Module 1

Civil Engineering Disciplines and Building Science

Introduction to Civil Engineering
Engineering: It is a profession of converting scientific knowledge into useful practical
applications, where the materials & forces in nature are effectively used for the benefit of mankind.
An Engineer is a person who plays a key role in such activities.
Civil Engineering: It is the oldest branch of professional engineering, where the civil engineers
are concerned with projects for the public or civilians.
Various disciplines / branches of Civil Engineering
1. Surveying
2. Building Materials
3. Construction Technology
4. Structural Engineering
5. Geotechnical Engineering
6. Hydraulics & Water Resources Engineering
7. Transportation Engineering 8. Environmental Engineering
9. Construction planning &Project management
1. Surveying
Surveying is the science and art of determining the relative positions of various points above, on
or below the surface of the earth. The relative positions in surveying are determined by measuring
horizontal distances, vertical distances (elevations}, horizontal angles and vertical angles
accurately by using various surveying instruments.
Important Objectives of Surveying:
1. To determine areas, volumes and other related quantities.
2. To layout or to mark the positions of the proposed structure on the ground.
3. To take measurements and to determine the relative positions of the existing features on or
near the ground.
Primary Divisions of Surveying:
1. The actual shape of the earth is an oblate spheroid. It is ellipsoid of revolution, flattened at
the poles and bulged at the equator. It is taken as sphere approximately.
 2. The length of the polar axis is about 12713.168 km and that of the equatorial axis is about
12756.602 km, as computed by Clark in 1866. Thus, the polar axis is shorter than the
equatorial axis by about 43.434 km. Relative to the diameter of the earth, the difference in
the lengths of the two axis is a very small quantity (about 0.34%).
3. Average radius of earth is taken as 6370 km for all calculations.
Surveying is Generally Divided into 2 types: (a) Plane Surveying. (b) Geodetic Surveying
(a) Plane Surveying:
 It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is neglected and it is assumed
to be a flat surface. Plane Surveying can safely be used when one is concerned with a small
portion of the earth surface and the areas involved are less than 250 sq.km or so.
 It is worth noting that the difference between an arc distance of 18.5 km on the surface of
the earth and the corresponding chord distance is less than 10 mm.
 In plane surveying, the angles of polygons and triangles are considered as plane angles. It
is used for relatively small areas.
 A curved line on the surface of the earth is considered as mathematically straight.
 The directions of the plumb lines at various points are assumed to be parallel to one another.
 The spherical angles are considered as plane angles and the standard of accuracy is lower
than that in geodetic surveying
(b) Geodetic Surveying:
 It is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is taken into consideration
and a very high standard of accuracy is maintained. It is to determine the precise location
of a system of widely spaced points on the surface of the earth. The point so located are
used as control station of the primary surveys.
 It is used for large areas and it is used for establishing precise points of reference or control
points. The surface of the earth is considered as curved. The directions of plumb lines at
various points are different. The earth’s mean sea level is perpendicular to the direction of
gravity indicated by plumb bobs. The standard of accuracy is very high and very precise
instruments are used.
Classification of Surveys:
Functional Classification of Survey
1. Control Survey: It consists of establishing the horizontal and vertical positions of widely spaced
control points using the principles of geodetic surveying.
2. Land Survey: It is used to determine the boundaries and areas of tracts of land. Surveys are
also used to provide data for making a plan of the area. A cadastral survey is done for marking
legal boundaries of land.
3. City Survey: These surveys are conducted within the limits of a city for urban planning. These
are required for the purpose of layout of streets, building, sewers, pipes, etc.
4. Topographical Survey: Topography is defined as the shape. These surveys are required to
establish horizontal locations of the various points as well as their vertical locations. It is carried
out to describe the existing natural features like rivers, mountains, forests and manmade features
(villages, building, roads & transmission lines) etc.
5. Route Survey: These are special types of topographical surveys conducted along a proposed
route for a highway, railway, sewer line, etc. This also includes the staking out and calculations of
the earth work.
6. Mine Survey: It will be carried out to determine the relative positions and elevations of mines,
shafts, bore holes etc for underground works.
7. Hydrographic Survey: It is carried out on or near the body of water, such as lakes, rivers, bays,
harbors. Marine surveys are special types of hydrographic Surveys. These cover a broader area
near sea for offshore structures, navigations, and tides etc.
8. Engineering Survey: It is conducted to collect data for designing and planning of engineering
works such as buildings, roads, bridges, dams, reservoirs, sewers and water supply line.
9. Astronomic Survey: It is carried out for determination of latitudes, longitudes azimuths, local
time etc for various places on the earth by observing heavenly bodies (the sun or stars).
10. Satellite Survey: It is conducted to obtain intercontinental, inter-datum and inter-island
geodetic ties all the world over by artificial earth satellites.
11. Geological Survey: It is carried to obtain information about different strata of earth’s surface
for geological studies.
12. Construction Survey: After the plans have been prepared and the structures designed, the
construction survey is conducted.
13. Miscellaneous Surveys
 Archaeological Survey: These are done to unearth relics of antiquity.
 Military Survey: These are conducted to determine the routes and points of strategic
importance.
 Gravity Survey: These are conducted to measure the intensity of the gravitational force at
various points. General Survey: These are used to acquire and accumulate qualitative
information and quantitative data for a specific purpose by observing, counting, classifying
and recording according to the need. For example, soil survey and traffic survey.
Classification Based on Instruments Used
1. Chain Surveying: This is the simple type of surveying in which only linear measurements are
taken with a chain or tape. It is generally used when high accuracy it required.
2. Compass Surveying: Horizontal angles are measured with the help of a magnetic compass. The
compass survey is not very accurate.
3. Leveling: It is used for determination of relative elevations (RL) of various points in the vertical
plane with leveling instruments.
4. Plane Table Surveying: Map is prepared the field while viewing the terrain after determining
the directions of various line and taking the linear measurements with. a chain or a tape. The
accuracy of the plane table surveying is low.
