Compendium of WHO

and other UN guidance on

health and environment
2024 update

Chapter 4.
Solid waste

ISBN 978-92-4-009538-0
© World Health Organization 2024
Some rights reserved. This work is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO licence
(CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO; https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/igo).

Suggested citation. Chapter 4. Solid waste. In: Compendium of WHO and other UN guidance in health and environment, 2024 update.
Geneva: World Health Organization; 2024. https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/378095
 

Contents
4. Solid waste............................................................................................................1

4. Solid waste
Overview
Waste is defined as any substance or object that the holder discards, intends to discard or is required
to discard (1). Waste is categorized in several different ways, by origin (e.g. municipal solid waste),
type (e.g. electrical and electronic waste, known as e-waste) and character (e.g. hazardous waste).

Worldwide, more than 2 billion tonnes of municipal solid waste (i.e. waste generated by
households or similar waste generated by industry, commerce and institutions) are produced
every year (2, 3), and this is projected to increase to nearly 4 billion tonnes annually by 2050
(4). About 54 million tonnes of e-waste are generated globally per year (2019 data), with an
expected increase to 75 million tonnes by 2030.

Improper waste management can lead to adverse health outcomes, for example through
contamination of water, soil and air, as well as by creating hazardous conditions for those
working in the waste management sector. Billions of people live in areas that lack adequate
waste collection services and rely on uncontrolled disposal sites (5). Hazardous or unsafe waste
management practices, such as open burning, can directly harm waste-workers or residents of
neighbouring communities. Vulnerable groups, including women and children and marginalized
communities, are at increased risk of adverse health outcomes.

Poor waste management leads to environmental pollution, both on land and in aquatic
environments, such as lakes and oceans. Drains that are blocked by solid waste can result in
flooding, and other types of standing water promote the transmission of cholera and vector-
borne diseases, such as malaria and dengue fever (2). Emissions from uncontrolled waste can
reach the food chain and disturb natural ecosystems.

A lack of or poor waste management has negative socioeconomic effects, including on living
standards, economic growth potential and community relations. Governing waste management
is complex and requires specialized skills that are often underrepresented in institutional and
organizational frameworks, and political decision-making processes.

The waste hierarchy provides a guiding principle for actions to reduce and manage waste in a given order of
preference (6). A key focus should be placed on waste prevention, followed by reuse, recycling and recovery.
Nevertheless, all waste management systems require disposal facilities that, in turn, need to be operated well
in order to safeguard public health and the quality of the environment.

Operating systems to manage solid waste involve a complex chain of interdependent logistical processes, which
include waste prevention, generation, collection, transport, recovery and disposal. Waste management operations
require dedicated attention to the establishment, monitoring and supervision of these complex systems. Health
impacts can occur at each stage of the waste management service and recovery and recycling value chains.

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Challenges to and pressures on solid waste management systems include rapid urbanization, population
growth and ever-decreasing urban spaces. The relatively high costs of waste management, and often weak
governance and regulatory systems, are major causal factors in poor waste management. Systemic shortfalls
in collection, recovery, quality and coverage of disposal services can give rise to recurring disease outbreaks,
and they place a major strain on the fabric of governance.

This section includes information about municipal solid waste and e-waste. Coverage of health care waste
can be found in Section 12.4 Health care facilities.

Approaches to managing consumption and production aimed at reducing the use of natural resources,
environmental pollution and waste
A circular economy is a model of production and consumption that involves sharing, leasing, reusing,
repairing, refurbishing and recycling existing materials and products for as long as possible to extend the
life cycle of the products, thereby reducing the extraction of new resources in favour of reusing existing
ones. It also aims to minimize the dumping or burning of waste. It offers a transition to a green economy
(6). The links to health are diverse, but the direct impacts of circular economies on health have not yet
been quantified (7). Research is needed to show countries how important it is to invest in a circular
economy and which co-benefits a circular economy can have on health. An interesting application of
the circular economy is in the waste management sector, where the health impact and health economic
arguments are instrumental for decision-making (8, 9).

Life-cycle assessment is a methodology for assessing the environmental impacts associated with all
stages of the life cycle of a commercial product, process or service, from the extraction of raw materials,
processing, manufacturing, distribution and use to recycling and final disposal. Upstream control of
resource use and minimization of health and environmental impacts can eventually lead to improved
sustainability at the end of a product’s life practices (8).

Integrated sustainable waste management is the coordinated use of a set of waste management
approaches and solutions, each of which has a functional role in an overall system to manage solid waste,
that are combined together as a recognizably coherent whole (10).

