Learning Language through Video Games:

A Theoretical Framework, an Evaluation of Game Genres

and Questions for Future Research

Jonathan deHaan

Abstract:
Although video games may not yet be able to effectively educate
users in a content area, language learners may benefit from video games.
The author briefly discusses findings from various research studies, as
well as current language teaching methodologies, in order to explain how
video games might contribute to language acquisition. The author
evaluates several video game genres and argues that sports, virtual pet and
simulation games are beneficial for language acquisition, while role-
playing and action/adventure games are not. The author does not
encourage the immediate use of video games in the language classroom,
nor the development of explicit language teaching video games, and
discusses various research questions in the hopes that their answers will
contribute to an understanding of how language learning takes place while
playing video games, as well as guide the development of effective
language teaching software.

1. A Theoretical Framework
Using video games to educate has long been a much thought about,
yet rarely achieved goal. Educational software developers have struggled
to present a substantial amount of content and context without sacrificing
the degree of control game players expect. 1 Although video games may
not yet be able to effectively educate users in a content area, 2 video games
may be used by players who want to learn a foreign language. Very little
research has specifically targeted language acquisition through video
games; however, results from various studies, as well as current language
teaching methodologies support the use of video games to learn language.
One of the main premises for using video games to educate has been
to harness a game player's motivation. However, although motivation is a
crucial element in language learning,3 4 motivation alone does not
guarantee the acquisition of language. Indeed, balancing playing a video
game and learning its language may be too difficult for some player's
cognitive abilities.5 Interestingly, Hulstijn & Laufer found that language
acquisition may hinge on the level of involvement in a task,6 and video
game players are often very engrossed in game play, a trait that may make
them able to acquire language.
Video games often contain simultaneously presented aural and
textual language, for example, adventure games' dialogues spoken by
voice actors and shown in captions at the bottom of the screen and sports
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games' on-screen statistics discussed by human sportscasters. Video game

players may use one input channel to decode the other, and because video
game players have a great deal of control over the game play (various in-
game choices can be made, games can be paused, actions can be repeated,
and conversations can sometimes be initiated at the player's whim), they
can tease apart language at their own pace.7
The natural repetition in video games, such as the constant set-up of
mini-battles in role-playing games and the frequent use of menus in virtual
pet and simulation games, allows a language learner to be continuously
exposed to the target language and creates more opportunities for
acquisition to occur. Other media, such as movies or books, often do not
reuse the same vocabulary or grammar, making acquisition more difficult.
Video games' repetition allows a language learner to bootstrap; to use
known language (semantic context, vocabulary or grammar) to decode
unknown elements through constant exposure.
A video game may also provide the player with a useful kinesthetic
link to its language. Language teachers often give students commands, for
example, "raise your right hand" or "stand up," to which the teacher
expects a physical response. These Total Physical Response (TPR)
activities are used in order to connect the language item (a vocabulary
item or grammar point) to a physical action, hopefully making the
language easier to remember. Video game players perform on-screen
actions that may serve to dual-code the language they learn.
2. An Evaluation of Game Genres
A. Sports Video Games
Current sports video games, with their incredibly realistic graphics
and celebrity play-by-play and commentary announcers closely resemble
sports games seen on television. For a second language learner, playing a
sports video game and watching a sports game on television are very
similar in that even though the learner may not understand the game
announcers' vocabulary or grammar, the learner is completely aware of the
context for the language; what the language is describing (its semantics).
Because the commentary always follows a player's actions in both a sports
video game and a sports game on TV, the learner may become accustomed
to hearing the language and can anticipate, and tease apart the language
over time. Both sports video games and sports games on TV allow
linguistic bootstrapping.
However, these media differ in that sports video games offer players a
great deal of control over how they play the game. Players can use the
commentary to make and test hypotheses about the language in the game.
For example, if a learner playing a baseball game cannot remember the
target language word for "third," all the learner has to do is throw the ball
to third base and listen for the announcer to say the word. If the learner
throws the ball to third base, or the ball is hit towards third (along the third
3

