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Introduction to Fluid
Mechanics
Second Edition
Yasuki Nakayama
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
This book is translated from Ryutai-no-Rikigaku 2nd edition (in Japanese) published by YOKENDO CO. LTD,
5-30-15 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033 Japan, copyright 2013 by Yasuki Nakayam.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the
Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center
and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our
understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using
any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods
they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a
professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability
for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise,
or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-08-102437-9

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Production Project Manager: Surya Narayanan Jayachandran
Designer: Mark Rogers

Typeset by TNQ Books and Journals

About the Author

Yasuki Nakayama was an internationally influential and respected expert in both mechanical engi-
neering and visualization. During his career he held various important posts in Japan, including as
President of the Future Technology Research Institute, as Professor of fluid mechanics and visualization
at Tokai University, and at the National Railway Research Institute. He was also a Visiting Professor at
Southampton University, President of the Visualization Society of Japan, and Director of the Japan
Society of Mechanical Engineering. He published more than 180 research papers and more than 10
books and was a cofounder of the Journal of Visualization. His research earned him many awards and
distinctions including the Medal with Purple Ribbon from the Emperor of Japan. He sadly passed away
in 2016 before this book was published.

xi
Advisory Editor Biographies

Kazuyasu Izawa is an independent consultant in the field of lubrication, providing technical services to
industrial companies and lubrication management training sessions to lubrication engineers. He was
granted and received his doctorate (Engineering) in the field of fluid power control under the guidance
of Professor Nakayama.
Makoto Oki has a background in fluids engineering. He is currently a Professor at Tokai University in
Japan, where he teaches and researches in information technology.
Katsumi Aoki engaged in research and education of fluid dynamics and mechanical engineering for
40years at the Faculty of Engineering, Graduate School of Tokai University. Currently, he is a professor
emeritus at Tokai University and an advisor to technology companies.

REVIEWER BIOGRAPHY
John Tippetts is an independent consultant in the fields of mechanical and industrial engineering,
based in Sheffield, UK.

xiii
Preface

This book was written as a textbook or guidebook on fluid mechanics for stu-
dents or junior engineers studying mechanical or civil engineering. The recent
progress in the science of visualization and computational fluid dynamics is
astounding. In this book, effort has been made to introduce students/engineers
to fluid mechanics by making explanations easy to understand, including
recent information and comparing the theories with actual phenomena.
Fluid mechanics has hitherto been divided into “hydraulics”, dealing with the
experimental side, and “hydrodynamics”, dealing with the theoretical side. In
recent years, however, both have merged into an inseparable single science. A
great deal was contributed by developments in the science of visualization
and by the progress in computational fluid dynamics using advances in com-
puters. This book is written from this point of view.
The following features are included in the book:
1. Many illustrations, photographs, and items of interest are presented
for easy reading.
2. Portrait sketches of 18 selected pioneers who contributed to the
development of fluid mechanics are inserted, together with brief
descriptions of their achievements in the field.
3. Related major books and papers are presented in footnotes to
facilitate advanced study.
4. Exercises appear at the ends of chapters to test understanding of the
chapter topic.
5. Special emphasis is placed on flow visualization and computational
fluid dynamics by including 25 color images in the frontispiece
section to assist understanding. The 14 images in the previous edition
have been revised and the 25 images are selected for the revision.
6. Many computational fluid dynamics and flow visualization videos
(eBook) and illustrations are replaced or added in the second edition
of the book.

xv
xvi Preface

All chapters have been reviewed and many changes in most chapters have been
made to better understand fluid mechanics. Among them, Chapter 15, Compu-
tational Fluid Dynamics, especially has the most significant modification as a
result of tremendous development in the last few decades.
Professor Yasuki Nakayama sadly passed away in 2016 at the age of 99 years.
He had been preparing the second edition of this book just before his death.
His strong will to publish this book made us fulfill his last wish.
We wish to acknowledge Dr John Tippetts in Sheffield, UK, who proofread the
book and provided many helpful suggestions for improving the manuscript.
We express our special appreciation to Yokendo Co. Ltd for giving permission
to use figures and illustrations present in the Japanese version of this book for
the second edition of English book.
We would like to express special appreciation to The Visualization Society
of Japan for permission to use various proceedings, journals and other
publications.
Our appreciation also goes to ANSYS, Inc. for permission to use ANSYSÒ
FluentÒ 17.0 for creating animation of fluid flow by computational fluid
dynamics for eBook.
Finally, we thank the editorial and publication staff of Elsevier for their great
assistance and cooperation.

Kazuyasu Izawa
Makoto Oki
Katsumi Aoki
 CHAPTER 1

History of Fluid Mechanics

1.1 FLUID MECHANICS IN EVERYDAY LIFE

There is air around us, and there are rivers and seas near us. ‘The flow of a river
never ceases. The river endures but the water forever changes. Bubbles floating
on the stagnant water now vanish and then develop but never remain.’ So
stated Kamo no Choumei, the famous, 13th century essayist of Japan, in the
prologue of H oj
oki, his collection of essays. Such a movement of gas or liquid
(collectively called fluid) is called the ‘flow’ and the study of this field is called
‘fluid mechanics’.
While the flows of air in the atmosphere and water in rivers and the sea are
flows of our concern, so also are the flows of water and sewage, in gas pipes,
irrigation canals, and the flow around rockets, airplanes, bullet trains, automo-
biles and ships. The resistance which acts on such bodies is a ubiquitous
problem.
The trajectories of balls in baseball and golf are all influenced by flow. Further-
more, the movement of people on the platform of a railway station or at
the intersection of a street can be regarded as forms of flow. In a wider sense,
the movement of social phenomena and information, and history could be
regarded as flows, too. In these ways we have a close relationship with flow,
so ‘fluid mechanics’ which studies flow, is really a natural topic for our
attention.

1.2 THE BEGINNING OF ‘FLUID MECHANICS’

The science of flow has been classified into hydraulics, which developed from
experimental studies, and hydrodynamics which developed through theoret-
ical studies. In recent years, however, both have merged into the single disci-
pline called fluid mechanics.
Hydraulics developed as a purely empirical science with practical techniques
beginning in prehistorical times. As our ancestors settled to engage in farming
and their hamlets developed into villages, the continuous supply of a proper
1
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Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 CHAPTER 1: History of Fluid Mechanics

quantity of water and the transport of essential food and materials posed the
most important problem. In this sense, it is believed that hydraulics was
born in the utilization of water channels and ships.
Prehistoric relics of irrigation canals were discovered in Egypt and Mesopota-
mia, and it has been confirmed that canals had been constructed more than
4000 years BC.
Water in cities is said to have begun in Jerusalem, where a reservoir to store
water and a masonry channel to carry the water were constructed. Water
canals were also constructed in Greece and other places. Above all, however,
it was the Romans who constructed aqueducts throughout the Roman
Empire. Even today their remains are still visible in many places in Europe
(Fig. 1.1).
The city water system in those days conveyed relatively clear water from far
away to fountains, baths and public buildings. Citizens then fetched the water
from water supply stations at high street corners, etc. The quantity of water used
per day by a citizen in those days is said to be approximately 180 L. Today, the
amount of water used per capita per day in an average household is said to be
approximately 240 L. Therefore, according to this measure even about
2000 years ago, an impressive degree of amenity was attained.
As stated above, the history of the city water system is very old. But in the
development process of city water systems, to transport water effectively, the
shape and size of the water conduit had to be designed and its inclination

FIGURE 1.1
Restored arch of Roman aqueduct in Campania Plain, Italy.
 1.2 The Beginning of ‘Fluid Mechanics’ 3

or supply pressure had to be adjusted to overcome wall friction in the conduit.

This gave rise to much invention and progress in overcoming hydraulic
problems.
On the other hand, the origin of the ship is not clear, but it is easy to imagine
the course of progress from log to raft, from manual propulsion to sails and
from river to ocean navigation. The Phoenicians and Egyptians built huge,
excellent ships. The relief work shown in Fig. 1.2, which was made about
2700 BC, clearly depicts a ship which existed at that time. The Greeks also
left various records of ships. One of them is a beautiful picture of a ship
depicted on an old Grecian vase, as shown in Fig. 1.3. As these objects indicate,

FIGURE 1.2
Relief of ancient Egyptian ship.

FIGURE 1.3
Ancient Greek ship depicted on old vase.
4 CHAPTER 1: History of Fluid Mechanics

it was by progress in ship building and also navigation techniques that allowed
much fundamental hydraulic knowledge to be accumulated.
Another noteworthy finding is the discovery of the world’s first vortex produced
by the Jomon people. A Jomon pot, shown in Fig. 1.4, was made about
5000 years ago in Japan and the vortex pattern depicted on the side wall is
the world’s first to show twin vortices and Kármán vortices separately.1,2 In
addition, many pots decorated with simple depictions of Kármán vortices
have been discovered in this region.
Before proceeding to describe the development of hydraulics, the Renaissance
period of Leonard da Vinci in particular should be recalled. Popularly he is well
known as a great artist, but he was an excellent scientist, too. He was so well
versed in the laws of natural science that he stated that ‘a body gives air the
same force as the resistance which air gives the body’. These statements pre-
ceded Newton’s law of gravity and the third law of motion (law of action
and reaction).

FIGURE 1.4
Earthenware with flame or water vortex ornamentation, 3000 years BC (unearthed location, Umataka,
Niigata, Japan).1,2

1
The Niigata Prefectural Museum of History, Country of Earthen Pots with a Flame Design, Niigata
Nippo Jigyousha Corporation, 2009, 88.
2
Y. Nakayama, et al., Japan Society for Archaeological Information 10 (1) (2004) 1.
 1.2 The Beginning of ‘Fluid Mechanics’ 5

Leonardo da Vinci (1452e1519).