5. Theodolite Survey: A theodolite is a very precise instrument for measuring horizontal and
vertical angles. These can be broadly classified into Traverse and Triangulation.
6. Tacheometric Survey: Horizontal angles, horizontal distances and elevations are measured
with a tacheometer. These are not very accurate but these are extremely convenient for determining
topographical details.
7. Photogrammetric Survey: It is used for topographic mapping of vast areas. These are
extremely useful for obtaining topographical details of areas which are difficult to reach.
8. EDM Survey: Trilateration is a type of triangulation in which all the three sides of each triangle
are measured accurately with EDM instruments. The angles are computed indirectly from the
known sides of the triangles. Thus, all the sides and angles are determined.
Principles of Surveying:
1. Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference: The relative positions of the
points to be surveyed should be located by measurement from at least two points of reference, the
positions of which have already been fixed.
2. Working from whole to part: It is very essential to establish first a system of control points and
to fix them with higher precision. It can be used to prevent the accumulation of errors and to control
and localize minor errors.
Necessity of Surveying:
1. It helps to collect field data
2. To prepare plan or map of the area surveyed.
3. To set out field parameters at the site for further engineering works.
4. To establish boundaries of land.
5. To analyse and to calculate the field parameters for setting out operation of actual engineering
works
2. Building Materials
This deals with the study of materials used for construction. Brick, tiles, soil, cement, stone, steel,
aggregates, glass, wood, plastics etc. include construction materials. Some are natural and many
are man-made. This deals with the proper use of desired material economically and safely. The
mechanical properties of these materials shall be sufficient to avoid failure and excessive
deformation and provide durability. The chemical properties shall be to maintain good
environment.
3. Construction Technology
Construction Technology deals with planning the different activities like manpower, materials &
machinery, so that the construction is completed in time and in an economical manner.
Scope:
1. It gives guidelines regarding the execution of construction work to be carried out.
2. It helps in preparing construction schedule. Schedule is a systematic path of different activities
carried out one after another.
3. It helps in proper management of material, labour and equipment.
4. It helps in arranging for finance and due to proper construction management, there is financial
and overall control on the work.
5. Deals with planning, scheduling and execution of construction activity related to a project. 6.
Construction of underground Tunnels using modern equipment's. 7. Construction of floating
structures.
4. Structural Engineering
It deals with the study of analysis and design of structures.
Scope:
1. Sections of structural elements like beams, columns, slabs, etc. are designed.
2. It includes design of reinforced cement concrete (RCC) and steel structures.
3. Structural analysis is done to calculate stresses in structural components on the basis of loads,
acting on structures.
4. Design of multi-storeyed buildings, towers, retaining walls, water tanks, bridges require skills
and knowledge of structural engineering.
5. Analysis and design of Dams, Bridges, Stadiums, Auditoriums, Multi - storied Buildings.
6. Analysis and design of power generation stations.
7. Analysis and design of steel industrial structures.
8. Repair, rehabilitation and maintenance of structures.
5. Geotechnical Engineering
The study of properties & behavior of soil under loads & changes in environmental conditions is
called Geo-technical engineering.
1. It deals with investigate the soil and bedrock
2. It helps to select the type of foundation
3. It deals with the design of foundation for buildings, dams, retaining wall, bridge, road pavement
4. It helps to study the effect of soil
5. It deals with the study of compaction of soil.
6. For design of underground structures such as Tunnels, Shafts, Conduits.
6. Hydraulics & Water Resources Engineering
Hydraulics: It deals with the study of mechanics of water and its flow characteristics. It also deals
with the planning and manage the flow and storage of water.
Scope:
1. To measure the discharge of water in rivers for design of bridges.
2. Design of hydro power plants for generation of electricity.
3. Design of Pumps and turbines
4. Design of water supply schemes for the city which includes design of pipes and pumps.
5. Design of canals to carry water to irrigation land from dams.
6. Design of Weirs for Dams
Water Resources Engineering: Water resource engineering deals with study of planning,
designing and developing water resources Scope:
1. To arrive the total discharge of water from rainfall from catchment areas.
2. To design the reservoir capacity to store the water.
3. Water quality management and pollution control.
4. Scope for usage of water for garden and recreational centers.
5. Design of water supply systems for the cities and industries.
6. Flood mitigation, land drainage and culverts for control of water.
7. Transportation Engineering
Transportation engineering deals with the study of various transport system includes roadways,
railways, airways & waterways
Scope:
1. It involves planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of transportation facility.
2. Planning and design of air strip runways, roads, harbors and railways.
3. Maintenance and up gradation of harbors, airports, railway system based on requirements.
4. It contributes economic, industrial, social and cultural development of any country.
5. Design of traffic signals for control of traffic.
6. It helps to develop the roads to remote places.
7. It involves accident study for safe and comfort transport system.
8. Environmental Engineering
Environmental engineering is also called as water supply and sanitary engineering is a professional
discipline concerned with protecting people from adverse environmental effects as well as
protecting ecosystems and improving the quality of the environment. Environmental engineering
provides methods and facilities for wastewater management, water and air purification, waste
disposal and recycling, and other purposes pertaining to human health and benefit.
Scope:
1. Involves collection of water, Purification and supply for drinking.
2. Waste water collection, treatment and disposal.
3. Air pollution control and treatments.
4. Solid waste management and control.
5. E-Waste management control and Treatment.
6. Construction waste management and control
7. Design of sedimentation tanks, filter beds, treatment plants etc. for water purification.
8. Sewage should be systematically collected and then dispose into natural environment after
providing suitable treatment.
9. Construction planning & Project management
Construction planning is the process of identifying the steps required to build a structure. It
involves defining what actions need to be completed, creating an ordered timeline of events,
staffing the project and determining the necessary materials and equipment.
A well-crafted construction plan is important to keep the project on schedule and within budget. It
can also help ensure the overall quality of the project meets your client's standards. Finally, having
a construction plan can increase your team's productivity and efficiency by streamlining
communication. Scope:
The scope of construction planning and project management encompasses a wide range of
activities involved in the successful execution of construction projects. It covers the entire lifecycle
of a project, from its conceptualization and planning stages to its completion and delivery. Here
are some key areas within the scope of construction planning and project management:
1. Project Initiation: This involves identifying the project's objectives, feasibility analysis,
preliminary budgeting, and securing necessary approvals and permits.
