whereas the function f(x) = sinh−1 x does not refer to the reciprocal of the function f(x) = sinhx, so
that

.
Instead, sinh−1 x means the ‘inverse function’. This means that f−1(x) = y whenever f(y) = x. So,
for instance,
sinh−1 x = y whenever sinhy = x.
This inverse function is defined for all values of x. We can also define the inverse functions for
coshx and tanhx. We define

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 cosh−1 x = y whenever coshy = x,

and this function is valid for x ≥ 1. We also define

tanh−1 x = y whenever tanhy = x,

and this function is valid for −1 < x < 1.
Examples
1. Solve the equation 2𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ(2𝑥) + 10𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ(2𝑥) = 5, giving your answer in terms of
natural logarithm
Solution
(𝑒 2𝑥 +𝑒 −2𝑥 ) (𝑒 2𝑥 −𝑒 −2𝑥 )
cosh(2𝑥) = , sinh(2𝑥) =
2 2
So 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 5𝑒 2𝑥 − 5𝑒 −2𝑥 = 5
6𝑒 2𝑥 − 4𝑒 −2𝑥 = 5
6𝑒 2𝑥 − 5 − 4𝑒 −2𝑥 = 0
6𝑒 4𝑥 − 5𝑒 2𝑥 − 4 = 0
(3𝑒 2𝑥 − 4)(2𝑒 2𝑥 + 1) = 0
4 1
𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑒 2𝑥 = −
3 2
The only real solution occurs when 𝑒 2𝑥 > 0
4 1 4
So 2𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛 3 ⇒ 𝑥 = 2 𝐼𝑛 3
3
2. Suppose 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ (𝑥) = . Find the exact value of x.
4
Solution
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
We can write sinh(𝑥) = 2
3
So 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ (𝑥) = 4 means
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 3
=4
2
⇒ 2𝑒 𝑥 − 3 − 2𝑒 −𝑥 = 0
Multiplying both 𝑒 𝑥
2𝑒 2𝑥 − 3𝑒 𝑥 − 2 = 0
(𝑒 𝑥 − 2)(2𝑒 𝑥 + 1) = 0
1
𝑒 𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑒 𝑥 = −
2
But 𝑒 𝑥 is always positive so 𝑒 𝑥 = 2 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝐼𝑛2
Exercises
1.
(a) Simplify coshx + sinhx and coshx − sinhx.
(b) Use the answer to part (a) to give an alternative proof that cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1.
2. Prove the following identities
a 𝑆𝑖𝑛ℎ(−𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 (prove that sinh is an odd function)

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 b 𝐶𝑜𝑠ℎ (−𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑥 (prove that cosh is an even function)

3. Find the exact value or state that it is undefined, of the following expressions.
𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 4𝜋
a. 𝑡𝑎𝑛( 4 ) b. 𝑠𝑒𝑐(6 ) c. 𝑐𝑠𝑐( 6 ) d. 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( 3 )
4. Find all of the angles which satisfy the equations below.
a. tan(θ) = -√3 b. 𝑐𝑠𝑐 (θ) = −2 c. 𝑐𝑜𝑡(θ) = −1
5. Solve the equation for t. Give exact values
√3 2√3
𝑎. 𝑐𝑜𝑡(t) = √−3 b. 𝑡𝑎𝑛(t) = - 3 c. 𝑠𝑒𝑐(t) = 3

1.6 Answers

𝜋 𝜋 2√3 5𝜋
1) a. tan (4 ) = 1 b. 𝑠𝑒𝑐( 6 )= c. 𝑐𝑠𝑐( 6 )=2
3
2π
2) a. tan(θ) = −√3 when θ = + πk for any integer k
3
7π 11π
b. csc(θ) = -2 when θ = + 2πk or θ = + 2πk for any integer k
6 6
3π
c. cot(θ) = -1 when θ = + πk for any integer k
4
5π
3) a. cot(t) = -√3 when t = + πk for any integer k
6
√3 5π
b. tan(t) = - 3 when t = + πk for any integer k
6
2√3 π 11π
c. sec(t) = when t = 6 + 2πk or t = + 2πk for any integer k
3 6
4.
(a) coshx + sinhx = ex and coshx − sinhx = e−x.
(b) (coshx + sinhx) × (coshx − sinhx) = cosh2 x − sinh2 x, whereas 𝑒 𝑥 × 𝑒 −𝑥 = 1.

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