An all-round genius born in Italy. His unceasing zeal for the truth and incomparable power of imagination
are apparent in numerous sketches and astonishing design charts of implements, precise human
anatomical charts and flow diagrams of fluids. He drew streamlines and vortices on these flow charts,
which almost satisfy our present needs. It can therefore be said that he ingeniously suggested modern flow
visualization.

Particularly interesting in the history of hydraulics is Leonardo’s note where an

extensive description is made of the water movements, including vortices,
waves, falling water, buoyancy, outflow, pipe flow and water channel flow
in hydraulic machinery. As examples, Fig. 1.5 is a sketch of the flow around
an obstacle, and Fig. 1.6 shows the development of vortices in the separation
region. Leonardo was the first to find the least resistive streamline shape.
In addition, he made many discoveries and observations in the field of hydrau-
lics. He forecast laws such as the drag and movement of a jet or falling water
which only later scholars were to discover. Furthermore, he advocated the
observation of internal flow by floating particles in water, that is, ‘visualization
of the flow’. Indeed, Leonardo was a great pioneer who opened up the field of
hydraulics. Excellent researchers followed in his footsteps, and hydraulics pro-
gressed greatly from the 17th to the 20th century.
On the other hand, the advent of hydrodynamics, which tackles fluid move-
ment both mathematically and theoretically, was considerably later than that
6 CHAPTER 1: History of Fluid Mechanics

FIGURE 1.5
Sketches from Leonardo da Vinci’s notes (No. 1).

FIGURE 1.6
Sketches from Leonardo da Vinci’s notes (No. 2).

of hydraulics. Its foundations were laid in the 18th century. Complete theoret-
ical equations for the flow of non-viscous (non-frictional) fluid were derived by
Euler (see Section 5.2.1) and other researchers. Thereby, various flows were
mathematically describable. Nevertheless, the computation according to these
theories of the force acting on a body or the state of flow differed greatly from
the experimentally observed result.
In this way, hydrodynamics was thought to lack practical use. In the 19th
century, however, it advanced sufficiently to compete fully with hydraulics.
One example of such progress was the derivation of the equation for the
motion of a viscous fluid by Navier and Stokes. Unfortunately, because this
equation has convection terms among the terms expressing the inertia (the
terms expressing the force which varies from place to place), which renders
 1.2 The Beginning of ‘Fluid Mechanics’ 7

the equation nonlinear, it was not easy to obtain the analytical solution for gen-
eral flows. Only such special flows as laminar flow between parallel plates or in
a circular pipe were solved.
Meanwhile, however, in 1869 an important paper was published which con-
nected hydraulics and hydrodynamics. This was the report in which Kirchhoff,
a German physicist (1824e87), computed the coefficient of contraction for the
jet from a two-dimensional orifice as 0.611. This value coincided very closely
with the experimental value for the case of an actual orificedapproximately
0.60.
As it was then possible to compute a value near the actual value, hydrody-
namics was re-evaluated by hydraulics scholars. Furthermore, in the present
age, with the progress in electronic computers and the development of various
numerical techniques in hydrodynamics, it is now possible to obtain numerical
solutions of the NaviereStokes equation. Thus, the barrier between hydraulics
and hydrodynamics has now been completely removed, and the field is prob-
ably on the eve of a big leap into a new age.
 CHAPTER 2

Characteristics of a Fluid

2.1 FLUID
Fluids are divided into liquids and gases. Liquid is hard to compress and as in
the ancient saying ‘Water takes the shape of the vessel containing it’, it changes
its shape according to the shape of its container and has an upper free surface.
Gas on the other hand is easy to compress, and fully expands to fill its
container. There is thus no free surface.
Consequently, an important characteristic of a fluid from the viewpoint of fluid
mechanics is its compressibility. Another characteristic is its viscosity. Whereas
a solid shows its elasticity in tension, compression, or shearing stress, a fluid
does so only for compression. In other words, a fluid increases its pressure
against compression, trying to retain its original volume. This characteristic is
called compressibility. Furthermore, a fluid shows resistance whenever two
layers slide over each other. This characteristic is called viscosity.
In general, liquids are called incompressible fluids and gases compressible
fluids. Nevertheless, for liquids, compressibility must be taken into account
whenever they are highly pressurized, and for gases, compressibility may be dis-
regarded whenever the change in pressure is small. Although a fluid is an aggre-
gate of molecules in constant motion, the mean free path of these molecules is
0.06 mm or so even for air of normal temperature and pressure, so a fluid is
treated as a continuous isotropic substance.
Meanwhile, a nonexistent, assumed fluid without either viscosity or compress-
ibility is called an ideal fluid or perfect fluid. A virtual fluid without compress-
ibility or viscosity is called an ideal fluid or perfect fluid. Furthermore, a gas
subject to Boyle’seCharles’ law is called a perfect gas or ideal gas.

2.2 UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

All physical quantities are given in a few fundamental quantities or their
combinations. The units of such fundamental quantities are called base units,
combination of them being called derived units. The system in which length,
9
Introduction to Fluid Mechanics. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102437-9.00002-4
Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
10 CHAPTER 2: Characteristics of a Fluid

mass, and time are adopted as the basic quantities, and from which the units
of other quantities are derived, is called the absolute system of units.

2.2.1 Absolute System of Units

MKS System of Units
This is the system of units where the metre (m) is used for the unit of length,
kilogram (kg) for the unit of mass and second (s) for the unit of time as the
base units.

CGS System of Units

This is the system of units where the centimetre (cm) is used for length, gram
(g) for mass, and second (s) for time as the base units.

International System of Units

SI, the abbreviation of La Systeme International d’Unites, is the system devel-
oped from the MKS system of units. It is a consistent and reasonable system
of units which makes it a rule to adopt only one unit for each of the various
quantities used in such fields as science, education and industry.
There are seven fundamental SI units, namely, metre (m) for length, kilogram
(kg) for mass, second (s) for time, ampere (A) for electric current, Kelvin (K) for
thermodynamic temperature, mole (mol) for mass quantity and candela (cd)
for intensity of light (Table 2.1). Derived units consist of these units
(Table 2.2).

SI Prefixes
It is often useful to use prefixes with the SI units for very large or very small nu-
merical values. The SI prefixes used to form decimal multiples and submulti-
ples of SI units are specified as shown in Table 2.3.

Table 2.1 SI Basic and Supplementary Units

Quantity Name Units

Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Mass quantity mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
Plane angle radian rada
a
Supplementary unit.
 2.2 Units and Dimensions 11

Table 2.2 SI Derived Units

Quantity Name Unit

Velocity Metre per second m/s

Acceleration Metre per second squared m/s2
Pressure Pascal Pa (¼N/m2)
Stress Pascal Pa (¼N/m2)
Viscosity Pascal second Pa s
Kinematic viscosity Metre squared per second m2/s
Force Newton N
Moment of torque Newton metre Nm
Energy Joule J (N m)
Power Watt W (J/s)
Angular acceleration Radian per second rad/s
Rotational speed Rotation per second s 1
Frequency Hertz Hz

Table 2.3 SI Prefixes

Factor Name Symbol Factor Name Symbol Factor Name Symbol

1024 Yotta Y 103 Kilo k 10e9 Nano n

1021 Zetta Z 102 Hecto h 10e12 Pico p
1018 Exa E 101 Deka da 10e15 Femto f
1015 Peta P 10e1 Deci d 10e18 Atto a
1012 Tera T 10e2 Centi c 10e21 Zepto z
109 Giga G 10e3 Milli m 10e24 Yocto y
106 Mega M 10e6 Micro m

2.2.2 Dimension
All physical quantities are expressed in combinations of base units. The index
number of the combination of base units expressing a certain physical quantity
is called the dimension, as follows. In the absolute system of units, the length,
mass and time are, respectively, expressed by L, M and T. Put Q as a certain
physical quantity and c as proportional constant, and assume that they are
expressed as follows:

Q ¼ cLa Mb T g (2.1)
where a, b and g are, respectively, called the dimensions of Q for L, M and T.
Table 2.4 shows the dimensions of various quantities.
12 CHAPTER 2: Characteristics of a Fluid

Table 2.4 Dimensions and Units

Absolute System of Units

Quantity a b g Units

Length 1 0 0 m
Mass 0 1 0 kg
Time 0 0 1 s
Velocity 1 0 1 m/s
Acceleration 1 0 2 m/s2
Density 3 1 0 kg/m3
Force 1 1 2 N
Pressure, stress 1 1 2 Pa
Energy, work 2 1 2 J
Viscosity 1 1 1 Pa s
Kinematic viscosity 2 0 1 m2/s

2.3 DENSITY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND SPECIFIC

VOLUME
The mass per unit volume of material is called the density, which is generally
expressed by the symbol r. The density of a gas changes according to the pres-
sure, but that of a liquid may be considered unchangeable in general. The units
of density are kg/m3 (SI). The density of water at 4 C and l atm (101 325 Pa,
standard atmospheric pressure; see Section 3.1.1) is 1000 kg/m3.
The ratio of the density of a material r to the density of water rw is called the
specific gravity, which is expressed by the symbol s: density of a material r is
called the specific gravity, which is expressed by the symbol s.
r
s¼ (2.2)
rw
The reciprocal of density, i.e., the volume per unit mass, is called the specific
volume which is generally expressed by the sign n.
1  3

n¼ m kg (2.3)
r
Values for density r of water and air and specific weight g under the standard
atmospheric pressure are shown on Table 2.5.
 2.4 Viscosity 13

Table 2.5 Density of Water and Air (Standard Atmospheric Pressure)

Temperature ( C) 0 10 15 20 40 60 80 100

r (kg/m3) Water 999.8 999.7 999.1 998.2 992.2 983.2 971.8 958.4
Air 1.293 1.247 1.226 1.205 1.128 1.060 1.000 0.9464

2.4 VISCOSITY
As shown in Fig. 2.1, suppose that liquid fills the space between two parallel
plates of area A each and gap h, the lower plate is fixed and force F is needed
to move the upper plate in parallel at velocity U. Whenever Uh/n < 1500
(n ¼ m/r: kinematic viscosity), laminar flow (see Section 4.4) is maintained,
and a linear velocity distribution, as shown in the figure, is obtained. Such a
parallel flow of uniform velocity gradient is called Couette flow.
In this case, the force per unit area necessary for moving the plate, i.e., the
shearing stress (Pa) is proportional to U and inversely proportional to h. Using
a proportional constant m, it can be expressed as follows:
F U
s¼ ¼m (2.4)
A h
The proportional constant m is called the viscosity, the coefficient of viscosity or
the dynamic viscosity.