2. Project Planning: Developing a comprehensive project plan that includes defining project
scope, setting project goals, creating a work breakdown structure (WBS), estimating resources and
costs, and developing a project schedule.
3. Risk Management: Identifying potential risks and uncertainties, assessing their potential
impact on the project, and developing strategies to mitigate or manage those risks throughout the
project's lifecycle.
4. Procurement and Contracting: Identifying and procuring the necessary materials, equipment,
and services required for the project. This includes preparing and managing contracts with
suppliers, subcontractors, and vendors.
5. Resource Management: Allocating and managing resources effectively, including labor,
equipment, materials, and finances, to ensure efficient project execution.
6. Project Execution: Overseeing and coordinating the activities of various project teams,
including architects, engineers, contractors, and subcontractors, to ensure that the project is
executed according to the plans and specifications.
7. Quality Management: Implementing quality control measures to ensure that the project meets
the required standards and specifications. This involves conducting inspections, testing, and
quality assurance procedures throughout the construction process.
8. Communication and Stakeholder Management: Establishing effective communication
channels and managing relationships with project stakeholders, including clients, regulatory
authorities, local communities, and other interested parties.
9. Project Monitoring and Control: Continuously monitoring the project's progress, comparing
it to the project plan, identifying deviations, and implementing corrective actions when necessary
to keep the project on track.
10. Project Closeout: Managing the project's closure, including conducting final inspections,
obtaining necessary approvals, ensuring all contractual obligations are met, and documenting
lessons learned for future reference.
 Basic Materials of Construction
Building materials are materials that are used in the construction and production of various
structures. A variety of materials are used in the construction of a building, whether natural or
artificial, raw or mixed, each with unique characteristics. Every building material has unique
properties that make it suitable for a variety of applications.
1. Bricks
A brick is a type of construction material used to build walls, pavements and other elements in
masonry construction. It is of rectangular in shape and of size that can be handled conveniently by
one hand. Brick may be of burnt clay or mixture of sand and lime.
Constituents of a good Brick / Composition of a good Brick: A good brick earth should contain
the following constituents,
1. Silica:
 Brick earth should contain about 50 to % of silica.
 It is responsible for preventing cracking, shrinking and warping of raw bricks.
 It also affects the durability of bricks.
 If present in excess, then it destroys the cohesion between particles and the brick becomes
brittle.
2. Alumina:
 Good brick earth should contain about 20% to 30% of alumina.
 It is responsible for plasticity characteristic of earth, which is important in molding
operation.
 If present in excess, then the raw brick shrinks and warp during drying.
3. Lime:
 The percentage of lime should be in the range of 5% to 10% in a good brick earth.
 It prevents shrinkage of bricks on drying.
 It causes silica in clay to melt on burning and thus helps to bind it.
 Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and brick loses its shape.
4. Iron oxide:
 A good brick earth should contain about 5% to 7% of iron oxide.
 It gives red color to the bricks.
  It improves impermeability and durability.
 It gives strength and hardness.
 If present in excess, then the color of brick becomes dark blue or blackish.
 If the quantity of iron oxide is comparatively less, the brick becomes yellowish in color.
5. Magnesia:
 Good brick earth should contain less a small quantity of magnesia about1%)
 Magnesium in brick earth imparts yellow tint to the brick.
 It is responsible for reducing shrinkage
 Excess of magnesia leads to the decay of bricks.
Types of Bricks:
There are two types of bricks:
1. Traditional Bricks: Those bricks which have not been standardized in size are called traditional
or conventional bricks. The dimensions of traditional bricks vary and depend on region and place.
The length varies from 210 mm to 250 mm, the width varies from 100 mm to 130 mm and the
thickness varies from 70 mm to 100 mm.
2. Modular Bricks: Modular bricks are bricks made to a dimensional specification. Standard size
of Modular brick = 19 cm × 9 cm × 9 cm Nominal size of a brick with mortar = 20 cm × 10 cm ×
10 cm.
Classification of Bricks: On the basis of quality, Bricks are of the following kinds:
1. First Class Brick: The size is standard. The color of these bricks is uniform yellow or red. It is
well burnt, regular texture, uniform shape. The absorption capacity is less than 10%, crushing
strength is, 280kg/cm2 (mean) where it is 245 kg/cm2 (minimum). It doesn’t have efflorescence.
It emits a metallic sound when struck by another similar brick or struck by a hammer. It is hard
enough to resist any fingernail expression on the brick surface if one tries to do with a thumbnail.
It is free from pebbles, gravels or organic matters. It is generally usedin a building of long
durability, say 100 years for building exposes to a corrosive environment; for making coarse
aggregates of concrete.
2. Second Class Brick: The size is standard; color is uniform yellow or red. It is well burnt, slightly
over burnt is acceptable. It has a regular shape; efflorescence is not appreciable. The absorption
capacity is more than 10% but less than 15%. Crushing strength is 175kg/cm2(mean) where the
minimum is 154 kg/cm2. It emits a metallic sound when struck by another similar brick or struck
by a hammer. It is hard enough to resist any fingernail expression on the brick surface if one tries
to do with a thumbnail. It is used for the construction of one-storied buildings, temporary shed
when intended durability is not more than 15 years.
3. Third Class Brick: The shape and size are not regular. The color is soft and light red colored. It
is under burnt, slightly over burnt is acceptable. It has extensive efflorescence. The texture is non-
uniform. The absorption capacity is more than 15% but less than 20%. The crushing strength is
140kg/cm2(mean) where the minimum crushing strength is 105kg/cm2. It emits a dull or blunt
sound when struck by another similar brick or struck by a hammer. It leaves fingernail expression
when one tries to do with the thumbnail.
4. Fourth Class Brick: These are the over burnt bricks with irregular shape and dark color. These
bricks are used as aggregate in foundation, floors, etc.
