SIGNIFICANCE OF WAVE

FUNCTION

1. Definition and Notation

The wave function, usually denoted as 𝚿
or 𝝍, is a complex-valued function of
position and time.

It can be written as: Ψ(𝐫, 𝑡)

where 𝐫 represents the position in space,
and 𝒕 is time.

2. Probability Density

The absolute square of the wave

function, |𝚿|𝟐 , gives the probability
density.
The probability of finding the particle
within a small volume 𝒅𝑽 around a
point 𝐫 at time 𝒕 is given by:

𝑷(𝐫, 𝒕) = |𝚿(𝐫, 𝒕)|𝟐 𝒅𝑽

3. Normalization

For the wave function to be physically

meaningful, it must be normalized.

This means:

∫ |𝚿(𝐫, 𝒕)|𝟐 𝒅𝑽 = 𝟏

This integral extends over all space,

ensuring that the total probability of
finding the particle somewhere in space
is 1.

4. Schrödinger Equation

The time-dependent Schrödinger

equation describes how the wave
function evolves over time:

𝛛𝚿
𝒊ℏ ˆ𝚿
=𝑯
𝛛𝒕

where 𝒊 is the imaginary unit, ℏ is the

ˆ is the
reduced Planck constant, and 𝑯
Hamiltonian operator representing the
total energy of the system.
5. Observable Quantities

Expectation values of observable

quantities are calculated using the wave
function. For an observable represented
ˆ , the expectation value is:
by operator 𝑶

ˆ ⟩ = ∫ 𝚿 ∗ (𝐫, 𝒕)𝑶
⟨𝑶 ˆ 𝚿(𝐫, 𝒕)𝒅𝑽

Here, 𝚿 ∗ is the complex conjugate of 𝚿.

6. Superposition Principle

A wave function can be a superposition

of multiple states.
If 𝚿𝟏 and 𝚿𝟐 are two wave functions, a
valid wave function can be a linear
combination:

𝚿 = 𝒄𝟏 𝚿𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 𝚿𝟐

where 𝒄𝟏 and 𝒄𝟐 are complex

coefficients.

SCHRÖDINGER'S EQUATION
In quantum mechanics, the wave
function 𝝍 corresponds to the wave
variable or the displacement 𝒚 of wave
motion in general.
However, 𝝍, unlike 𝒚, is not itself a
measurable quantity and may therefore
be complex.

The wave function 𝝍(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛, 𝒕) for each

dynamic state of a particle is determined
by the forces acting on the particle.

The rule for finding 𝝍 is expressed in a

form called Schrödinger's equation.

It was formulated in 1926 by Erwin

Schrödinger.

If the particle has wave properties, it is

expected that there should be some sort
of wave equation which describes the
behaviour of the particle.
The Schrödinger equation gives an
equation for the matter waves.

(A) SCHRÖDINGER'S TIME-

INDEPENDEN'T WAVE
EQUATION
According to de-Broglie theory of matter
wave, a particle of mass 𝒎 moving with
a velocity 𝒗 is associated with a wave of
wavelength 𝝀 = 𝒉/𝒎𝒗.

If the particle has wave properties it is

expected that there should be some sort
of wave equation which describes the
behaviour of the particle.
Let us consider a wave propagating in
the positive direction of the 𝑿-axis with
velocity 𝒗𝒑 (phase velocity).

The classical differential equation for

the wave motion is given by,

𝛛𝟐 𝝍 𝟐
𝟐𝛛 𝝍
= 𝒗𝒑 𝛛𝒙𝟐 (1)
𝛛𝒕𝟐

where 𝝍 is the wave displacement for

the de Broglie wave at any time 𝒕 and 𝒗𝒑
is the wave velocity or phase velocity.

• 𝝍 is a function of space and time.

The three-dimensional differential

equation for the wave can be written as,
 𝛛𝟐 𝝍 𝟐
𝛛𝟐
𝝍 𝛛𝟐
𝝍 𝛛𝟐
𝝍
= 𝒗𝒑 [ 𝟐 + + 𝟐]
𝛛𝒕𝟐 𝛛𝒙 𝛛𝒚 𝟐 𝛛𝒛
𝛛𝟐 𝝍
i.e., = 𝒗𝟐𝒑 𝛁 𝟐 𝝍 (𝟐)
𝛛𝒕𝟐
𝛛𝟐 𝛛𝟐 𝛛𝟐
where [𝛛𝒕𝟐 + + ] = 𝛁 𝟐, the
𝛛𝒚𝟐 𝛛𝒛𝟐

Laplacian operator.