F U

u
τ τ
y h

O
FIGURE 2.1
Couette flow.
14 CHAPTER 2: Characteristics of a Fluid

Isaac Newton (1642e1727).

English mathematician, physicist and astronomer; studied at the University of Cambridge. His three big
discoveries of the spectral analysis of light, universal gravitation and differential and integral calculus are
only too well known. There are so many scientific terms named after Newton (Newton’s rings and Newton’s
law of motion/viscosity/resistance) that he can be regarded as the greatest contributor to the establishment
of modern natural science.

Newton’s statue at Grantham near Woolsthorpe, his birthplace.

Such a flow where the velocity u in the x direction changes in the y direction is
called shear flow. Fig. 2.1 shows the case where the fluid in the gap is not flow-
ing. However, the velocity distribution in the case where the fluid is flowing is
 2.4 Viscosity 15

In the case of U = 0

y dy

y
x du
O
FIGURE 2.2
Flow between parallel plates.

as shown in Fig. 2.2. Extending Eq. (2.4) to such a flow, the shear stress s on the
section ddfsdsfsdgy, distance y from the solid wall, is given by the following
equation:
du
s¼m (2.5)
dy
This relation was found by Newton through experiment and is called Newton’s
law of viscosity.
In the case of gases, increased temperature makes the molecular movement more
vigorous and increases molecular mixing so that the viscosity increases. In the case
of a liquid, as its temperature increases molecules separate from each other,
decreasing the attraction between them, and thus the velocity decreases. The
relation between the temperature and the viscosity is thus reversed for gas and
for liquid. Fig. 2.3 shows the change with temperature of the viscosity of air
and of water.
The units of viscosity are Pa s (Pascal second) in SI and g/(cm s) in CGS absolute
system of units; 1 g/(cm s) in the absolute system of units is called 1 P (Poise)
(because Poiseuille’s law, stated in Section 6.3.2, is utilized for measuring the ve-
locity, the unit is named after him), while its 1/100th part is 1 cP (centipoise).
Thus,
1 P ¼ 100 cP ¼ 0:1 Pa s
Value n obtained by dividing viscosity m by density r is called the kinematic vis-
cosity or the coefficient of kinematic viscosity.
m
n¼ (2.6)
r
Because the effect of viscosity on the movement of fluid is expressed by n, the
name kinematic viscosity is given. This unit is m2/s regardless of the system of
16 CHAPTER 2: Characteristics of a Fluid

×10–5 ×10–5
220 2.2

180 2.1

Viscosity of water, µ (Pa s)

Viscosity of air, µ (Pa s)

140 2.0

r
Ai
100 1.9

60 1.8
wa
ter

20 1.7
0 20 40 60 80 100
Temperature (°C)
FIGURE 2.3
Change in viscosity of air and of water under 1 atm.

units. In the CGS system of units, l cm/s is called 1 St (Stokes) (because Stokes’
equation, to be stated in Section 9.3.3, is utilized for measuring viscosity, it is
named after him), while its 1/100th part is 1 cSt (centistokes).
Thus,
4
m2 s


1 St ¼ 1  10

1 cSt ¼ 1  10 6 m2 s

The viscosity m and the kinematic viscosity n of water and air under standard
atmospheric pressure are given in Table 2.6.
The kinematic viscosity n of oil is approximately 30e100 cSt. Viscosity sensi-
tivity to temperature is expressed by the viscosity index VI,1 a nondimensional
number. A large VI of 100 is assigned to the least temperature sensitive oil and
0 to the most sensitive. Although oil is used under high pressure in many cases,
the viscosity of oil is apt to increase somewhat as the pressure increases.

1
ISO 2909.
 2.5 Newtonian Fluid and Non-Newtonian Fluid 17

Table 2.6 Viscosity and Kinematic Viscosity of Water and Air at Standard Atmospheric Pressure
Water Air

Temp. Viscosity, m Kinematic Viscosity, n Viscosity, m Kinematic Viscosity, n

( C) (Pa s 3 10L5) (m2/s 3 10L6) (Pa s 3 10L5) (m2/s 3 10L6)

0 179.2 1.792 1.724 13.33

10 130.7 1.307 1.773 14.21
20 100.2 1.004 1.822 15.12
30 79.7 0.801 1.869 16.04
40 65.3 0.658 1.915 16.98

2.5 NEWTONIAN FLUID AND NON-NEWTONIAN FLUID

Viscous fluid is classified in terms of whether fluid flow follows Newton’s law of
viscosity or not. For water, oil, or air, the shearing stress s is proportional to the
velocity gradient du/dy. In other words, fluid with constant viscosity or coeffi-
cient of viscosity is Newtonian fluid and fluid with non-constant viscosity is
non-Newtonian fluid. Fig. 2.4 shows the relationship between force applied
and viscosity of various fluids. Typical examples of non-Newtonian fluids are
Bingham fluid (plastic fluid), pseudoplastic fluid, dilatant fluid, etc.

2.5.1 Bingham Fluid (Plastic Fluid)

An example is solid butter. It does not flow until a critical force is applied. Once
the critical force is exceeded, it flows like a Newtonian fluid with constant
viscosity.

pseudoplastic fluid
Viscosity

Newtonian fluid

Bingham fluid

dilatant fluid

Force applied
FIGURE 2.4
Rheological diagram.
18 CHAPTER 2: Characteristics of a Fluid

2.5.2 Pseudoplastic Fluid

In contrast to a Bingham fluid, a pseudoplastic fluid is a fluid that increases vis-
cosity as force is applied. A typical example is a suspension of cornstarch in wa-
ter with a concentration of one to one. This cornstarch behaves like water when
no force is applied; however, it is solidified as force is applied.
In addition to the above, there is fluid called time-dependent fluid. Fluid whose
viscosity decreases over time is called Thixotropy fluid and fluid whose viscosity
increases with time is called Rheopectic fluid.
Non-Newtonian fluid with various properties exists. Their mechanical behaviour
is minutely treated by rheology, the science relating to the deformation and
flow of a substance.

2.6 SURFACE TENSION

The surface of liquid is apt to shrink, and its free surface is in such a state where
each section pulls another as if an elastic film is stretched. The tensile strength
per unit length of an assumed section of the free surface is called the surface
tension. Surface tensions of various kinds of liquid are given in Table 2.7.
As shown in Fig. 2.5, a dewdrop appearing on a plant leaf is spherical in shape.
This is also because of the tendency to shrink because of surface tension. Conse-
quently, its internal pressure is higher than its peripheral pressure. Putting d as
the diameter of the liquid drop, T as the surface tension and p as the increase in
internal pressure, the following equation is obtained owing to the balance of
force as shown in Fig. 2.6.
pd2
pdT ¼ Dp
4
or
4T
Dp ¼ (2.7)
d
The same applies to the case of small bubbles in liquid.

Table 2.7 Surface Tension of Liquid (20 C)

Liquid Surface Liquid N/m

Water Air 0.0728

Mercury Air 0.476
Mercury Water 0.373
Methyl alcohol Air 0.023
 2.6 Surface Tension 19

FIGURE 2.5
A dewdrop on a taro leaf.

π 2
d ∆p
4

d T
∆p

FIGURE 2.6
Balance between the pressure increases within a liquid drop and the surface tension.

Whenever a fine tube is pushed through the free surface of liquid, the liquid
rises up or falls in the tube as shown in Fig. 2.7 owing to the relation between
the surface tension and the adhesive force between the liquid and the solid.
This phenomenon is called capillarity. As shown in Fig. 2.8, d is the diameter
of the tube, q the contact angle of the liquid to the wall, r the density of liquid
and h the mean height of liquid surface. The following equations are obtained
owing to the balance between the adhesive force of liquid stuck to the wall,
trying to pull up the liquid up the tube by the surface tension, and the weight
of liquid in the tube.
20 CHAPTER 2: Characteristics of a Fluid

FIGURE 2.7
Change of liquid surface because of capillarity: (A) water (B) mercury.

T
θ

ρ
d

FIGURE 2.8
Capillarity.

pd2
pdT cos q ¼ rgh
4
or
4T cos q
h¼ (2.8)
rgd
Whenever water or alcohol is in direct contact with a glass tube in air under
normal temperature, q z 0. In the case of mercury, q ¼ 130e150 degrees. In
the case where a glass tube is placed in liquid,
 2.7 Compressibility 21

for water h ¼ 30=d

for alcohol h ¼ 11:6=d (2.9)

for mercury h¼ 10=d

where the units are mm.
Whenever pressure is measured using a liquid column, it is necessary to pay
attention to the capillarity correction.