Qualities of a good bricks / Characteristics of a good brick:
1. Bricks should be uniform in color, size and shape. Standard size of brick should be maintained.
2. They should be sound and compact.
3. They should be free from cracks and other flaws such as air bubbles, stone nodules etc. with
sharp and square edges.
4. Bricks should not absorb more than 1⁄5 of their own weight of water when immersed in water
for 24 hours (15% to 20% of dry weight).
5. The compressive strength of bricks should be in range of 2000 to 5000 psi (15 to 35 MPa).
6. Salt attack hampers the durability of brick. The presence of excess soluble salts in brick also
causes efflorescence. The percentage of soluble salts (sulphates of calcium, magnesium, sodium
and potassium) should not exceed 2.5% in brunt bricks.
7. Brick should not change in volume when wetted.
8. Bricks should neither overburnt nor under-brunt.
9. Generally, the weight per brick should be 6 lbs. and the unit weight should be less than 125 lbs.
per cubic ft.
10. The thermal conductivity of bricks should be low as it is desirable that the building built with
them should be cool in summer and warm in winter.
11. Bricks should be sound proof.
12. Bricks should be non-inflammable and incombustible.
2. Cement
Cement is a binder, a chemical substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and adheres to
other materials to bind them together.
OR
Cement is a building material that is a powder made of a mixture of calcium, limestone and clay;
used with water and sand or gravel to make concrete and mortar.
Ingredients of Cement:
The general percentage of the ingredients of which cement is made of is given below:
Ingredient Percentage in cement
 Lime 60-65
 Silica 17-25
 Alumina 3-8
 Magnesia 1-3
 Iron oxide 0.5-6
 Calcium Sulfate 0.1-0.5
 Sulfur Trioxide 1-3
 Alkaline 0-1
The main features of cement ingredients along with their functions and usefulness or
harmfulness are given below:
1. Lime: Lime is calcium oxide or calcium hydroxide.
 The presence of lime in a sufficient quantity is required to form silicates and aluminates of
calcium.
 Deficiency in lime reduces the strength of the property to the cement.
 Deficiency in lime causes the cement to set quickly.
 Excess lime makes cement unsound.
 The excessive presence of lime causes the cement to expand and disintegrate.
2. Silica: Silicon dioxide is known as silica, chemical formula SiO 2.
 A sufficient quantity of silica should be present in cement to dicalcium and tricalcium
silicate.
 Silica imparts strength to cement.
  Silica usually presents to the extent of about 30 percent cement.
 3. Alumina: Alumina is Aluminium oxide. The chemical formula is Al2O3.
 Alumina imparts quick setting property to the cement.
 Clinkering temperature is lowered by the presence of the requisite quantity of alumina.
 Excess alumina weakens the cement.
4. Magnesia: Magnesium Oxide. The chemical formula is MgO.
 Magnesia should not be present more than 2% in cement.
 Excess magnesia will reduce the strength of the cement.
5. Iron oxide: Chemical formula is Fe2O3.
 Iron oxide imparts color to cement.
 It acts as a flux.
 At a very high temperature, it imparts into the chemical reaction with calcium and
aluminum to form tricalcium alumino-ferrite.
 Tricalcium alumino-ferrite imparts hardness and strength to cement.
6. Calcium Sulfate: Chemical formula is CaSO4.
 This is present in cement in the form of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
 It slows down or retards the setting action of cement.
7. Sulfur Trioxide: Chemical formula is SO3
 It should not be present for more than 2%.
 Excess Sulfur Trioxide causes the cement to unsound.
8. Alkaline:
 It should not be present more than 1%.
 Excess Alkaline matter causes efflorescence
Field tests on cement:
1. Date of Manufacturing: As the strength of cement reduces with age, the date of manufacturing
of cement bags should be checked.
2. Cement Color: The color of cement should be uniform. It should be typical cement color i.e.
gray color with a light greenish shade.
3. Whether Hard Lumps are Formed: Cement should be free from hard lumps. Such lumps are
formed by the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere.
4. Temperature Inside Cement Bag: If the hand is plunged into a bag of cement, it should be cool
inside the cement bag. If hydration reaction takes place inside the bag, it will become warm.
5. Smoothness Test: When cement is touched or rubbed in between fingers, it should give a smooth
feeling. If it felt rough, it indicates adulteration with sand.
6. Water Sinking Test: If a small quantity of cement is thrown into the water, it should float some
time before finally sinking.
7. The smell of Cement Paste: A thin paste of cement with water should feel sticky between the
fingers. If the cement contains too much-pounded clay and silt as an adulterant, the paste will give
an earthy smell.
8. Glass Plate Test: A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of a glass plate and it
is kept under water for 24 hours. It should set and not crack.
9. Block Test: A 25mm × 25mm × 200mm (1”×1”×8”) block of cement with water is made. The
block is then immersed in water for three days. After removing, it is supported 150mm apart and
a weight of 15kg uniformly placed over it. If it shows no sign of failure the cement is good.
Uses/Functions of Cement: Some of the numerous functions of cement are given below.
1. It is used in mortar for plastering, masonry work, pointing, etc.
2. It is used for making joints for drains and pipes.
3. It is used for the water-tightness of the structure.
4. It is used in concrete for laying floors, and roofs and constructing lintels, beams, stairs, pillars,
etc.
5. It is used where a hard surface is required for the protection of exposed surfaces of structures
against the destructive agents of the weather and certain organic or inorganic chemicals.
6. It is used for precast pipes manufacturing, piles, fencing posts, etc.
7. It is used in the construction of important engineering structures such as bridges, culverts, dams,
tunnels, lighthouses, etc.
8. It is used in the preparation of foundations, watertight floors, footpaths, etc.
9. It is employed for the construction of wells, water tanks, tennis courts, lamp posts, telephone
cabins, roads, etc.
3. Cement Mortar
Cement Mortar is a homogenous mixture of cement, sand and water. Different types of mortars
are used in masonry construction based on their applications, binding materials, strength, bulk
density and their purposes.