The solution of the differential equation

(2) can be given as

𝝍(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛, 𝒕) = 𝝍𝟎 (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)𝒆−𝒊𝝎𝒕

where 𝝍𝟎 is the amplitude variable

which is a constant at a point in the
space and is independent of time.
We can also write it as,

𝝍 = 𝝍𝟎 𝒆−𝒊𝝎𝒕
Differentiating the equation with respect
to 𝒕,

𝛛𝝍
= 𝝍𝟎 × −𝒊𝝎𝒆−𝒊𝝎𝒕
𝛛𝒕

and

𝛛𝟐 𝝍
= −𝝎𝟐 𝝍𝟎 𝒆−𝒊𝝎𝒕 = −𝝎𝟐 𝝍 (4)
𝛛𝒕𝟐

Substituting the value of 𝛛𝟐 𝝍/𝛛𝒕𝟐 from

equation (4) in equation (2), we get,

−𝝎𝟐 𝝍 = 𝒗𝟐𝒑 𝛁 𝟐 𝝍
𝟐 𝟐
(5)
∴ 𝛁 𝝍 = −(𝝎 /𝒗𝟐𝒑 )𝝍

But 𝝎 ≐ 𝟐𝝅𝝂 = 𝟐𝝅(𝒗𝒑 /𝝀); Since 𝒗𝒑 =

𝝂𝝀
∴ 𝛁 𝟐 𝝍 = −(𝟒𝝅𝟐 /𝝀𝟐 )𝝍 =
−(𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 )𝝍; since 𝝀 = 𝒉/𝒎𝒗; where
𝒗 is the velocity of the particle.

∴ 𝛁 𝟐 𝝍 + (𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐 /𝒉𝟐 )𝝍 = 𝟎 (6)

If 𝑬 is the total energy and 𝑽 is the

potential energy of the particle, then the
kinetic energy of the particle,

(𝟏/𝟐)𝒎𝒗𝟐 = 𝑬 − 𝑽; ∴ 𝒎𝟐 𝒗𝟐
= 𝟐𝒎(𝑬 − 𝑽)

Hence equation (6) becomes,

𝟐
𝟐
𝟖𝝅 𝒎(𝑬 − 𝑽)
𝛁 𝝍+ 𝟐
𝝍=𝟎
𝒉

This is the time independent form of

Schrödinger equation.
Putting (𝒉/𝟐𝝅) = ℏ, 𝒉 = 𝟐𝝅ℏ; and 𝒉𝟐 =
𝟒𝝅𝟐 ℏ𝟐, the Schrödinger equation can be
written as

𝟐
𝟐𝒎
𝛁 𝝍 + 𝟐 (𝑬 − 𝑽)𝝍 = 𝟎
ℏ

For a free particle, the potential energy,

𝑽 = 𝟎.
Hence the Schrödinger wave equation
for a free particle can be expressed as

𝟐𝒎𝑬
𝛁𝟐𝝍 + 𝟐
𝝍=𝟎
ℏ

Note:
For one dimensional motion, i.e.,
the motion of a particle along the 𝑿-
axis, the time independent Schrödinger
equation may be written as,

𝒅𝟐 𝝍 𝟐𝒎
𝟐
+ 𝟐 [𝑬 − 𝑽]𝝍 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙 ℏ

For a free particle,

𝒅𝟐 𝝍 𝟐𝒎
𝟐
+ ( 𝟐 ) 𝑬𝝍 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙 ℏ
Probability density

• In Classical Mechanics, the probability of finding a particle anywhere in

the box is same.
• In Quantum mechanics, the probability is different at different points.

The figure shows the probability of finding the particle at different points in the
box along the 𝑿-axis for the first three eigenvalues.