2.7 COMPRESSIBILITY
As shown in Fig. 2.9, assume that fluid of volume V at pressure p decreased its
volume by DV because of the further increase in pressure by Dp. In this case,
because the cubical dilatation of the fluid is DV=V, the bulk modulus K is
expressed by the following equation:
Dp dp
K¼ ¼ V (2.10)
DV=V dV
Its reciprocal b
1
b¼ (2.11)
K
is called the compressibility, whose value directly indicates how compressible
the fluid is. For water of normal temperature/pressure, K ¼ 2.2  109 Pa and

p+∆p

∆V

FIGURE 2.9
Measuring of bulk modulus of fluid.
22 CHAPTER 2: Characteristics of a Fluid

for air K ¼ 1.4  105 Pa assuming adiabatic change. In the case of water,
b ¼ 4.85  10 10 Pa 1 and shrinks only by approximately 0.005% even if
the atmospheric pressure is increased by 1 atm.
Putting r as the fluid density and M as its mass, because rV ¼ M ¼ constant,
assume an increase in density Dr whenever the volume has decreased by DV,
and
Dp dp
K¼r ¼r (2.12)
Dr dr
The bulk modulus K is closely related to the velocity a of a pressure wave prop-
agating in a liquid, which is given by the following equation (see Section 13.2).
sffiffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffi
dp K
a¼ ¼ (2.13)
dr r

2.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF PERFECT GAS

Let p be the pressure of a gas, v the specific volume, T the absolute temperature
and R the gas constant. Then the following equation results from Boyle’se
Charles’ law:
pv ¼ RT (2.14)
This equation is called the equation of state of the gas, and v ¼ 1/r (SI) as
shown in Eq. (2.3). The value and unit of R varies as given in Table 2.8.
A gas subject to Eq. (2.14) is called a perfect gas or an ideal gas. Strictly
speaking, all real gases are not perfect gases. However, any gas at a considerably
higher temperature than its liquefied temperature may be regarded as approx-
imating to a perfect gas.

Table 2.8 Gas Constant R and Ratio of Specific Heat k

Density (kg/m3) R (SI)

Gas Symbol (0 C, 760 mm Hg) m2/(s2 K) k [ cp/cv

Helium He 0.1785 2078.1 1.66

Air e 1.293 287.1 1.402
Carbon monoxide CO 1.250 296.9 1.400
Hydrogen H2 0.0899 4124.8 1.409
Oxygen O2 1.429 259.8 1.399
Carbon dioxide CO2 1.977 189.0 1.301
Methane CH4 0.717 518.7 1.319
 2.9 Problems 23

Adiabatic

Polytropic

Pressure, p Isothermal
Isobaric
n=0

n=1
Isochoric
1 < n <κ n=κ

n=∞

0 Specific volume, ν
FIGURE 2.10
State change of perfect gas.

The change in state of a perfect gas is expressed by the following equation:

pvn ¼ constant
where, n is called the polytropic exponent. As this value changes from 0 through
N, as shown in Fig. 2.10, the state of gas makes five kinds of change known as
isobaric, isothermal, polytropic, adiabatic and isochoric changes. In particular,
in the case of adiabatic change, n ¼ k is obtained. Here k is the ratio of specific
heat at constant pressure cp to specific heat at constant volume cv, called the ra-
tio of specific heat (isentropic index). Its values for various gases are given in
Table 2.8.

2.9 PROBLEMS
1. Derive the SI unit of force from base units.
2. Express the viscosity and the kinematic viscosity in SI units.
3. The density of water at 4 C and 1 atm is 1000 kg/m3. Obtain the
specific volume v under such conditions.
4. Obtain the pressure in SI (Pa) necessary for shrinking the volume of
water by 1% at normal temperature and pressure. Assume the
compressibility of water b ¼ 4.85  10 10 Pa 1.
5. When two pates are placed vertically on a liquid as shown in Fig. 2.11,
derive the equation showing the increased height of the liquid surface
between the plates as a result if capillarity. Also when flat plates of
24 CHAPTER 2: Characteristics of a Fluid

θ
h

FIGURE 2.11
Surface tension between two plates.
φ 125
φ 122

200

FIGURE 2.12
Viscous friction between the pipe and the cylinder.

glass are used with a 1-mm gap, what is the increased height of the
water surface?
6. Water at 20 C contains a bubble of diameter 1 mm. How much
higher is the internal pressure of this bubble compared with the
outside pressure?
7. How much force is necessary to lift a ring, diameter 20 mm, made of
fine wire and placed on the surface of water at 20 C?
8. As shown in Fig. 2.12, a cylinder of diameter 122 mm and length
200 mm is placed inside a concentric long pipe of diameter 125 mm.
An oil film is introduced in the gap between the pipe and the cylinder.
What force is necessary to move the cylinder at a velocity 1 m/s?
Assume that the dynamic viscosity of oil is 30 cSt and the specific
gravity is 0.9.
9. Calculate the velocity of sound propagating in water at 20 C. Assume
that the bulk modulus of water K ¼ 2.2  109 Pa.
 CHAPTER 3

Fluid Statics

Fluid statics is concerned with the balance of forces which stabilize fluids at rest.
In the case of a liquid, as the pressure largely changes according to its height, it
is necessary to take its depth into account. Furthermore, even in the case of rela-
tive rest (e.g., the case where the fluid is stable relative to its vessel even when
the vessel is rotating at high speed), the fluid can be regarded as being at rest if
the fluid movement is observed in terms of coordinates fixed upon the vessel.

3.1 PRESSURE
When a uniform pressure acts on a flat plate of area A and a force P pushes the
plate, then
P
p¼ (3.1)
A
In this case, p is the pressure and P is the pressure force. When the pressure is not
uniform, the pressure acting on the minute area DA is expressed by the
following equation:
DP dP
p ¼ lim ¼ (3.2)
DA/0 DA dA

3.1.1 Units of Pressure

The unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa), but it is also expressed in bar or meters of
water column (mH2O).1 The conversion table of pressure units is given in
Table 3.1. In addition, in some cases atmospheric pressure is used:

1 atm ¼ 760 mmHg at 273:15 K; g ¼ 9:80665 m s2 ¼ 101; 325 Pa (3.3)

 

1 atm is standard 1 atmospheric pressure in meteorology and is called the

standard atmospheric pressure.

1
Reference to the spread of Aqua appears at the end of this chapter. 25
Introduction to Fluid Mechanics. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102437-9.00003-6
Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
26 CHAPTER 3: Fluid Statics

Table 3.1 Conversion of Pressure Units

Name of Unit Unit Conversion

Pascal Pa 1 Pa ¼ 1 N/m2
Bar bar 1 bar ¼ 0.1 MPa
Water column metre mH2O 1 mH2O ¼ 9806.65 Pa
Atmospheric pressure atm 1 atm ¼ 101,325 Pa
Mercury column metre mHg 1 mHg ¼ l/0.76 atm
Torr Torr 1 Torr ¼ 1 mm Hg

3.1.2 Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure

There are two methods used to express the pressure: one is based on the perfect
vacuum and the other on the atmospheric pressure. The former is called the
absolute pressure and the latter is called the gauge pressure. Then,
gauge pressure ¼ absolute pressure atmospheric pressure
In gauge pressure, a pressure under 1 atmospheric pressure is expressed as a
negative pressure. This relation is shown in Fig. 3.1. Most gauges are con-
structed to indicate the gauge pressure.

3.1.3 Characteristics of Pressure

The pressure has the following three characteristics:
1. The pressure of a fluid always acts perpendicular to the wall in contact
with the fluid.
pressure (+)
Gauge

1 atm Gauge pressure 0

Absolute pressure
760 mm Hg = 10.332 m Aq

Gauge pressure (–)

Barometer reading

B
Absolute
pressure

Perfect vacuum

FIGURE 3.1
Absolute pressure and gauge pressure.
 3.1 Pressure 27

C'
C

C p

p1 dA1 dA
A'

B' dA2 θ
A A B
p2
B
FIGURE 3.2
Pressure acting on a minute triangular prism.

2. The values of pressure acting on any point in a fluid at rest are equal
regardless of its acting direction. Imagine a minute triangular prism of
unit width in a fluid at rest as shown in Fig. 3.2. Let the pressure acting
on the small surfaces dA1, dA2 and dA be p1, p2 and p, respectively. The
following equations are obtained from the balance of force in the
horizontal and vertical directions:
p1 dA1 ¼ pdA sin q

1
p2 dA2 ¼ pdA cos q þ dA1 dA2 rg
2
The weight of the triangle pillar is doubly infinitesimal, so it is omitted.
From geometry, the following equations are obtained:
dA sin q ¼ dA1

dA cos q ¼ dA2
Therefore, the following relation is obtained:
p1 ¼ p2 ¼ p (3.4)
Because angle q can be given any value, values of the pressure acting at
one point in a fluid at rest are equal regardless of its direction.
3. The fluid pressure applied to a fluid in a closed vessel is transmitted to
all parts at the same pressure value as that applied (Pascal’s law).
In Fig. 3.3, when the small piston of area A1 is acted upon by the force F1, the
liquid pressure p ¼ F1/A1 is produced and the large piston is acted upon by the
force F2 ¼ pA2. Thus,
A2
F2 ¼ F1 (3.5)
A1
So this device can create the large force F2 from the small force F1. This is the
principle of the hydraulic press.
28 CHAPTER 3: Fluid Statics

F2
F1

A1 A2
p p

FIGURE 3.3
Hydraulic press.

Blaise Pascal (1623e62)

French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher. He had the ability of a high-

ly gifted scientist even in early life, invented an arithmetic computer at 19 years
old and discovered the principle of fluid mechanics that carries his name. Many
units had appeared as the units of pressure, but it was decided to use the pascal
in SI units in memory of his achievements.