Properties of Cement Mortar:
1. Well-proportioned and well laid mortar provides an impervious surface.
2. When water is added to dry mixture of cement and sand, hydration of cement occurs, and it
binds with sand particles and the surrounding surfaces of masonry and concrete.
3. A rich mortar of more than 1:3 is prone to shrinkage.
4. The leaner mix is not capable of closing the voids in sand, and hence the plastered surface will
remain porous.
Uses of Cement Mortar: 1. To bind masonry units like stone, bricks, blocks, cement
2. For Plastering on walls and slabs to make them impervious.
3. As a filler material in Ferro cement works and stone masonry.
4. To fill cracks and joints in the wall.
5. Use of cement mortar gives a neat finishing work to wall and concrete work.
6. For pointing the joints of masonry.
7. For preparing the building blocks.
4. Plain Concrete (PCC)
Plain cement concrete is the mixture of cement, fine aggregate(sand) and coarse aggregate without
steel. PCC is an important component of a building which is laid on the soil surface to avoid direct
contact of reinforcement of concrete with soil and water.
Properties of PCC:
1. Compressive strength: The compressive strength of PCC lies between 200 to 500 Kg/cm2 .
2. Tensile strength: The tensile strength of plain cement concrete lies between 50 to 100 Kg/cm2.
3. Density: The density of concrete ranges from 2200 Kg/m3to 2400 Kg/m3.
4. Durability: It is more durable.
5. Workability: PCC should be very feasible. Mixing, handling, and transporting it should be
simple.
Mixing of plain cement concrete (PCC): Mixing of PCC can be done either manually or by using
machine.
1. Hand mixing:
 Plain cement concrete is allowed to be done by hand mixing only for small works.
 The base must be clean, watertight slab, or a steel platform on which the concrete is mixed.
 Sand and cement are mixed with coarse aggregate. Lastly, water is added and the mixture is
mixed properly.
2. Machine mixing:
 The quantity of dry aggregate, fine aggregate, and cement is measured and should be placed in
their respective hoppers.
 The dry materials should be mixed in the mixture and water is added while the drum is motion.
 The mixing should have a plastic mix of uniform color.
Advantages of PCC:
1. As a base below all types of foundations to provide a hard and level surface for laying the
foundation.
2. As b base below the floor on the ground floor. At the plinth level, PCC provides a hard and level
surface for laying floor tiles.
3. Below load-bearing walls as a foundation.
4. At plinth level to act as a damp-proof course (DPC)
5. As coping over top of parapet walls to protect the wall from rain.
6. For pavement and roads
7. For mass concrete structure such as retaining walls
5. Reinforced Cement concrete (RCC)
Reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C) is the combination of ordinary concrete with the
reinforcement to increase its compressive and tensile strength to a great extent. Concrete is a
versatile material for modern construction which is prepared by mixing well-proportioned
quantities of cement (even lime in some cases), sand, crushed rock or gravel, and water. It has been
used from foundations to the rooftops of buildings, in the construction of highways roads traffic,
and hydro-power tunnels, irrigation canals, drains, and all other conceivable structures. Purpose of
providing Reinforcement in Concrete: As you know that, Concrete has a very high compressive
strength, but it is low in tensile strength. Thus, when only the compressive loads are acting on the
concrete surface, then there is no need of using reinforcement in it. But where tensile forces are
also involved, as in, beams and slabs, there is a very high risk of its failure when plain concrete is
used. Steel, however, as we know, has a very high tensile strength (and also have good compressive
strength). Hence, when these two (concrete and steel) are combined together, a material of
construction is obtained that is capable of withstanding all the three types of forces likely to act
upon a structure, i.e., compressive loads, tensile stresses, and shear forces. Such a material is
known as Reinforced Cement Concrete. It has proved extremely useful and reliable in engineering
construction.
Advantages of RCC:
1. Reinforced concrete has a high compressive strength compared to other building materials.
2. Due to the provided reinforcement, reinforced concrete can also withstand a good amount tensile
stress.
3. Fire and weather resistance of reinforced concrete is fair.
4. The reinforced concrete building system is more durable than any other building system.
5. Reinforced concrete, as a fluid material, in the beginning, can be economically molded into a
nearly limitless range of shapes.
6. The maintenance cost of reinforced concrete is very low.
7. In the structure like footings, dams, piers etc. reinforced concrete is the most economical
construction material. 8. It acts like a rigid member with minimum deflection.
9. As reinforced concrete can be molded to any shape required, it is widely used in precast
structural components. It yields rigid members with minimum apparent deflection.
10. Compared to the use of steel in structure, reinforced concrete requires less skilled labor for the
erection of the structure.
6. Pre-stressed Concrete (PSC)
Pre-stressed concrete is a form of concrete where initial compression is given in the concrete before
applying the external load so that stress from external loads are counteracted in the desired way
during the service period.
Need for Prestressing Concrete:
1. Concrete is weak in tension and strong in compression. This is a weak point of concrete that
results in early flexural cracks mainly in flexural members like beams and slabs. To prevent this,
the concrete is induced with compressive stress deliberately (prestressing) and this stress
counteracts with the tensile stress the structure is subjected to during service condition. Hence the
chances of flexural cracks are reduced.
2. The pre-compression that is induced as a part of prestressing helps to enhance the bending
capacity, the shear capacity and the torsional capacity of the flexural members.
3. A compressive prestressing force can be applied concentrically or eccentrically in the
longitudinal direction of the member. This prevents cracks at critical midspan and supports at
service load.
4. A prestressed concrete section behaves elastically.
5. The full capacity of the concrete in compression can be used over entire depth under full loading
in the case of prestressed concrete. structure is subjected to during service condition. Hence the
chances of flexural cracks are reduced.