base line, for example) and the learner does not hear the anticipated
utterance, the learner may re-analyze his/her linguistic knowledge and re-
formulate his "language about third" in order to incorporate the new
utterance. Second language hypotheses are constantly in a state of flux,
and a sports video game allows second language learners multiple
opportunities to build and test hypotheses in a controllable environment.
Language learning and hypothesis testing can be quite arduous; however,
enjoyable repetitious actions in a sports video game, batting or shooting,
for example, make learning language easier by lowering a learner's
affective filter; the psychological barrier between the learner and the
language. When sports video game players use the game to test
themselves, the game becomes a highly motivating interactive flash card
system.
The play-by-play and commentary in sports video games describes
the player's actions, which essentially makes this genre of game a
language classroom TPR activity in reverse. This gives a language learner
several advantages; he/she can decode new vocabulary, make and test
hypotheses, create kinesthetic links to the language and constantly check
him/herself on language learned.
Because aural language is closely linked to not only actions in a
sports video game, but also to textual information (statistics) shown on the
screen, learners can use the audio to decode the text. Reading while
listening is often used in grade schools to help children match new written
words with the sounds of words they already know. Bergman found that
children learning to read in their first language who were able to control
the speed of the audio input performed better with regards to reading
comprehension than children who were not able to control the speed. 8
While first and second language acquisition vary greatly, beginning
learners of a foreign language might benefit from sports video games rich
in aural and textual information because they can pause the game while
they consider new language. Furthermore, logographic languages such as
Japanese and Chinese are notoriously difficult for language learners, and
the audio in sports video games may allow learners to match
pronunciation to new logographs.
The repetition in sports video games is an integral part of their
language teaching capabilities. The actions, as well as the language
describing them, are part of a closed system. Players hit, run, kick and
throw over and over, and the descriptive language always follows these
actions. Indeed, the most enjoyable part of a sports game may be the
hitting or kicking, in which case the player does these actions again and
again, drilling the language into their head. If the actions and language are
not repeated in a video game, there are less opportunities to acquire
language. Although a language learner may record a TV sports game in
order to watch it again and decode linguistic elements, this process is
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much more artificial, and may be less enjoyable than playing a game
where this linguistically beneficial repetition is natural.
As a preliminary research study of how language is acquired while
playing sports video games, deHaan conducted a one-month qualitative
study to analyze the experiences of a Japanese language learner/video
game player who played the popular Powafuru Pro Yakkyu 6 (Powerful
Pro Baseball 6).9 After submitting the subject to various interviews and
listening and reading tests, and analyzing game diaries and video taped
sessions of playing the game, the researcher found that the subject
increased his listening ability and Kanji (Chinese) character reading
recognition by controlling and predicting the game's highly contextualized
and simultaneously presented rich aural and textual language.
Sports video games provide multiple opportunities for language
learners to learn and practice verbs in various tenses and aspects, cardinal
and ordinal numbers, directions, prepositions, and expressions of
excitement and dismay. Sports video games may be some of the most
linguistically beneficial video games, especially for beginning language
learners.
B. Virtual Pet Games
Virtual pet games like Monster Rancher are some of the most
motivating games on the market. Players often become very driven to care
for their pet, and many develop an emotional connection to the electronic
being. Some games even use the game console's clock to force the player
to take care of the virtual pet regularly in order to avoid harming the pet.
The desire to keep the virtual pet alive and healthy leads to more time on
task. Virtual pet games are very repetitious, and perhaps force the
acquisition of a (sometimes small) closed set of linguistic items.
Although commands in a virtual pet game such as feed or exercise
may not be understood by the learner, trial and error methods allow the
player to match the subsequent action of the virtual pet to the original
language item chosen. By these means, virtual games are another highly
motivating flash card system. However, unlike sports video games, virtual
pet games allow the learner to be more active in the language choices
made. A virtual pet as a flash card system tests productive instead of
receptive linguistic abilities. Virtual pets also encourage a learner to take
responsibility for the language choices they make. There are consequences
for incorrect answers; namely, the deterioration of the virtual pet's health.
The language in virtual pets may be more readily applicable to "real
life" than that of sports video games. Virtual pet language includes many
regularly used verbs such as eat, drink, play, exercise and sleep and may
be very useful to a beginning language learner.
C. Simulation Games
Video game players are usually part of the reality portrayed in
simulation games like Bokujou Monogatari 3 (Farmer Story 3) or The
5