3.1.4 Pressure of Fluid at Rest

In general, in a fluid at rest the pressure varies according to the depth. Consider
an elemental column in the fluid as shown in Fig. 3.4. Assume that the
sectional area is dA and the pressure acting upward on the bottom surface is
p and the pressure acting downward on the upper surface (dz above the bottom
surface) is p þ (dp/dz)dz. Then, from the balance of forces acting on the col-
umn, the following equation is obtained:
 
dp
pdA p þ dz dA rgdAdz ¼ 0
dz
 3.1 Pressure 29

dp
p+ dz
dz

dA

Weight
dz
dW = ρ g dA dz

z
p

FIGURE 3.4
Balance of forces on an elemental column.

or
dp
¼ rg (3.6)
dz
Because r is constant for liquid, the following equation ensues:
Z
p ¼ rg dz ¼ rgz þ c (3.7)

p0

z0
p

FIGURE 3.5
Pressure in liquid.
30 CHAPTER 3: Fluid Statics

When the base point is set at z0 below the upper surface of liquid as shown in
Fig. 3.5, and p0 is the pressure acting on that surface, then p ¼ p0 when z ¼ z0, so
c ¼ p0 þ rgz0
Substituting this equation into Eq. (3.6)
p ¼ p0 þ ðz0 zÞr g ¼ p0 þ r gh (3.8)
Thus, it is found that the pressure inside a liquid increases in proportion to the
depth.
For the case of a gas, let us study the relation between the pressure and the
height of the atmosphere surrounding the earth. In this case, because the
density of gas changes with pressure, it is not possible to integrate simply as
in the case of a liquid. As the altitude increases, the temperature decreases.
Assuming this temperature change to be polytropic, then pvn ¼ constant is
the defining relationship.
Putting the pressure and density at z ¼ 0 (sea level) as p0 and r0, respectively,
then
p p0
¼ (3.9)
rn rn0
Substituting r into Eq. (3.6),
1=n
1 p0 p0 1=n
   
dp 1 p0 1=n p
dz ¼ ¼ p dp ¼ d (3.10)
rg g r0 g r0 p p0
Integrate this equation from z ¼ 0 (sea level),
Z z "  ðn 1Þ=n #
1 n p0 p
z¼ dz ¼ 1 (3.11)
0 g n 1 r 0 p 0

The relation between the height and the atmospheric pressure develops into the
following equation by Eq. (3.11).

n 1 r0 g n=ðn 1Þ
 
pðzÞ
¼ 1 z (3.12)
p0 n p0
Also, the density is obtained as follows from Eqs (3.9) and (3.12):

n 1 r0 g 1=ðn 1Þ
 
rðzÞ
¼ 1 z (3.13)
r0 n p0
When the absolute temperatures at sea level and at the point of height z are T0
and T, respectively, the following equation is obtained from Eq. (2.14):
p p0
¼ ¼R (3.14)
rT r0 T0
 3.1 Pressure 31

From Eqs (3.12)e(3.14)

TðzÞ n 1 r0 g
¼1 z (3.15)
T0 n p0
From Eq. (3.15)
dT n 1 r0 g n 1g
¼ T0 ¼ (3.16)
dz n p0 n R
In aeronautics, it has been agreed to make the combined values of
p0 ¼ 101.325 kPa, T0 ¼ 288.15 K and r0 ¼ 1.225 kg/m3 the standard atmo-
spheric condition at sea level.2 The temperature decreases by 0.65 C every
100 m of height in the troposphere up to approximately 11 km high, but is
constant at 56.5 C from 11 to 20 km high. For the troposphere, from the
above values for p0, T0 and r0 in Eq. (3.16), n ¼ 1.235 is obtained as the
polytropic index.

3.1.5 Measurement of Pressure

Manometer
A device that measures the fluid pressure by the height of a liquid column is
called a manometer. For example, in the case of measuring the pressure of
liquid flowing inside a pipe, the pressure p can be obtained by measuring the
height of liquid H coming upward into a manometer made to stand upright
as shown in Fig. 3.6A. When p0 is the atmospheric pressure and r is the density,
the following equation is obtained:

p ¼ p0 þ r gH (3.17)
When the pressure p is large, this is inconvenient because H is too high. So a
U-tube manometer, as shown in Fig. 3.6B, containing a high-density liquid
such as mercury is used. In this case, when the density is r0 ,

p þ rg H ¼ p0 þ r0 gH0
or

p ¼ p0 þ r0 gH0 r gH (3.18)
In the case of measuring the air pressure, r0 » r, so r gH in Eq. (3.18) may be
omitted.
In the case of measuring the pressure difference between two pipes in both of
which a liquid of density r flows, a differential manometer as shown in Fig. 3.7

2
ISO 2533:1975E
32 CHAPTER 3: Fluid Statics

p0
ρ
p0
p

ρ H'
H
H

p
ρ′

(A) (B)
FIGURE 3.6
(A) Piezometer tube. (B) U-tube manometer.

(A) (B)
p1 p2
ρ

ρ′

H H′

p1 p2 ρ′

FIGURE 3.7
(A) Reverse U-tube differential pressure manometer. (B) Differential manometer.

is used. In the case of Fig. 3.7A, where the differential pressure of the liquid is
small, measurements are made by filling the upper section of the meter with a
liquid whose density is less than that of the liquid to be measured, or with a gas.
Thus,
p1 p2 ¼ ðr r0 ÞgH (3.19)
and in the case where r0 is a gas,
p1 p2 ¼ rgH (3.20)
 3.1 Pressure 33

Fig. 3.7B shows the case when the differential pressure is large. This time, a
liquid column of a larger density than the measuring fluid is used. Thus,
p1 p2 ¼ ðr0 rÞgH (3.21)
and in the case where r0 is a gas,
p1 p2 ¼ r0 gH0 (3.22)
A U-tube manometer as shown in Fig. 3.7 is inconvenient for measuring fluc-
tuating pressure because it is necessary to read both the right and left water
levels simultaneously to measure the different pressure. For measuring the dif-
ferential pressure, if the sectional area of one tube is made large enough, as
shown in Fig. 3.8, the water column of height H could be measured by just
reading the liquid surface level in the other tube because the surface fluctuation
of liquid in the tank can be ignored.
To measure a minute pressure, a glass tube inclined at an appropriate angle as
shown in Fig. 3.9 is used as an inclined manometer. When the angle of inclina-
tion is a and the movement of the liquid surface level is L, the differential
pressure H is as shown in the following equation:
H ¼ L sin a (3.23)

p2

p1

ρ
FIGURE 3.8
Differential manometer (2).
34 CHAPTER 3: Fluid Statics

(A) (B)
p1
p1 p2
p2
L L

H
α
h
α

FIGURE 3.9
(A) Inclined differential manometer. (B) Inclined type U-tube differential manometer.

Accordingly, if a is made smaller, the reading of the pressure is magnified.

Besides this, Göttingen-type micromanometer, Chattock tilting micromanom-
eter, etc. are used.

Elastic-Type Pressure Gauge

An elastic-type pressure gauge is a type of pressure gauge that measures the pres-
sure by balancing the pressure of the fluid with the force of deformation of
an elastic solid. The Bourdon tube (invented by Eugene Bourdon, 1808e84)
(Fig 3.10) and the diaphragm (Fig 3.11) are widely employed for this type of
pressure gauge.

5
4 Bourdon tube

Hair spring

Measure pressure p
FIGURE 3.10
Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
 3.1 Pressure 35

Bourdon tube Filler fluid

Diaphragm

Measure pressure p
FIGURE 3.11
Diaphragm pressure gauge.

Of these, the Bourdon tube pressure gauge (Bourdon gauge) (Fig. 3.10) is the
most widely used in industry. A curved metallic tube of elliptical cross-section
(Bourdon tube) is closed at one end which is free to move, but the other end is
rigidly fixed to the frame. When the pressure enters from the fixed end, the
cross-section tends to become circular so the free end moves outward. By
amplifying this movement, the pressure values can be read. When the pressure
becomes less than the atmospheric pressure (vacuum), the free end moves
inward, so this gauge can be used as a vacuum gauge.
Diaphragm pressure gauge of Fig. 3.11 is constructed with a diaphragm
which isolates Bourdon tube from a measuring fluid. Bourdon tube is
filled with a liquid which transmits pressure from the measuring fluid. A
diaphragm pressure gauge can be used to measure the pressure of corrosive liq-
uids and very high viscose fluids, which could be solidified inside Bourdon tube.

Electric-Type Pressure Transducer

The mechanism of the electric-type pressure transducer is that the pressure is
converted to the force or displacement passing through the diaphragm, the
36 CHAPTER 3: Fluid Statics

(A)

(C)

(B)

PGM-E PHC-B KH15

FIGURE 3.12
Electric-type pressure transducers: (A) Bonded type (pressure range: 1e50 MPa); (B) physical vapour
deposition type (pressure range: 2e20 MPa); (C) chemical vapour deposition type (pressure range:
0.1e100 MPa).

bellows, etc. and is detected as a change in an electrical property using a wire

strain gauge, a semiconductor strain gauge (applied piezoresistance effect),
etc. These types of pressure gauges are useful for measuring fluctuating pressure
because of their nature of high natural frequencies.
In the strain gaugeetype pressure gauges, there are resistive metal foils which
are bonded on a metal diaphragm (Fig. 3.12A), resistive metal layer formed
on a metal diaphragm by physical vapour deposition method (Fig. 3.12B),
resistive silicon layer formed on a metal diaphragm by chemical vapour
deposition method (Fig. 3.12C), etc.

Deadweight Tester
A portable-type deadweight tester as shown in Fig. 3.13 is a standard pressure
gauge to be used for calibration or inspection of pressure gauges. It is used as a
secondary standard for the traceability of a pressure gauge as well.

3.2 FORCES ACTING ON THE VESSEL OF LIQUID

How large is the force acting on the whole face of a solid wall subject to water
pressure, such as the bank of a dam, the sluice gate of a dam or the wall of a
 3.2 Forces Acting on the Vessel of Liquid 37

FIGURE 3.13
Portable type deadweight tester (pressure range: 0.1e100 MPa).

water tank? How large must the torque be to open the sluice gate of a dam?
What is the force required to tear open a cylindrical vessel subject to inside
pressure? Here, we will study forces like these.