Advantages of Prestressed Concrete: The major advantages of Prestressed Concrete are:
1. The prestressing of concrete by using high tensile steel improve the efficiency of the materials
2. The prestressing system works for a span greater than 35m.
3. Prestressing enhance shear strength and fatigue resistance of concrete.
4. Dense concrete is provided by prestressing systems thus improving the durability.
5. Best choice for the construction of sleek and slender structures.
6. Prestressing helps to reduce the dead load of the concrete structure.
7. Prestressed concrete remains uncracked even at service load conditions which proves the
structural efficiency.
8. Composite construction by using the prestressed concrete unit and cast-in-unit derives the
economic structure.
Methods of Prestressing: The prestressing can be performed by two methods:
1. Pretensioning
2. Post-Tensioning
1. Pretensioning: In the pretensioning method, the stress is induced by initially tensioning the steel
tendons. These are wires or strands that are tensioned between the end anchorages. After this
tensioning process, the concrete casting is performed. Once the casted concrete has hardened
sufficiently, the end anchorages arranged are released. This release transfers the prestress force to
the concrete. The bond between the concrete and the steel tendons facilitates this stress transfer.
2. Post Tensioning: The procedure in post-tensioning is depicted in the figure-3 below. Here, the
steel is prestressed only after the beam is cast, cured and attain strength to take the prestress. Within
the sheathing, the concrete is cast. For the passage of steel cables, ducts are formed in the concrete.
7. Structural Steel
Structural Steel is a special kind of Steel. It is used for construction purposes. Due to its rigidity
and high strength-to-weight ratio, structural Steel is mainly employed in buildings. Structural Steel
is used in houses, warehouses, airplane hangars, educational facilities, bridges, stadiums, etc.
Structural Steel is Steel that contains carbon, not more than 2.1%. These are also called Carbon
Steel, and structural Steel typically has a carbon content of less than 0.6%.
8. Construction Chemicals
Construction chemicals are used along with various building materials at the construction site to
improve workability, to increase efficiency, add effectiveness and to protect the part of any
structure, or to accelerate the speed of construction work. Most construction chemicals are used as
hardening agents either for surface application, coating or as repair materials and is also effective
as a waterproofing chemical.
 Structural elements of a building
1. Foundation
Foundation is the lowest part of the building or the civil structure that is in direct contact with the
soil which transfers loads from the structure to the soil safely. The foundation for each structure is
designed such that:
 The underlying soil below the foundation structure does not undergo shear failure
 The settlement caused during the first service load or have to be within the limit
 Allowable bearing pressure can be defined as the pressure the soil can withstand without failure.
Classification of Foundations: Based on the depth of foundation, foundation can be classified as
1. Shallow foundation.
2. Deep foundation.
1. Shallow foundation: A foundation that is placed near the surface of the earth or transfers the
loads at a shallow depth is called the shallow foundation. Types of shallow foundation: a.
Individual Footing or Isolated Footing: Individual footing or an isolated footing is the most
common type of foundation used for building construction. This foundation is constructed for a
single column and also called a pad foundation. The shape of individual footing is square or
rectangle and is used when loads from the structure is carried by the columns. Size is calculated
based on the load on the column and the safe bearing capacity of soil.

b. Combined Footing: Combined footing is constructed when two or more columns are close
enough and their isolated footings overlap each other. It is a combination of isolated footings, but
their structural design differs. The shape of this footing is a rectangle and is used when loads from
the structure is carried by the columns.

c. Spread footings or Strip footings and Wall footings: Spread footings are those whose base is
wider than a typical load-bearing wall foundation. The wider base of this footing type spreads the
weight from the building structure over more area and provides better stability. Spread footings
and wall footings are used for individual columns, walls and bridge piers where the bearing soil
layer is within 3m (10 feet) from the ground surface. Soil bearing capacity must be sufficient to
support the weight of the structure over the base area of the structure.

d. Raft or Mat Foundations: Raft or mat foundations are the types of foundation which are spread
across the entire area of the building to support heavy structural loads from columns and walls.
The use of mat foundation is for columns and walls foundations where the loads from the structure
on columns and walls are very high. This is used to prevent differential settlement of individual
footings, thus designed as a single mat (or combined footing) of all the load-bearing elements of
the structure.
2. Deep foundation: A foundation that is placed at a greater depth or transfers the loads to deep
strata is called a deep foundation. Types of deep foundation:
a. Pile Foundations: Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation which is used to transfer heavy
loads from the structure to a hard rock stratum much deep below the ground level. Pile foundations
are used to transfer heavy loads of structures through columns to hard soil strata which is much
below ground level where shallow foundations such as spread footings and mat footings cannot be
used. This is also used to prevent uplift of the structure due to lateral loads such as earthquake and
wind forces.

b. Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation: Drilled shafts, also called as caissons, is a type of deep
foundation and has an action similar to pile foundations discussed above, but are high-capacity
cast-in-situ foundations. It resists loads from structure through shaft resistance, toe resistance
and/or combination of both of these. The construction of drilled shafts or caissons are done using
an auger.
Purpose of Foundation: Foundations are provided for all load carrying structure for following
purposes:
1. Foundation are the main reason behind the stability of any structure. The stronger is the
foundation, more stable is the structure.
2. The proper design and construction of foundations provide a proper surface for the development
of the substructure in a proper level and over a firm bed.
3. Specially designed foundation helps in avoiding the lateral movements of the supporting
material.
4. A proper foundation distributes load on to the surface of the bed uniformly. This uniform transfer
helps in avoiding unequal settlement of the building. Differential settlement is an undesirable
building effect.
5. The foundation serves the purpose of completely distributing the load from the structure over a
large base area and then to the soil underneath. This load transferred to the soil should be within
the allowable bearing capacity of the soil.
Functions of Foundation in Construction:
1. Provide overall lateral stability for the structure
2. Foundation serves the function of providing a level surface for the construction of substructure.
3. Load Distribution is carried out evenly.
4. The load intensity is reduced to be within the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
5. The soil movement effect is resisted and prevented.
6. Scouring and the undermining issues are solved by the construction of foundation.
Requirements of a Good Foundation: The design and the construction of a well-performing
foundation must possess some basic requirements that must not be ignored. They are:
1. The design and the construction of the foundation is done such that it can sustain as well as
transmit the dead and the imposed loads to the soil. This transfer has to be carried out without
resulting in any form of settlement that can result in any form of stability issues for the structure.