What is the situation Municipal solid waste

regarding solid waste in Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) indicator 11.6.1 monitors progress
my country? related to safe solid waste management: it is defined as the “proportion of
municipal solid waste collected and managed in controlled facilities out of total
municipal waste generated, by cities” (11).

The Waste Wise Cities Tool, developed by UN-Habitat, is a diagnostic tool that
helps cities monitor progress towards SDG indicator 11.6.1 by providing a
standardized approach to collecting the data required to inform the indicator.
Cities can apply the tool to assess the performance of their municipal
solid waste management systems and can use it as a basis for developing
sustainable solid waste management plans (12).

Reducing food waste

Target 12.3: By 2030, halve per capita global food waste at the retail and
consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains,
including post-harvest losses (11).

Managing hazardous waste and environmental pollution

Target 12.4: By 2020, achieve the environmentally sound management of
chemicals and all wastes throughout their life cycle, in accordance with
agreed international frameworks, and significantly reduce their release to air,
water and soil to minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the
environment (11).

Reducing waste by transitioning to a circular economy model

Target 12.5: By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through
prevention, reduction, recycling and reuse (11).

And Target 12.B suggests removing market distortions that encourage wasteful
consumption (the full text of this Target has been omitted for brevity) (11).

E-waste: The Global E-Waste Statistics Partnership monitors developments

related to e-waste and assists countries and regions in producing their own
e-waste statistics (13).
2 Chapter updated in 2024
 

What do we want to Prevention: reduced waste generation

achieve? Most important is to reduce the amount of solid waste that is generated by
implementing waste prevention, reuse and recycling strategies (Fig. 4.1). In
addition to protecting human health and the environment, waste prevention
saves money by reducing the burden on waste management systems. Waste
prevention also reduces the amount of waste that remains uncollected and
that would otherwise contaminate the environment.

Fig. 4.1. The waste hierarchy

Prevention

Reduction

Reuse

Recycling

Other recovery including

energy recovery

Landfill

Controlled
disposal

Uncontrolled
disposal

Source: Figure adapted from (14).

A safe management system for solid waste

A sustainable solid waste management system considers the whole process,
from waste prevention to generation, collection, transport, recovery and
disposal. Solid waste management is a key budgetary expenditure for most
local governments, is important for economic and social development and
protects the health of all, especially the most vulnerable populations. Proper
regulation and management of municipal solid waste structures and systems,
including those for hazardous waste, play crucial roles in providing a safe and
sustainable environment for all.

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Compendium of WHO and other UN guidance on health and environment, 2024 update

The Guidance table provides an overview of the most relevant advice from WHO and other UN organizations. The guidance is further
classified according to principally involved sectors, level of implementation, instruments and evidence category.

Guidance Sector principally Level of Instruments Category of

involved in planning/ implementation evidence
implementation

Policies and actions

1. Implement a solid waste management system National; Other B, C

prioritizing actions according to the waste management Environment community management
hierarchy (Fig. 4.1) (2, 8, 15). and control,
Waste regulation
Waste prevention should be prioritized, and
subsequent steps are to reduce, reuse, recycle,
recover and implement controlled disposal.

2. Develop or update policies and actions across National Regulation; B

relevant sectors that reduce the harmful exposure of all Multiple sectors other
waste-workers to all types of waste (8, 16). management
and control
Improvements can be made in occupational health and
safety by implementing standards and practices that
include the use of personal protective equipment, safe
working practices and regular health check-ups.

3. Implement international accords such as the National Regulation; B, C

Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Environment governance
Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal
(17), the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Health
Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals
and Pesticides in International Trade (18), the
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
(19) and the Minamata Convention on Mercury (20).

4. Eradicate child labour within all facets of waste National; Regulation B

management (15, 21). Environment community

Eradicating child labour in the waste and recycling Labour

sectors is an urgent global imperative. Child labour is
especially prevalent in the management of e-waste.

5. Promote screening for and biomonitoring of harmful National; Assessment B

waste exposure in at-risk populations, and accompany Environment community, and
this with environmental monitoring of water, soil and air health care surveillance
quality (15). Health
Universal
Biomonitoring and surveillance of communities health coverage
exposed to health risks can aid in assessing chemical
exposure levels, particularly among children and
pregnant women (22).