3.2.1 Water Pressure Acting on a Bank or a Sluice Gate

How large is the total force caused by the water pressure acting on a bank built
at angle q to the water surface as shown in Fig. 3.14? Here, disregarding the
atmospheric pressure, the pressure acting on the surface is zero. The total
pressure dP acting on a minute area dA is rghdA ¼ rgysinqdA. So, the total
pressure P acting on the underwater area of the bank wall A is:
Z Z
P ¼ dP ¼ rg sin q ydA
A A
3
When the centroid
R of the bank wall A is G, its y coordinate is yG and the depth
to G is hG, A ydA ¼ yG A. So the following equation is obtained:
P ¼ rg ðsin qÞyG A ¼ rghG A (3.24)

3
The centre of mass when the mass is distributed uniformly on the plane of some figure, namely the
point applied to the centre of gravity, is called a centroid.
38 CHAPTER 3: Fluid Statics

h dP
hG yG

h G
dA
y x

θ G

FIGURE 3.14
Forces acting on a dam.

So the total force P equals the product of the pressure at the centroid G and the
underwater area of the bank wall.
Next, let us study a rectangular sluice gate as shown in Fig. 3.15. How large is
the torque acting on its turning axis (the x axis)? The force P acting on the whole
plane of the gate is rgyGA by Eq. (3.24). The force acting on a minute area dA (a
horizontal strip of the gate face) is rgydA, the moment of this force around the

x
dA y
yG yG
yC yC
G
h

C
P IG
yGA
F

FIGURE 3.15
Turning forces and moments acting on a water gate (1) (case where the axis of rotation of the gate is just on the water level).
 3.2 Forces Acting on the Vessel of Liquid 39

G G
h
d

1 bh3
IG = — x d4
b IG = —
12 64

FIGURE 3.16
Geometrical moment of inertia for axis passing centroid G.

xR axis is rgydA  y and the total moment on the gate is rgy2 dA ¼ rg y2 dA.
R R

y2 dA is called the geometrical moment of inertia Ix for the x axis.

Now let us locate the action point of P (i.e., the centre of pressure C) at which a
single force P produces a moment equal to the total sum of the moments
around the turning axis (x axis) of the sluice gate produced by the total water
pressure acting on all points of the gate. When the location of C is yc,
Pyc ¼ rgIx (3.25)
Now, when IG is the geometrical moment of inertial of area for the axis which is
parallel to the x axis and passes through the centroid G, the following relation
exists4:
2
Ix ¼ IG þ AyG (3.26)
Values of IG for a rectangular plate and for a circular plate are shown in
Fig. 3.16.
Substitute Eq. (3.26) into Eq. (3.25) to calculate yc
IG h2
yc ¼ yG þ ¼ yG þ (3.27)
AyG 12yG
From Eq. (3.27), it is clear that the action point C of the total pressure P is
located deeper than the centroid G by h2/(12yG).

4
Parallel axis theorem: The moment of inertia with respect to any axis equals to the sum of the moment
of inertia with respect to the axis parallel to this axis which passes the centroid and the product of this
sectional area and the square of the distance to the centroid from the former axis.
40 CHAPTER 3: Fluid Statics

hI

x
hG
hC dA y
yG
yC
G
h
C
P IG
hG A
F

FIGURE 3.17
Rotational force acting on water gate (2) (case where gate is under water).

The position of yc in such a case where the sluice gate is located under the water
surface as shown in Fig. 3.17 is given by Eq. (3.28) where hG is substituted for yG
in the second term on the right of Eq. (3.27):
h2
yc ¼ yG þ (3.28)
12hG

3.2.2 Force to Tear a Cylinder

In the case of a thin cylinder where the inside pressure is acting outward, as
shown in Fig. 3.18A, what kind of force is required to tear apart this cylinder

(A) (B)
C l

T T
B
p
p
D d
p x
p

T
A
FIGURE 3.18
Cylinder acted on by inertial pressure. (A) Pressure distribution on the inner cross section of a thin cylinder. (B) Pressure distribution on the
longitudinally half sectioned thin cylinder.
 3.3 Archimedes’ Principle 41

in the longitudinal direction? Now, consider the cylinder longitudinally half

sectioned as shown in Fig. 3.18B, with diameter d, length l and inside pressure
p. The force acting on the assumed vertical centre wall ABCD is pdl, which bal-
ances the force in x direction acting outward on the cylinder wall. In other
words, the force generated by the pressure in x direction on a curved surface
equals the pressure pdl, because the same pressure acts on the projected area
of the curved surface. Furthermore, this force is the force 2Tl (T is the force
acting per unit length of wall which tears this cylinder longitudinally in halves
along the lines BC and AD):
2Tl ¼ pdl
or
d
T¼p (3.29)
2
If the tensile stress caused by T is lower than the allowable stress, safety is
assured. By utilizing this principle, a thin-walled pressure tank can be designed.

3.3 ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE

Fluid pressure acts all over the wetted surface of a body floating in a fluid, and
the resultant pressure acts in a vertical upward direction. This force is called
buoyancy. The buoyancy of air is small compared with the gravitational force
of the immersed body, so it is normally ignored.

Archimedes (287e212 BC).

The greatest mathematician, physicist and engineer in ancient Greece and the discoverer of the famous
‘Principle of Archimedes’. Archimedes received guidance in astronomy from his father, an astronomer, and
made astronomical observations since his early days. He invented a planetarium turned by hydropower
and a screw pump. He carried out research in solid and fluid dynamics and on the lever, the centre of gravity
and buoyancy. Archimedes was one of those scientists who was talented in both theory and practice.
42 CHAPTER 3: Fluid Statics

Suppose that a cube is placed in a liquid of density r as shown in Fig. 3.19. The
pressure acting on the cube because of the liquid in the horizontal direction is
balanced right and left. For the vertical direction, where the atmospheric
pressure is p0, the force F1 acting on the upper surface A is expressed by the
following equation:
F1 ¼ ðp0 þ rgh1 ÞA (3.30)
The force F2, acting on the lower surface is
F2 ¼ ðp0 þ rgh2 ÞA (3.31)
So, when the volume of the body in the liquid is V, the resultant force F from
the pressure acting on the whole surface of the body is
F ¼ F2 F1 ¼ rgðh2 h1 ÞA ¼ rghA ¼ rgV (3.32)
The same applies to the case where a cube is floating as shown in Fig. 3.19B.
From this equation, the body in the liquid experiences a buoyancy equal to
the weight of the liquid displaced by the body. This result is known as Archi-
medes’ principle. The centre of gravity of the displaced liquid is call ‘centre
of buoyancy’ and is the point of action of the buoyancy force.
Next, let us study the stabilization of a ship. Fig. 3.20 shows a ship of weight W
floating in the water with an inclination of small angle q. The location of the
centroid G does not change with the inclination of the ship. But because the
centre of buoyancy C moves to the new point C0 , a couple of forces Ws ¼ Fs
is produced and this couple restores the ship’s position to stability.

(A) (B) p0
p0

p0 + ρ gh1 Body
h1 h

h2
p0 + ρ gh
h Body

p0 + ρ gh2

FIGURE 3.19
(A) Pressure distribution acting on a cube in liquid. (B) Pressure distribution on a floating cube.
 3.4 Relatively Stationary State 43

M
θ
G
C C'

W
s

FIGURE 3.20
Stability of a ship.

The forces of the couple Ws are called restoring forces. The intersecting point M
on the vertical line passing through the centre of buoyancy C0 (action line of the
buoyancy F) and the centre line of the ship is called the metacentre and GM is
called the metacentric height.5 As shown in the figure, if M is located higher
than G, the restoring force acts to stabilise the ship, but if M is located lower
than G, the couple of forces acts to increase the roll of the ship and so make
the ship unstable.

3.4 RELATIVELY STATIONARY STATE

When a vessel containing a liquid moves in a straight line or rotates, if there is
no relative flow of the liquid while the vessel and liquid move as a body, it is
possible to treat this as the mechanics of a stationary state. This state is called a
relatively stationary or quasi-static state.

3.4.1 Equiaccelerated Straight-Line Motion

Suppose that a vessel filled with liquid is moving in a straight line at constant
acceleration on the horizontal level as shown in Fig. 3.21. Further consider a
minute element of mass m on the liquid surface, where its acceleration is a,
the forces acting on m are gravity in a vertical downward direction mg and
the inertial force in the reverse direction to the direction of acceleration ma.
There can be no force component normal to the direction of F, the resultant
force of gravity and the inertial forces. Therefore, the pressure must be constant
on the plane normal to the direction of F. In other words, this plane identifies
the equipressure free surface.

5
How high is the metacentre of a real ship? It is said that the height of metacentre of a warship is about
0.8e1.2 m, a sailing ship 1.0e1.4 m and a large passenger ship 0.3e0.7 m. When these ships go out to
sea the wave cycle is 12e13 s.
44 CHAPTER 3: Fluid Statics

θ a

mα m

z
y
F mg
O x

FIGURE 3.21
Uniform accelerating straight-line motion.

When q is the angle formed by the free surface and the x direction, the following
relation is easily obtained:
tan q ¼ a=g (3.33)
If h is the depth measured in the vertical direction to the free surface, the accel-
eration in this direction is b ¼ F/m. Therefore,
p ¼ rbh (3.34)
This is the same relation as the stationary state.