2. Differential settlements can be avoided by having a rigid base for the foundation. These issues
are more pronounced in areas where the superimposed loads are not uniform in nature.
3. Based on the soil and area it is recommended to have a deeper foundation so that it can guard
any form of damage or distress. These are mainly caused due to the problem of shrinkage and
swelling because of temperature changes.
4. The location of the foundation chosen must be an area that is not affected or influenced by future
works or factors.
2. Plinth
A plinth level forms the foundation of a house. It is a rectangular block of stone on which a column
and pillar of a building stands. It is a wall between the ground level and the ground floor level.
Column bears the weight of the building’s structure but all this weight presses down on the column.
The main function of a plinth in construction is to distribute the load of the columns over the
foundation evenly.
Uses of plinth in the construction:
1. It evenly distributes and disperses the load of the columns to the foundation evenly.
2. It acts a barrier or a retaining wall that keeps the concrete filled ground floor below the raised
floor of the building.
3. The plinth doesn’t allow the dampness and moisture of the ground floor to reach the building’s
top structure.
4. In framed structure houses and buildings plinth beams are used as a barrier for protection from
water seepage. Plinth protects the rest of the house from dampness, mold and mildew. It is a kind
of waterproofing sheet laid above the ground floor level to protect the house from any damage
because of added moisture.
5. Gives strength and durability to the residential unit.
6. Provides a better aesthetic appeal to the building.
7. It also prevents cracks in the building when the foundation suffers from settlement.
3. Lintel
A lintel is one type of beam which is provided to support the above wall or partition material when
openings like doors, windows, and so forth are necessary to provide a building structure. A lintel
beam is a horizontal secondary structural element. It is mostly used above the openings on
windows, doors, portals, fireplaces, etc. Lintel Construction Material:
For lintel construction, different building materials can be used. Some lintel beam materials are
listed below:
1. Reinforced cement concrete (RCC)
2. Stone
3. Wood/timber
4. Bamboo
5. Steel
Uses / Scope of providing Lintel: The followings are the uses of lintel:
1. The primary function of the lintel is to take loads originating from the wall directly above the
opening and transfer them to the side walls or stone pillar support.
2. Lintel also acts as a safeguard for the windows and doors.
3. Continuous lintels may provide support in masonry structures against lateral loads like wind or
earthquakes.
4. The chimney above the fireplaces can be supported by lintels.
5. Lintel can be used as a support for the canopy members.
6. It is possible to enhance the architectural beauty of a building by selecting decorative lintels.
Lintel architecture would be a good matter of concern here.
7. Lintels may support a small distance of a path. It could be referred to as a lintel bridge.
4. Chejja:
Chejja is overhang or projection from the lintel which is provided to protect the doors and windows
from sunlight and rain. It is characterized with large support brackets with different artistic designs.
Variation is also seen in its size depending on the importance of the building on which it features
or the choice of the designer.
5. Masonry wall
A masonry wall is a wall made from materials which have traditionally been cemented together
with the use of mortar. Masonry walls can be used as structural walls in buildings, and they can
also be utilized to create barriers between property lines or different areas on a property. Masonry
walls render strengths, lastingness to the structure, and help to maintain indoor and outdoor
temperature as well as keeps protect the buildings from the outside world. Depending on the motor
mix materials, there are various types of Masonry Walls used in building constructions.
Types of Masonry Wall:
1. Load-bearing masonry wall
2. Reinforced masonry wall
3. Hollow/Cavity masonry wall
4. Composite masonry wall
1. Load-bearing masonry wall: A load-bearing wall is a wall that bears a load reposing upon it,
which depends on weight construction and the work of foundation structure. Usually, this type of
wall is used for large buildings. e.g. housing or tall buildings construction work. It is mainly made
with brick, concrete blocks, or stone. The load-bearing wall helps to transfer weight from the root
to the foundation.
2. Reinforced masonry wall: A reinforced masonry wall is made with any type of brick, concrete,
or other types of masonry materials that strengthened the use of other building's materials to
increase resistance to deterioration due to weight-bearing or other forms of stress. This type of
wall could be non-load-bearing or load-bearing.
3. Hollow/Cavity Masonry Wall: Hollow masonry walls are made with cement blocks. This type
of masonry wall is used to stop dampness from getting inside the building. It creates a hollow area
between the outside and inside of masonry walls. Cavity walls will also assist with climate control.
Modern masonry walls are constructed from hollow masonry units or combined hollow and solid
masonry units.
4. Composite Masonry Walls: Composite Masonry walls are made with the combination of two
or more building materials; stones and bricks or hollow bricks and bricks. The purpose of this type
of wall construction is –reduce the overall cost of construction and make the structure durable by
providing materials of better quality and good workmanship in the faces. Composite masonry walls
work to improve the appearance of a structure by covering up the inferior works by the use of
superior quality material in the desired positions. This type of wall is better because it is cost
effective and optically appealing.
6. Column
Column is a vertical structural member that carry loads mainly in compression. It might transfer
loads from a ceiling, floor slab, roof slab, or from a beam, to a floor or foundations. Commonly,
columns also carry bending moments about one or both of the cross-section axes.
Functions of column:
1. Columns transfer the weight of the floors, walls, and roof to the foundation, ensuring that the
structure remains stable and secure.
2. Columns help maintain the vertical alignment of the building, ensuring that the floors and walls
are properly supported.
3. They resist horizontal forces and prevent the building from tilting or collapsing.
4. Columns also serve as architectural elements that divide the space within a building.
5. Columns can enhance the aesthetic appeal of a building by adding visual interest and
architectural character.
6. Columns provide flexibility in architectural design by enabling the creation of different building
shapes and configurations.
7. It improves durability of building.
7. Beams
It is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting its bending
forces. They are made of steel or reinforced concrete (RCC) or steel.