• The probability densities are given by |𝝍𝟏 (𝒙)|𝟐, |𝝍𝟐 (𝒙)|𝟐, |𝝍𝟑 (𝒙)|𝟐, …
• For the first energy state, the probability of finding the particle is
maximum at the middle of the box.
• For 𝒏 = 𝟐, the probability of finding the particle at the middle point of the
box is zero.
 • In general, the particle cannot exist at the nodes 𝑵 for the given energy
state.

Energy quantization

• If the particle is confined to a certain region, the energy can only have
certain discrete values.
• In other words, the energy of the particle is said to be quantized.

Zero-point energy

• It is to be noted that the minimum energy of a particle confined to move in

a region is not zero, as the name suggests.
• This minimum energy of the particle is called zero-point energy.
• The zero-point energy of the particle in the box,

𝒏 𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝒉𝟐
𝑬𝟏 = = (∴ 𝒏 = 𝟏)
𝟖𝒎𝑳𝟐 𝟖𝒎𝑳𝟐

SPECTROSCOPIC TECHNIQUES

• It is the study of interaction between electromagnetic radiation and

matter.
• During interaction the radiation may be absorbed, emitted, scattered or
reflected.
• The measurement of the frequency of the radiation provides information
about the discrete energy levels of the atoms or molecules.
• It gives detailed information about the overall structure of the molecule.

The study of spectroscopy can be broadly divided into

(i) Atomic spectroscopy
(ii) and Molecular Spectroscopy.

• Atomic spectroscopy deals with the interaction of the electromagnetic

radiation with atoms which are in their ground state.
• The electronic absorption can occur only if the photon has an energy
which is equal to the difference between two quantized energy levels, i.e,
𝚫𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂
• Transitions between the energy levels of valence electrons give the
spectrum in the Visible or Ultraviolet region.
• Transitions of the inner core electrons give the spectrum in the 𝐗 ray
region.

• Molecular Spectroscopy deals with the interaction of electromagnetic

radiation with molecules.

• This results in transitions between rotational and vibrational energy levels

in addition to electronic transitions.

• Molecular spectra extend from visible through infrared into

microwave region.

• Vibrational spectra are due to the transitions between vibrational levels

which fall in the infrared region.

• Transitions between rotational levels give the spectra in the far infrared or
microwave region and is referred to as Rotational spectra.

• In addition to these, an electron or nucleus can give interaction energies

when placed in a magnetic field.
 • These Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) in the radio frequency region
and the Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) in the microwave region
respectively.

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

• It is the energy transmitted through space in the form of waves.

• It consists of an oscillating electric and magnetic field.
• The direction of oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
• The relation between wavelength, frequency and energy is

𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂
𝒄
𝝂=
𝝀

where 𝑬 is the energy, 𝝂 the frequency, 𝝀 the wavelength and 𝒄 the velocity of
light.

• The commonly used units for wavelength are metre (𝐦), centimetre
(𝐜𝐦), micrometre (𝝁𝐦), nanometre (𝐧𝐦) and Angstrom (Å).

They are related as given below,

𝟏Å = 𝟏𝟎−𝟏 𝐧𝐦 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝝁𝐦 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝐜𝐦 = 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝐦

Frequency

• Frequency is expressed in cycles/second or Hertz (𝐇𝐳).

• In molecular spectroscopy very often instead of frequency (𝝂),
wavenumber 𝝂‾ is used.

𝝂 𝟏
𝝂‾ = =
𝒄 𝝀

• It is usually expressed in 𝐜𝐦−𝟏 .

 • 𝐤𝐉/ mole or electron volt (𝐞𝐕) is the most frequently used unit of
energy.
• The interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter can be between
The electric component of the radiation
or between the magnetic field component of the
molecule
• In UV, IR, Raman effect and Microwave, electric dipole of the
molecule interacts with the electric field.
• In NMR and ESR, the magnetic dipole, arising due to nuclear or electron
spin, interacts with the magnetic field vector of the incident
electromagnetic radiation.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

• The entire range over which electromagnetic radiation exists is known as

electromagnetic spectrum.
• The electromagnetic spectrum covers a wide range from radio waves to
gamma rays.

Frequency
Region Wavelength
(Hz)

Gamma Rays 0.0001Å to 1Å 1022 to 1018

𝑋-ray 1Å to 10Å 1018 to 1017

Ultraviolet 10Å to 4000Å 1017 to 1014

Visible 4000Å to 7000Å 1014

 Infrared 1𝜇m to 100𝜇m 1014 to 1012

Microwave 100𝜇m to 1 cm 1012 to 1010

Radio frequency 1 cm to 100 m 1010 to 106

1 Gamma ray Region

The gamma rays are the shortest waves, emitted by atomic nuclei.