3.4.2 Rotational Motion

Let us study the height of the water surface in the case where a cylindrical vessel
filled with liquid is rotating at constant angular velocity u. The movement at
constant angular velocity like this is sometimes called gyrostatics, where the
liquid surface poses a concave free surface. Then let us take cylindrical coordi-
nates (r,q,z) as shown in Fig. 3.22. Consider a minute element of mass m on the
equipressure (isobaric) plane. The forces acting on it are mg caused by
the gravitational acceleration g in the vertical direction and mru2 caused by
the centripetal acceleration ru2 in the horizontal direction.
Because the vessel and liquid move in a body and the liquid stays in a relatively
stationary state, the resultant force F is vertical to the free surface as in the pre-
vious case. If f is the angle formed by the free surface and the horizontal
direction,
Another random document with
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 Ce mot frappa d’autant plus Napoléon qu’il répondait à ses
propres instincts. Élevé par les prêtres, grand admirateur de Louis
XIV, il avait senti de bonne heure qu’il n’y a de tyrannie forte que
celle qui s’appuie sur une base religieuse, sur la racine profonde
d’une éducation de servitude.
Dès qu’il fut empereur, il s’occupa du catéchisme impérial, du
livre où les enfants apprendraient, comme article de foi, la légitimité
de son pouvoir illimité.
Portalis lui disait de prendre le catéchisme de Bossuet. Mais ce
qui avait suffi à Louis XIV (La recommandation d’obéir aux autorités
en général) ne suffisait point à Napoléon. Ce fut lui-même qui dicta
au légat Caprara le chapitre où l’enfant doit apprendre cet article de
foi impie ! idolâtrique ! la religion d’un homme [95] !
[95] Voy. d’Haussonville d’après Consalvi, Jauffret et
autres.

Le pape n’apprit la chose que le 5 mai 1806 par un article du

Journal de l’Empire [96] .
[96] « Il ne réclama pas, car des affaires plus graves
l’en empêchèrent », dit froidement d’Haussonville ;
comme s’il y avait eu jamais d’affaire plus grave que cet
empoisonnement de l’enfance.

Ce qui achève de peindre tous ces honnêtes gens, c’est que les
évêques ne reprochèrent au catéchisme nouveau que l’omission d’un
article que Napoléon ajouta : Hors de l’Église, point de salut.
Nous avons dit plus haut, et personne ne le conteste, que le
pape, allant à Paris, avait l’espoir de se faire rendre Bologne, les
Légations. Si glissant sur l’affaire spirituelle du Catéchisme, il fut
admirablement persévérant pour l’affaire temporelle des biens
d’Église. Il voulait, quand on reprit les États vénitiens après
Austerlitz, qu’on lui donnât une indemnité. Il réclama toujours son
prétendu droit sur Naples et sur les principautés du Midi, Bénévent,
etc. Pie VII, peu avide personnellement, était entouré d’une indigne
cour, d’Antonelli, dont M. d’Haussonville, lui-même, ne dissimule
point le caractère.
Ces intrigues enfoncèrent le pape dans son ingratitude envers
son bienfaiteur qui l’avait réellement remis à Rome par la victoire de
Marengo, et qui depuis avait tant relevé le catholicisme par son
ascendant dans toute l’Europe.
La cour de Rome, toute anglaise, espérait avant Iéna. Depuis,
désespérée, elle fit à Bonaparte une très mauvaise guerre, en
refusant de consacrer les évêques nommés par l’empereur et le
menaçant lui-même d’excommunication, ce qui mit Napoléon en
grande fureur. Dans une lettre peu sensée qu’il écrivit au prince
Eugène pour le Pape, il dit : « Que veut-on donc ? Me couper les
cheveux ? Mais qu’on le sache bien, je serai Charlemagne, et non
Louis le Débonnaire. »
Voilà donc la guerre déclarée entre ces deux puissances qui
agissent avec des armes, des moyens différents. Bonaparte prend au
Pape Ancône, dont les Anglais se seraient emparés, et de plus la
grande route militaire qui mène de Lombardie à Naples. De son côté,
le Pape refuse de reconnaître Joseph roi de Naples et d’envoyer la
bulle aux évêques nommés par Napoléon comme s’il eût voulu
venger ses injures temporelles aux dépens des âmes chrétiennes.
Bonaparte en plusieurs choses, touchait à l’encensoir. Il avait
sécularisé les évêques Électeurs du Rhin. En Italie, il créait des
chapitres nouveaux, des séminaires, réunissait plusieurs couvents en
un. Il avait affecté d’annoncer l’Université impériale comme une
sorte de pouvoir spirituel destiné à indiquer le bien et signaler le
mal. Haute fonction qui la constituait une sorte de sacerdoce, dont le
chef (le mondain Fontanes) eut le titre antique et vénérable de
grand maître. Du reste, le pouvoir moral, attribué à l’Université, lui
est donné précisément au moment où Napoléon croit que la papauté
va bientôt finir (25 janvier et 17 mars 1808).
Pour juger équitablement les rapports de Bonaparte envers le
Pape, il faut se rappeler que, depuis un siècle que le cardinal d’York
et les Stuarts s’étaient réfugiés à Rome, c’était une ville jacobite et
anglaise. La petite cour du Prétendant, augmentée des brigands de
Naples, et des furieux émissaires de Caroline, serrait de près le Pape
et le faisait agir.
Au moment de Tilsitt, dans la stupeur d’un événement si grand,
si imprévu, il avait écrit à Bonaparte une lettre d’une douceur
angélique où il l’invitait à venir à Rome loger chez lui au Vatican.
Mais aucun moyen de s’entendre. On rompit pour deux articles
que Bonaparte ne demandait plus.
Il y eut dans tout cela d’infinies variations. Pie VII avait dit lui-
même d’après ses conseillers : « Une persécution est nécessaire à
l’Église. S’il prend Rome, nous nous réfugierons aux catacombes. »
La fin de cette année, 1807, est prodigieusement trouble, pleine
d’embûches et de coups fourrés. Les Anglais inquiets de Tilsitt dont
on leur cachait les secrètes conditions, en prirent occasion pour
tomber encore une fois sur Copenhague, que Bonaparte, disaient-ils,
voulait prendre. Ils la prirent eux-mêmes (7 septembre), enlevèrent
ses vaisseaux et toute l’artillerie de sa côte, 3 500 canons.
Par représailles, Bonaparte s’empara des deux villes qu’il
considérait, non sans cause, comme villes anglaises : Lisbonne et
Rome.
Lisbonne et le Portugal depuis 1701 étaient un entrepôt du
commerce des Anglais, et Rome un des grands centres de leur
diplomatie européenne.
Au mois de janvier 1808, Napoléon écrit : « Si les Français qui
entrent à Rome, s’entendent tout doucement avec les Romains, la
papauté aura cessé d’exister sans qu’on s’en aperçoive. »
Mais n’était-il pas vraisemblable que les nations fortement
catholiques, l’Espagne, le Portugal prendraient parti.
Malgré les ménagements de l’empereur, l’occupation de Rome
retentit à grand bruit. La nuit même on cassa les Madones en disant
que c’était l’œuvre des Français. Le pape annonça à tous les
ministres qui étaient à Rome, ce qu’il appelait sa captivité, disant :
« Je suis comme prisonnier. » Bientôt, en effet, le temporel lui sera
enlevé, les États romains formeront deux départements de la
France ; Pie VII sera interné, et le vrai pape sera l’empereur.
 CHAPITRE II
LA TRAHISON D’ESPAGNE (1808)

Il faut le redire, le procédé invariable de Napoléon fut la surprise.