6. Plan for sufficient financial resources to sustain National; Governance; B, C

waste management systems and services, from waste Finance community taxes and
prevention to segregation, collection and transportation, subsidies
and to recovery and disposal (2, 8, 9, 23). Waste

Operating costs make up a large part of total waste

management costs and need to be ensured. Coverage
of universal collection services, appropriate recovery
and recycling systems and controlled disposal facilities
should be prioritized.

4 Chapter updated in 2024

 

Guidance Sector principally Level of Instruments Category of

involved in planning/ implementation evidence
implementation
7. Consider the use of economic instruments to National; Regulations, B, C
diversify revenue streams and incentivize waste Finance community taxes and
prevention and landfill diversion (8, 24). subsidies,
Waste governance
Economic instruments may include landfill and
incineration taxes, unit-based waste-pricing schemes
(“pay-as-you-throw”) for households, general
consumption taxes, advance disposal fees (i.e.
product-based fees added at the point of sale) and
deposit–refund or product take-back schemes, as well
as EPR mechanisms to incentivize manufacturers to
design their products to reduce waste and maximize
recycling and reuse (23, 24).

Ensure revenues from waste-related charges are

earmarked for waste prevention and management, with
a focus on diverting waste from landfill (8, 24).

Understand waste streams to optimize management

8. Conduct an assessment of waste quantities, National; Assessment C

composition and material flows through the system to Waste community and
determine any gaps in waste management services and surveillance
help identify priorities (2).

Data on waste quantities and characteristics are

required at the local and national levels to effectively
plan and implement the required steps to strengthen
and optimize existing waste management systems.

9. Implement systems for separate waste collection at National; Infrastructure, C

source (2). Waste community technology
and built
Separate collection systems include the use of environment;
distinct containers or drop-off points for different other
materials, adapted collection vehicles and equipment, management
and economic incentives and behavioural change and control
campaigns to encourage the adoption of habitual
practices. Waste separation can occur before or
after collection (e.g. at the household level) or after
waste collection (e.g. at materials recovery or sorting
facilities). Separate collection and bring systems can
be designed for materials that have a locally accessible
market outlet. Implement economic instruments (e.g.
deposit–refund schemes and EPR) and behavioural
change campaigns alongside the roll out of these
systems.

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Compendium of WHO and other UN guidance on health and environment, 2024 update

Guidance Sector principally Level of Instruments Category of

involved in planning/ implementation evidence
implementation

Reduce and reuse

10. Introduce policies that help to stimulate the National; Regulation; C

diversion of waste from landfill (2). Environment community taxes and
subsidies
Implement EPR for packaged goods placed on
the market. Introduce deposit–refund systems for
beverage containers and other readily returnable
products. Phase out unnecessary single-use plastics,
such as plastic bags, plastic cutlery or Styrofoam
products (25). Promote durable and reusable goods
that can be locally reused or recycled.

Recycle

11. Apply a circular economy approach and Health National; Infrastructure, B

Impact Assessments to waste management (8, 9). Waste community technology
and built
A reuse-recycle-recover approach should be adopted, environment;
shifting away from disposal, maximizing a product’s assessment
lifetime and the return of secondarily recovered and
materials into the economy, and reducing the surveillance
extraction of virgin resources (10).

12. Understand the economics of the health National; Assessment B

implications of waste management when applying a Waste community and
circular economy approach (8). surveillance

Shifting to a waste management system that is more

sustainable and transitioning to a circular economy
have economic consequences and can bring significant
benefits (10). The transition reduces the environmental
impacts associated with waste management and
subsequently can have a positive impact on public health.

13. Divert as much waste from landfills as possible, for National; Infrastructure, B, C
example through waste segregation and recycling (2, 8). Waste community technology
and built
Common materials that can be recycled include environment;
organics, plastics, aluminium, glass and paper. other
management
Separation at the household, commercial and industry and control
levels can assist in optimizing recoverable waste
streams; reduce waste flowing to disposal sites;
and improve health and safety for those generating,
handling, collecting and working with waste.

14. Bring in organic waste management systems to National; Infrastructure, C

recover and return nutrients to the environment. Waste community technology
and built
Implement separate collection systems for food and environment;
green organic waste, and their associated recovery other
facilities (26). management
and control
Utilize appropriate methods to recover organic
waste, return nutrients to the soil and enhance local
agricultural value chains.

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Guidance Sector principally Level of Instruments Category of

involved in planning/ implementation evidence
implementation

Energy recovery

15. Consider waste incineration with energy recovery National; Infrastructure, B, C

(i.e. waste to energy) for solid waste that is otherwise Waste community technology
not recyclable (2, 8, 9, 26) and where landfills pose and built
challenges due to the availability of land or other environment;
issues. other
management
Where incineration facilities are deployed, they and control
should be equipped with pollution controls and
operated professionally to minimize environmental
emissions, reducing risks to workers and neighbouring
communities.