2 𝑿-ray Region

𝑋 rays are emitted or absorbed by the movement of the electrons close to the
nuclei of relatively heavy atoms.

3 Ultraviolet Region

• The wavelength range of UV radiations starts at the blue end of the visible
light (about 400 nm ) and ends at 1 nm.
• The ultraviolet region is subdivided into two spectral regions.
(i) The region between 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐧𝐦 and 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝐧𝐦 is known as near
ultraviolet region.
(ii) The region below 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐧𝐦 is called the vacuum ultraviolet
region.
• Air starts absorbing radiations below 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝐧𝐦.
• Quartz which is generally used to construct cells and windows cannot be
used below 200 nm, as quartz absorbs these radiations.

4 Visible Region
• Radiations which we call light form the visible region of the
Electromagnetic spectrum.
• This region is approximately 𝟒𝟎𝟎 − 𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝐧𝐦 in wavelength.
• Within the visible region of the spectrum persons with normal colour
vision are able to correlate the wavelength of light striking the eye with the
subjective sensation of colour.
• The wavelengths of light corresponding to different colours are given
below.

Colour Wavelength

(in nm)

Violet 400 − 435

Blue 435 − 480

Green - Blue 480 − 490

Blue - Green 490 − 500

Green 500 − 560

Yellow Green 560 − 580

Yellow 580 − 595

Orange 595 − 610

Red 610 − 750

5 Infrared Region
This region has been further divided into the following sub-regions.
 Near Infrared - 0.7 to 2.5𝜇𝑚

Infrared - 2.5 to 15𝜇𝑚

Far Infrared − 15 to 200𝜇𝑚

• All the three sub-regions of infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum

are associated with the changes in the vibration of molecules.
• The infrared region is one of the most valuable regions for the chemist.

6 Microwave Region

• Microwave region lies between the far infrared and conventional radio
frequency regions.
• It extends from 100𝜇m to 1 cm.
• Microwave radiations correspond to the rotation of the molecules.
• Microwave spectroscopy is used to study various problems in physics,
chemistry, electronics etc.
• The ability to measure frequencies more precisely in the microwave region
allows very accurate calculation.

7 Radio Frequency Region

• This region extends from 𝟏 𝐜𝐦 to 𝟏𝟎 𝐦 in wavelength.
• The energy change involved in this region arises due to the reversal of spin
of nucleus or electrons.
• Radio waves are regarded as the lowest-energy form of electromagnetic
radiation.
SCHRÖDINGER'S TIME DEPENDENT WAVE
EQUATION

The Schrödinger equation may be written as

𝛁 𝟐 𝝍 + (𝟐𝒎/ℏ𝟐 )(𝑬 − 𝑽)𝝍 = 𝟎 (1)

The three-dimensional differential equation for a

wave is,

𝛛𝟐 𝝍 𝟐
𝟐 [𝛛 𝝍 𝛛𝟐 𝝍 𝛛𝟐 𝝍
= 𝒗𝒑 𝛛𝒙𝟐 + 𝛛𝒚𝟐 + 𝛛𝒛𝟐 ] = 𝒗𝟐𝒑 𝛁 𝟐 𝝍 (2)
𝛛𝒕𝟐

The solution for the above differential equation may

be written in the form

𝝍(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛, 𝒕) = 𝝍𝟎 (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛)𝒆−𝒊𝝎𝒕

Dropping the suffixes, 𝝍 = 𝝍𝟎 𝒆−𝒊𝝎𝒕 (3)

Differentiating with respect to 𝑡,

𝛛𝝍
= −𝒊𝝎𝝍𝟎 𝒆−𝒊𝝎𝒕 = −𝒊𝝎𝝍
𝛛𝒕
= −𝒊 × 𝟐𝝅𝝂𝝍 ( since 𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝝂) (𝟒)

where 𝝂 is the frequency of the wave.