On l’a remarqué pour la politique. Et dans son art propre, la guerre,
il se répéta constamment sous ce rapport. Des écrivains militaires, le
colonel Lecomte (de Lausanne), et autres, l’ont remarqué dans leurs
ouvrages fort utiles à consulter.
D’où vint cette tendance ? Était-ce le sang corse, la prédisposition
de cette race, ou l’exemple des fameux condottieri Italiens qu’il avait
certainement étudiés, dans sa jeunesse avec l’histoire de Gênes ?
Quoiqu’il en soit, Napoléon se répéta, avec une uniformité
intolérable. Après la surprise de Lisbonne (novembre 1807), vint
celle de Rome (mars, avril), enfin celle d’Espagne (avril-mai 1808).
Quelque habitués que les nôtres fussent à l’obéissance militaire,
Lannes trouva ignoble l’affaire du Portugal, et sut s’en dispenser.
Junot qu’on en chargea, n’arriva juste à temps que pour avoir
l’aspect ridicule du chien qui happe l’air, lorsque le lièvre échappe. Il
tira le canon sur la flotte déjà loin qui portait au Brésil tous les
trésors et toute l’élite du pays. Cela fit une légende. On mit devant
l’Europe le tableau héroïque d’un peuple qui préférait à tout la
liberté, qui pour fuir le tyran, laissait là ses tombeaux, ses temples,
tous ses souvenirs.
Légende digne du Camoëns. On respirait à peine, que le
maladroit Bonaparte en suscita une plus forte, plus odieuse encore.
Celle de la surprise de Rome, du pontife vénérable, captif, sans
refuge que les catacombes, comme il le dit lui-même. Toutes les
femmes en pleurèrent en Europe, et tout homme s’en indigna. Le
sang coula bientôt.
 En troisième lieu, éclata la surprise d’Espagne, si laide et
d’apparence si hideuse. Lui-même en détourna les yeux, laissa la
chose à Savary, habitué depuis la mort d’Enghien aux hautes
œuvres. Pendant deux mois, Napoléon à Milan fit le sourd et
l’aveugle, ne reçut point de lettre, ou n’y répondit pas, voulant ne
rien savoir qu’après la chose faite.
Détestable comédie italienne, mauvais imbroglio où il faisait
servir la petite affaire du Portugal à l’entreprise gigantesque
d’escamoter et d’avaler les douze royaumes de l’Espagne et son
empire américain. Junot, en allant à Lisbonne, d’après le traité
conclu avec l’Espagne, devait préparer la voie à l’invasion de
l’Espagne, à la surprise de ses places fortes.
M. de Talleyrand n’avait pas déconseillé cette perfidie. Mais avant
l’exécution, il se mit à l’écart, se retira à temps. Napoléon, à force
d’être approuvé sur tout, avait perdu le sens de ce qu’on peut oser
sans choquer trop le grand public.
Il est juste de dire que depuis dix ans on voyait l’Espagne si peu
gouvernée, disons le mot, abandonnée sous le prince de la Paix,
Godoï, triste favori, du roi et de la reine, que des deux côtés on
cherchait des moyens de la prendre. M. Pitt rêvait ses colonies, et
vers 1802, les Anglais à qui la mort de Paul semblait ouvrir si bien la
Russie, par un moyen plus doux, un mariage, crurent mettre la main
sur l’Espagne.
Caroline de Naples, conseillée par Emma Nelson, maria sa fille à
Ferdinand, l’héritier de l’empire espagnol. Cette Antonia, possédée
du génie de sa mère, mourut bientôt. Mais en quatre ans, elle fit de
Ferdinand un monstre d’ambition, ennemi de son père et surtout de
sa mère, à cause du favori, le prince de la Paix.
Elle avait travaillé contre Napoléon. A sa mort, les conseillers de
Ferdinand le tournèrent pour Napoléon. Godoï était fort incertain lui-
même. A la veille d’Iéna, croyant l’empereur déjà vaincu, il avait fait
un manifeste pour l’Angleterre et la Russie ; puis, après la bataille,
un traité pour l’envahissement du Portugal que l’Espagne et
Bonaparte auraient partagé.
 Ce fut dans ce mois même (octobre 1807) que Ferdinand dans sa
haine contre le favori et contre sa mère qui le soutenait, semble
avoir conspiré pour renouveler à Madrid la tragédie de Pétersbourg
et remplacer son père, comme Alexandre remplaça Paul. On a nié
sans aucune preuve ; beaucoup de vraisemblances portent à croire à
ce projet parricide. Jamais d’ailleurs la nature n’exprima le crime plus
atrocement que sur la figure de Ferdinand. Jeune, il avait déjà les
traits d’un vieux damné.
Donc, ce bon fils, craignant d’être gagné de vitesse près de
Napoléon par le prince de la Paix, fait le pas décisif de dénoncer son
père à l’empereur. L’ambassadeur de France l’encourageait à accuser,
à écrire qu’on l’opprimait, à implorer la protection de l’étranger et
l’honneur de s’allier à la famille impériale.
Ce n’est pas tout. En surprenant cette lettre (28 octobre 1807),
on trouve une chose plus sinistre encore ; un décret du futur roi
d’Espagne, avec la date en blanc, qui donnait à un de ses favoris le
commandement de la province de Madrid, après la mort du roi son
père.
Le roi fut consterné de cette découverte. Dans son effroi, il
sollicita l’appui de Napoléon qui, en retour de cette confiance, hâta,
précipita l’envoi des troupes sur la frontière d’Espagne.
Napoléon voyait tout lui sourire. Non seulement il était pris pour
arbitre dans cette querelle de famille, mais la nation elle-même était
pour lui. A ce peuple imaginatif et fort épris de ses grands coups
d’épée, il apparaissait comme un Cid. Ses soldats étaient admirés,
bien reçus. L’Église même, ne sachant pas encore sa guerre avec le
pape, qui n’éclata qu’en avril, l’Église le voyait comme restaurateur
de la religion en France, et elle venait à lui.
Que voulait-il ? Le savait-il lui-même ? Plus tard, il s’est vanté de
n’avoir eu qu’une seule idée : Régénérer l’Espagne. Mais comment ?
Par vingt projets qui se croisaient les uns les autres.
La situation qui devint bientôt sanglante, funèbre, était dans son
principe, étrangement folle, un véritable carnaval.
 Napoléon avait dans la main je ne sais combien de rois
d’Espagne.
D’abord le vieux Charles IV qui se serait sauvé en Amérique s’il
l’avait pu. Il abdiqua par peur, puis révoqua son abdication, se sauva
chez Napoléon, c’est-à-dire dans le danger même.
2o Ferdinand que l’Espagne adorait, malgré sa figure atroce, se
laissa mener aussi dans les pattes de l’araignée.
Enfin, Murat, qui sur quelques paroles obscures de Napoléon,
avait conçu l’espoir d’avoir ce grand empire.
Pendant ce temps, Bonaparte offrait secrètement l’Espagne à son
frère Louis, qui eut le bon sens de refuser. Joseph en aurait fait
autant, s’il avait pu. Mais il ne lui en laissa pas le temps. On le fit
venir, et on le fit roi d’Espagne, bon gré, mal gré.
On verra la longue souffrance de Joseph, martyr d’une couronne
qu’il n’eut vraiment jamais. Un jour, les Anglais, sous le nom de
Ferdinand, prenaient l’Ouest ou le Midi. Un autre jour, l’intrigant
Soult se constituait à peu près roi de l’Andalousie. Mais le plus fort
c’est que Napoléon regrettait d’avoir donné l’Espagne et de toute
manière voulait la reprendre.

Le plus horrible de la comédie, fut la manière dont Savary, le

menteur effronté, moitié par espoir et promesse, moitié par peur,
force et nécessité, enlevant Ferdinand, le pousse à la frontière,
malgré le peuple qui voudrait l’arrêter ; puis, le tour joué, et le gibier
rendu jusqu’à Bayonne, il lève le masque impudemment, et dit à
Ferdinand le lendemain : « La maison de Bourbon a cessé de régner
en Espagne. »
L’Europe entière frissonna de la scène qui suivit. Rien au théâtre
antique, rien depuis les Atrides, n’avait eu un aspect plus maudit et
plus exécrable que cette mère qui voyant le misérable Ferdinand tout
pâle, lui dit pour l’accabler : « Tu naquis d’une faute, tu n’es que le
fils de ma honte, non l’héritier d’Espagne. » Tout cela devant son
mari, Charles IV, qui, brandissant sa canne, couvrant le bâtard
d’anathèmes, lui fait restituer le royaume pour le céder à
l’empereur [97] .
[97] Bonaparte le confina au château de Compiègne.

Celui-ci n’était pas content de Ferdinand qu’il appelait un

sournois. Il avait pour lui le souvenir d’Enghien, des fossés de
Vincennes. Bonaparte lui dit et redit qu’il le ferait fusiller comme
émigré.
L’ayant ainsi aplati par la peur, il le confia à la garde de
Talleyrand, le chargea de l’amuser par quelque jolie femme. Et enfin
il le fit descendre dans la boue, au point que Ferdinand, de sa
captivité de Valençay écrivit une lettre de félicitations à Joseph, le
nouveau roi d’Espagne.

Ces tragédies atroces s’étaient passées, sans témoins, croyait-on,

au château de Marrac, près Bayonne.
Mais l’Espagne était là, avait tout entendu.
Je m’explique. Une Junte s’était faite pour gouverner dans
l’absence de Ferdinand. Mais prévoyant qu’elle ne serait pas en
sûreté à Madrid, elle avait réglé que l’Assemblée pourrait se réunir à
Saragosse, au centre de l’Aragon, province renommée pour ses
résistances. Napoléon convoquant à Bayonne une prétendue
représentation de l’Espagne, Saragosse saisit ce prétexte pour
s’entendre avec les amis de Ferdinand, et pour députer dans cette
ville un gentilhomme aragonais fort énergique, le jeune Palafox, qui
s’informa, et sut l’affreux détail. Il le rapporta en Espagne, avec
l’exécration de Napoléon.
L’avis de Palafox était que si Ferdinand restait prisonnier, il
faudrait appeler à la couronne le grand général de l’Autriche,
l’archiduc Charles qui était un peu parent de la maison d’Espagne.
Ce prince, depuis 1806, travaillait à reconstituer l’armée
autrichienne. L’appeler, c’était associer contre Napoléon les
résistances allemande et espagnole.
 CHAPITRE III
LE SOULÈVEMENT DE L’ESPAGNE (MAI 1808)

Ce fut Napoléon même qui libéra l’Espagne, donna le signal à son

affranchissement par le soulèvement et le massacre de Madrid.
Il a dit et souvent répété dans ses lettres que pour fonder une
domination nouvelle, il n’y avait rien de meilleur qu’une émeute
fortement réprimée. Le 13 vendémiaire, la révolte du Caire l’avaient
ancré dans cette opinion.
Le départ de deux princes de la maison royale qui étaient restés
fut l’occasion du soulèvement de Madrid. Mais, même sans cette
cause, il eût pu avoir lieu. Outre l’irritation, la surprise de l’étonnante
perfidie de Napoléon, le peuple de Madrid devait regarder comme la
dernière insulte qu’on lui eût donné pour chef un baladin. Tel
paraissait Murat avec tous ses costumes de fantaisie ; ses habits rose
ou vert-pomme, ses riches fourrures en plein été, tout en lui
paraissait absurde. Alexandre avait été choqué de voir près de
l’empereur ce comédien. Au milieu du peuple espagnol, toujours en
noir, cela paraissait davantage. Ajoutez la variété singulière des
costumes de son escorte, des lanciers, des mameluks, figures
étranges, et si nouvelles dans les rues de Madrid.
Au moment où les princes espagnols quittaient le palais malgré
eux, l’un d’eux pleura, refusa de partir. Cela émut le peuple amassé
sur la place ; il faillit tuer un aide de camp qui pressait le départ. On
s’attendait à cette explosion. Murat avait pris ses mesures, il
disposait d’une armée. La petite garnison espagnole ne parut pas,
sauf une compagnie d’artillerie, dont les officiers se firent tuer.
Cependant la cavalerie, les lanciers, les mameluks poursuivaient les