Disposal

16. Restrict and discourage open dumping of waste by National; Regulation C

providing regular and reliable collection services and Environment community
incentivizing (or requiring) site managers to operate
waste disposal sites to at least basic levels of control
(2).

The reduction and elimination of the open dumping

and open burning of waste are urgent global priorities.
These actions will reduce the environmental hazards
and potential adverse health outcomes for waste-
workers and communities.

17. Establish controlled disposal facilities with National; Regulation; C

adequate measures to avoid environmental Waste community infrastructure,
contamination from waste. Ensure basic minimum technology
standards are met, and subsequently seek to reach the Environment and built
full standard for environmentally sound management environment;
of sanitary landfills (12, 26). other
management
A basic level of control should be ensured at all and control
disposal facilities. This entails allocating a sufficient
budget to:
• ensure fencing and access control, perimeter
drainage, compaction and cover;
• maintain slope stability;
• ensure there are no fires on site; and
• record waste types and quantities.

Full-time staff are needed at disposal facilities to

observe environmental health and safety protocols and
progressively plan for the ongoing development of the
site.

18. Clean up and remediate contaminated sites or hot National; Other B

spots (14, 27, 28). Environment community management
and control
Historical disposal sites should be remediated before
closure to reduce contamination in the environment.

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Compendium of WHO and other UN guidance on health and environment, 2024 update

Guidance Sector principally Level of Instruments Category of

involved in planning/ implementation evidence
implementation
19. Ensure sufficient financial resources for landfill National; Regulation; C
closure and rehabilitation of the site (2). Waste community governance;
infrastructure,
Ongoing responsibilities after a landfill has been closed Environment technology
include: and built
• maintaining the final cover of the landfill (e.g. soil, Finance environment;
vegetation); other
• maintaining and operating the leachate collection management
system; and control
• monitoring groundwater and surrounding
freshwater;
• maintaining and operating the landfill gas
monitoring and collection system.

E-waste policies and actions

Note: Please also consider the guidance discussed in Section 5.2 Chemical safety.

20. Phase out, to the extent possible, the use of toxic National Regulation B
chemicals in electrical and electronic equipment, and Industry
clearly mark products and packaging to identify any
hazardous chemicals still present (15, 21, 23). Environment

Implement national and international accords that Health

target phasing out components that are hazardous
to health. Substitute materials with benign or less
hazardous properties (7).

21. Monitor and regulate the illegal transboundary National Regulation B

movement of electrical and electronic equipment and Industry
e-waste (21).
Environment
Implement policies and regulations to control
transboundary shipments, ensuring customs Health
authorities are trained accordingly (7).

22. Identify e-waste streams, and formalize and National Assessment B

regulate waste management and recycling to ensure Environment and
safe treatment of e-waste (15, 21, 23). surveillance;
Waste regulation;
Develop local or regional recovery and recycling infrastructure,
facilities, or both. E-waste should be treated using Health technology
the best available technology to minimize the risks and built
associated with recycling and processing (7). environment

23. Implement regulations to prevent the discharge National Regulation B

of toxic chemicals into the environment (21), such Environment
as by ensuring corporate legal liability to finance
any rehabilitation or clean up required following any Industry
prohibited or accidental discharge.
Health
Place responsibility on those who generate or
improperly manage waste. This aligns financial
incentives with implications and ensures polluters
remediate the environmental contamination generated
by their actions.

8 Chapter updated in 2024

 

Guidance Sector principally Level of Instruments Category of

involved in planning/ implementation evidence
implementation
24. Implement e-waste standards, and actions and National; Regulation; B
programmes to reduce e-waste generation and Environment community other
exposure, such as: management
• reduce and reuse waste policies; and control
• take-back programmes;
• design that maximizes durability, reparability and
reusability (15, 21, 23).

25. Ensure sufficient health sector capacity to respond Health care Other B
to harmful waste exposures (8, 9, 16). Health management
Universal and control;
health coverage information,
education and
communication

Capacity-building and awareness-raising

26. Train health care workers about the health hazards Health care Information, B
related to e-waste exposure and the symptoms of Health education and
possible exposure and to recognize informal recycling Universal communication
contexts (8, 15, 21). health coverage

27. Train workers at formal and informal waste settings, Workplace Information, B
such as disposal or recycling sites, about good Waste education and
practices in waste management, including with regards communication
to hazardous waste and e-waste (15, 29). Environment

Providing education to workers in both formal and

informal sectors about the potential health risks
associated with their roles can equip them with the
necessary knowledge and tools to protect themselves.