But the total energy of the particle,
 𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂 ∴ 𝝂 = 𝑬/𝒉

Hence the equation (4) becomes

𝛛𝝍
= −𝒊(𝟐𝝅𝑬/𝒉)𝝍 = −𝒊(𝑬/ℏ)𝝍
𝛛𝒕
𝛛𝝍
∴ 𝑬𝝍 = 𝒊ℏ
𝛛𝒕

Substituting the value of 𝑬𝝍 in the equation (1), we

get,

𝟐
𝟐𝒎 𝛛𝝍
𝛁 𝝍 + 𝟐 [𝒊ℏ − 𝑽𝝍] =𝟎
ℏ 𝛛𝒕
𝟐𝒎 𝛛𝝍
𝛁𝟐 𝝍 =− [𝒊ℏ − 𝑽𝝍]
ℏ𝟐 𝛛𝒕
ℏ𝟐 𝟐 𝛛𝝍
− 𝛁 𝝍 = 𝒊ℏ − 𝑽𝝍
𝟐𝒎 𝛛𝒕
ℏ𝟐 𝟐 𝛛𝝍
− 𝛁 𝝍 + 𝑽𝝍 = 𝒊ℏ
𝟐𝒎 𝛛𝒕
ℏ𝟐 𝟐 𝛛𝝍
[− 𝛁 + 𝑽] 𝝍 = 𝒊ℏ (𝟔)
𝟐𝒎 𝛛𝒕

This equation is known as Schrödinger time

dependent wave equation.
The equation (6) may be written as,
 𝑯𝝍 = 𝑬𝝍

ℏ 𝛛
where 𝑯 = − 𝛁 𝟐 + 𝑽 and 𝑬 = 𝒊ℏ .
𝟐𝒎 𝛛𝒕

𝑯 is called the Hamiltonian operator and 𝑬 is called

the eigen value.

Eigenfunction and Eigenvalue

• When a particle is confined in a finite region,

then for single valued, continuous and finite
solutions of Schrödinger equation, there can
contain only one definite value of energy 𝑬.
• These values are said to be the eigen values.
• Corresponding to each allowed eigen value 𝑬,
there is only one function 𝝍 obtained as the
solution of the Schrödinger equation.
• This function is called eigen function.
PARTICLE IN A POTENTIAL BOX

• Consider a particle of mass 𝒎 in a one-dimensional potential box.

• The particle is restricted to move only along the 𝑋-axis and is confined to

the region 𝑥 = 𝟎 and 𝒙 = 𝑳.

• This means that the potential energy 𝑉 is infinity at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 𝐿;

whereas 𝑉 is zero inside the box.

• In other words, the box is supposed to have walls of infinite height.

• In such a case the particle is said to be moving in an infinitely deep

potential well.

• The particle can move back and forth freely between 𝒙 = 𝟎 and 𝒙 = 𝑳.

In terms of boundary conditions,

 𝑽 = 𝟎, when 𝒙 > 𝟎 and 𝒙 < 𝑳
𝑽 = ∞, when 𝒙 ≤ 𝟎 and 𝒙 ≥ 𝑳
𝝍 = 𝟎, when 𝒙 ≤ 𝟎 and 𝒙 ≥ 𝑳

[Since the particle cannot exist outside the box, 𝝍 = 𝟎, when 𝒙 ≤ 𝟎 and 𝒙 ≥ 𝑳 ]

We have to find the value of 𝝍 within the box, i.e., between 𝒙 = 𝟎 and 𝒙 = 𝑳.

According to the Schrödinger steady state equation,

𝒅𝟐 𝝍 𝟖𝝅𝟐 𝒎
+ (𝑬 − 𝑽)𝝍 = 𝟎 (1)
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒉𝟐

Since 𝑽 = 𝟎 inside the box,

𝒅𝟐 𝝍 𝟖𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝑬
+ 𝝍=𝟎 (2)
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒉𝟐

Let 𝟖𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝑬/𝒉𝟐 = 𝒌𝟐. Then,

𝒅𝟐 𝝍
+ 𝒌𝟐 𝝍 = 𝟎 (3)
𝒅𝒙𝟐

This is a second-degree differential equation in 𝝍. The general solution of this

equation is,

𝝍(𝒙) = 𝑨𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒌𝒙 + 𝑩𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒌𝒙 (4)

where 𝑨 and 𝑩 are constants.