Beams are used in the structure to
1. Resist loads
2. Counter bending moment and shear forces.
3. Connect the frame.
4. Provide a uniform distribution of loads
Classification of beams: According to the support conditions beams are classified as follows
1. Simply Supported Beams: A simply supported beam is supported at both ends. These beams
are primarily used in general construction.
2. Continuous Beams: A beam that has more than two supports this kind of beam is called a
continuous beam. Two or more two supports are used between these beams, and these beams are
similar to the simply supported beams.
3. Fixed Beams: A beam that is fixed at both ends is called a fixed beam. Fixed beams are not
allowed the vertical movement or rotation of the beam. In this beam, no bending moment will
produce. Fixed beams are only under the shear force and are generally used in trusses and other
structures.
4. Cantilever Beams: It’s one end fixed in-wall or column, and the other side is free. These beams
are generally used in bridge trusses and other structural members.
Functions of Beam:
1. The primary function of beam is to carry and transfer the loads imposed on a structure.
2. Beams support the weight of floors, walls, roofs, and any other imposed loads such as furniture,
equipment, or people. They distribute these loads to the columns.
3. Beams prevent sagging, deflection, or excessive bending of the structural members they support.
4. They improve overall stability of the building.
8. Slab
A slab is a structural element, made of concrete that is used to create flat horizontal surfaces such
as floors, roof decks, and ceilings. Generally, a slab is 100 to 150 mm thick and supported by
beams, columns, walls.
Types of Slabs:
1. One-way slab:
 One-way slab is a slab in which the ratio of longer spans to shorter spans ratio is more than or
equal to 2.
 In a one-way slab, primary reinforcement is required and given only in one direction.
 In a one-way slab, the load distribution is in one direction for shorter spans.
2. Two-way slab:
 Two-way slab is a slab in which the ratio of longer spans to shorter spans ratio is less than 2.
 In a two-way slab, main reinforcement is needed and given in both directions.
 In two-way slab, the load distribution takes place in four sides.
Functions of Slab:
1. It provide flat surface.
2. It supports the load.
3. It is sound, heat and fire insulator.
4. It offers privacy for occupants.
9. Staircase
Staircase is an important component of a building providing access to different floors and roof of
the building. It consists of a flight of steps and one or more intermediate landing slabs between the
floor levels. Stairs can be defined as series of steps suitably arranged for the purpose of connecting
different floors of a building. It may also be defined as an arrangement of treads, risers, stringers,
newel post, hand rails, and baluster, so designed and constructed as to provide an easy and quick
access to the different floors. Stairs can be made of concrete, stone, wood, steel or combination of
any of these.
Parts of Stairs:
 Step: It is a portion of stairs which permits ascent & descent.
 Tread: It is the upper horizontal portion of step upon which the feet is placed.
 Riser: The vertical portion between each tread on the stair.
 Handrail: A handrail is a rail that is designed to be grasped by the hand so as to provide
stability or support.
 Baluster: It is vertical member of wood or metal supporting the handrail.
 Newel Post: This is the vertical member which is placed at the ends of flights to connect
handrail.
 Run: It is the total length of stairs in a horizontal plane, including landings.
Types of Stairs: Generally, stairs are of following types,
1. Straight stairs
2. Quarter turn stairs
3. Half turn stairs
4. Three quarter turn stairs
5. Circular stairs
6. Spiral stairs
1. Straight Stairs: These are the stairs along which there is no change in direction on any flight
between two successive floors. The straight stairs can be of following types,
2. Quarter turn stairs: They are provided when the direction of flight is to be changed by 900 .
The change in direction can be affected by either introducing a quarter space landing or by
providing winders at the junctions.

3. Half Turn Stairs: These stairs change their direction through 1800. It can be either dog-legged
or open newel type. In case of dog legged stairs the flights are in opposite directions and no space
is provided between the flights in plan. On the other hand, in open newel stairs, there is a well or
opening between the flights and it may be used to accommodate a lift. These stairs are used at
places where sufficient space is available.
4. Three Quarter Turn Stairs: These types of stairs change their directions through 2700 . In
other words, direction is changed three times with its upper flight crossing the bottom one. In this
type of construction an open well is formed.

5. Circular Stairs: These stairs, when viewed from above, appear to follow circle with a single
center of curvature and large radius. These stairs are generally provided at the rear of a building to
give access for servicing at various floors. All the steps radiate from a newel post in the form of
winders. These stairs can be constructed in stone, cast iron or R.C.C.
6. Spiral Stairs: These stairs are similar to circular stairs except that the radius of curvature is
small and the stairs may be supported by a center post. Overall diameter of such stairs may range
from 1 to 2.5 m.

Functions of Stairs:
1. Provide an access from one floor to another.
2. Provide a safe means of travel between floors.
3. Provide a degree of insulation where part of a separating element between compartments in a
building.
4. Provide a suitable means of escape in case of fire.
5. Provide a mean of conveying fittings and furniture between floor levels.
Requirements of a good stair:
A good stair should provide an easy, quick and safe mode of communication between the various
floors of the building. General requirements of good stairs are as mentioned below,
1. Location - it should preferably be located centrally, ensuring sufficient light and ventilation.
2. Width of stair - the width of stairs for public buildings should be 1.8 m and for residential
buildings 0.9 m.
3. Length - the flight of the stairs should be restricted to a maximum of 12 and minimum of 3 steps.
4. Pitch of stair - the pitch of long stairs should be made flatter by introducing landing.
The slope should not exceed 400 and should not be less than 250.
5. Head room - the distance between the tread and soffit of the flight immediately above it, should
not be less than 2.1 to 2.3 m. this much of height is maintained so that a tall person can use the
stairs with some luggage on its head.
6. Materials - stairs should be constructed using fire resisting materials. Materials also should have
sufficient strength to resist any impact.
7. Landing - the width of the landing should not be less than the width of the stair.
8. Winders - these should be avoided and if found necessary, may be provided at lower end of the
flight.
9. Step proportions - the ratio of the going and the rise of a step should be well proportioned to
ensure a comfortable access to the stair way.