28. Raise awareness among the general population National; Information, B, C

about the importance of reducing waste and properly Waste community education and
segregating waste, and about the adverse health communication
impacts of exposure to harmful waste, such as e-waste Health Universal
(16, 23, 29). health coverage
Environment
Implement waste reduction campaigns, for example to
encourage people to avoid single-use plastic bags (25).

29. Increase awareness of the polluter pays principle – Community; Information, B

including the need for polluters to contribute to the full Environment national education and
cost of waste management, from collection to disposal communication
– as well as of environmental externalities and their Waste
associated costs (8).

Launch behavioural change campaigns using online

media and posters to educate and shift the waste-
generation and -management mindset of political
leaders, communities and businesses.

A – WHO guideline, B – WHO best practice/strategy, C – other UN best practice/strategy

EPR: extended producer responsibility; e-waste: electrical and electronic waste.

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Compendium of WHO and other UN guidance on health and environment, 2024 update

Selected resources for the Guidance table

Please note that only selected references are listed here. Please consult the reference section for all cited resources.

WHO Regional Office for Europe 2023: Assessing the health impacts of waste management in the context
of the circular economy (9) – This report considers the public health implications of the transition to a
circular economy that are relevant to the waste sector.

UN-Habitat 2021: Waste Wise Cities Tool (12) – a step-by-step guide to assess a city’s solid waste
management performance by monitoring SDG indicator 11.6.1.

WHO 2021: Children and digital dumpsites: e-waste exposure and health (21) – This report summarizes
scientific knowledge about the links between informal e-waste recycling activities and health outcomes in
children and is intended to increase awareness and knowledge among health professionals of the dangers
of e-waste recycling.

World Bank Group 2020: solid waste management (2) – an open online course about solid waste
management.

International Monetary Fund 2019: Disposal is not free: fiscal instruments to internalize the environmental
costs of solid waste (24) – This paper provides an overview of the environmental costs of solid waste
generation and evaluates fiscal instruments that can be used to encourage waste reduction and to finance
proper disposal.

Additional selected tools and further resources

This list contains additional selected material that is not cited in the Guidance table.

World Bank 2020: Solid waste management knowledge silo breaker (known as KSB) (30) – This is a
community of practice aiming to share knowledge about the challenges of and innovations in dealing with
solid waste among community members of all affiliations.

UN Environment Programme (UNEP) and Institute for Global Environmental Studies 2020: Waste
management during the COVID-19 pandemic: from response to recovery (31) – Fact sheets on topics
such as waste management, green jobs and resource efficiency, among others, are also available from the
UNEP (32).

WHO 2018: Children’s environmental health: the paediatric environmental history (33) – A series of
basic, concise questions that enable health professionals to identify children’s potential exposure to
environmental risks and their special vulnerabilities.

UNEP 2015: Global waste management outlook (5) – This is a global assessment of the state of waste
management and a call to action for the international community.

UN-Habitat: Waste Wise Academy (34) – this site shares online courses, toolkits and guides, training,
webinars and good practices to improve knowledge about solid waste management.

École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne) 2023:
Municipal solid waste management in developing countries (35) – an open online course.

US Environmental Protection Agency 2020: Best practices for solid waste management: a guide for
decision-makers in developing countries (36) – The US Environmental Protection Agency’s Office of
Resource Conservation and Recovery developed this best practices guide about solid waste management
that is aimed at decision-makers in urban areas in low-resource countries; it details topics such as
planning solid waste management systems; economic aspects; waste characterization, separation,
collection and transportation; disposal site management; sanitary landfills; organic waste management;
and each of the steps in the waste management hierarchy. It lists many examples of good practices from
around the world.

The Climate and Clean Air Coalition 2015: Municipal Solid Waste Knowledge Platform (37) – The platform
provides a forum for exchanging information and resources about best practices in solid waste management.
It supports cities and national governments in their efforts to reduce short-lived climate pollutants.

E-waste

UN University, UN Institute for Training and Research, Sustainable Cycles Programme, International
Telecommunication Union, International Solid Waste Association 2020: Global e-waste monitor (38) – This
report provides comprehensive insight into addressing the global challenges of e-waste.

10 Chapter updated in 2024

 

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12 Chapter updated in 2024

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