This constant can be determined by applying boundary conditions.

When 𝒙 = 𝟎, 𝝍 = 𝟎

∴ 𝟎= 𝟎+𝑩
 ∴𝑩=𝟎

Hence, 𝝍(𝒙) = 𝑨𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒌𝒙 (5)

When 𝒙 = 𝑳, 𝝍 = 𝟎

∴ 𝟎 = 𝐀𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒌𝑳 ;

𝑨𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒌𝑳 = 𝟎 (6)

Since 𝑨 cannot be zero, 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒌𝑳 = 𝟎

∴ 𝒌𝑳 = 𝒏𝝅; 𝒌 = 𝒏𝝅/𝑳 (7)

Hence equation (5) becomes,

𝝍(𝒙) = 𝑨𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝒏𝝅/𝑳)𝒙 (8)

where 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …

[𝒏 = 𝟎 is not admissible because when 𝒏 = 𝟎, 𝝍(𝒙) = 𝟎 inside the box.

This means that the particle is nowhere inside the box]

Expression for eigenvalues

𝒌𝟐 = 𝟖𝝅𝟐 𝒎𝑬/𝒉𝟐
𝒌 𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝒏 𝟐 𝒉𝟐
∴𝑬 = = [ since 𝒌 = 𝒏𝝅/𝑳]
𝟖𝝅𝟐 𝒎 𝟖𝒎𝑳𝟐

where 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …
 𝒏 𝟐 𝒉𝟐
∴ 𝑬𝒏 = ; 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …
𝟖𝒎𝑳𝟐

When 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝑬𝟏 = 𝒉𝟐 /𝟖𝒎𝑳𝟐

𝒏 = 𝟐, 𝑬𝟐 = 𝟒𝒉𝟐 /𝟖𝒎𝑳𝟐
𝒏 = 𝟑, 𝑬𝟑 = 𝟗𝒉𝟐 /𝟖𝒎𝑳𝟐 …

• Thus, we see that in a potential well the particle cannot have an arbitrary

energy, but can take only certain discrete energy values 𝑬𝟏 , 𝑬𝟐 , 𝑬𝟑 , …

corresponding to 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, …

• These are the eigenvalues of the particle in the well.

• The integer 𝒏 corresponding to the energy level is called the quantum

number of that energy level.

Eigenfunction

The eigenfunction is given by the equation (8)

 i.e., 𝝍𝒏 (𝒙) = 𝑨𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝒏𝝅/𝑳)𝒙

To find the value of the constant 𝑨, let us apply the normalisation condition.

It is certain that the particle is somewhere inside the box, i.e., within 𝑥 = 0 and

𝑥=𝐿

𝑳
∴ ∫ 𝝍𝝍∗ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏
𝟎

𝑳
∴ ∫ |𝝍𝒏 (𝒙)|𝟐 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏
𝟎

i.e.,

𝑳 𝑳
𝒏𝝅𝒙 𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒙/𝑳)
∫ 𝑨𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 ( ) 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏 𝐨𝐫 𝑨𝟐 ∫ [ ] 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏
𝟎 𝑳 𝟎 𝟐
𝑨𝟐 𝑳 𝑨𝟐 𝑳
i.e., ∫ 𝒅𝒙 − ∫ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝟐𝝅𝒏𝒙/𝑳)𝒅𝒙 = 𝟏
𝟐 𝟎 𝟐 𝟎
𝑨𝟐
i.e., 𝑳−𝟎= 𝟏
𝟐
∴ 𝑨 = √𝟐/𝑳

Hence the eigenfunction,

𝝍𝒏 (𝒙) = √𝟐/𝑳𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝒏𝝅𝒙/𝑳) (9)

When 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝝍𝟏 (𝒙) = √𝟐/𝑳𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝝅𝒙/𝑳) (a)

𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒙
𝒏 = 𝟐, 𝝍𝟐 (𝒙) = √𝑳 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( ) (𝒃)
𝑳

𝟐 𝟑𝝅𝒙
𝒏 = 𝟑, 𝝍𝟑 (𝒙) = √𝑳 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( ) (𝒄)
𝑳
and so on.

Equations (a), (b), (c),... give the eigenfunction 𝝍𝟏 (𝒙), 𝝍𝟐 (𝒙), 𝝍𝟑 (𝒙), …