Sims. Whether raising crops and animals or a family of four, the player
clearly understands the semantic context of the language used in the game.
The player's foundational contextual knowledge, as well as simulation
games' frequent use of icons that further help the language learner
understand actions and choices in the game, allow the player to play the
game under a lesser cognitive load than other games. A player might be
able to play a simulation game without actually having to understand its
language; however, if the game's language is acquired, it can immediately
be put to use in the "real world."
Because the language of a simulation game, for the most part, can be
ignored while playing the game, the language learner can decode linguistic
items at his/her own pace. For example, in The Sims, players buy furniture
for their family by simply clicking and dragging the item to an appropriate
place in a room; language is not needed to perform the task. However, a
language learner, when he/she chooses to, might begin to decode the
language used to describe different styles of furniture, a sofa and a
loveseat, for example. The learner is in control of what and in what
manner language is learned. The ability to slow down, or pause simulation
games gives a language learner even more control over the game in order
to tease apart language.
The language that can be learned from simulation games depends of
course on what the game is a simulation of, but nouns and adjectives may
be the language items that are the most salient and able to be acquired.
The vocabulary describing objects in a city, hospital, house or
convenience store may be most beneficial for beginning and intermediate
language learners, although advanced language learners may find it useful
to practice this vocabulary, and use it to bootstrap and decode more
difficult descriptive language.
D. Role-Playing Games and Action/Adventure Games
Role-playing games (RPGs) such as Final Fantasy and
action/adventure games like Metal Gear Solid or Resident Evil contain the
most language of any video game genre. These games often include
hundreds of conversations of varying lengths presented textually and/or
aurally, hundreds of on-screen commands and items, and in-game notes,
signs, computer screens, books and character diaries. Unfortunately, not
only is this language not presented in a way that makes the language easily
decoded by anyone but advanced language learners, but what can be
decoded may not be as applicable to the "real world" as language learned
from other video game genres.
Many RPGs and action/adventure games include simultaneously
presented aural and textual language which could allow a language learner
to use semantic as well as linguistic knowledge to decode unknown words
or grammar. However, these games do not allow the player to pause or
repeat conversations or cinematic cut-scenes, resulting in a highly
6

engaging, but non-interactive media that does not allow time for the
consideration of lexical or syntactic points of interest. Indeed, during these
cinemas, often the most anticipated and enjoyed aspect of these games, a
language learner's cognition may be completely devoted to watching what
takes place on-screen. A language learner may not want to forfeit the
experience of a spectacular cinema which is often pivotal to the game's
story in order to decode language in this difficult language learning
environment. Furthermore, although a player may be very motivated to
play and finish these epic games, a language learner may be much less
enthusiastic about having to restart saved games, or play the entire game
over again in order to listen again to a word or sentence not understood the
first time the game is played.
RPGs and action/adventure games do not recycle, elaborate on, or
present language in a way to make learners more able to decode it.
Characters in role-playing and action/adventure games usually say a line
of dialogue only once, and then move on to present more information. In
this way too, these games function as a movie, with little or no physical
interaction from the player. Furthermore, the conversational style in RPGs
and action/adventure games is such that the player pushes a button in order
to read and/or hear the next line of dialogue. In this fashion, learners may
be able to decode language more easily because they are free to take as
much time as they want to consider the language. However, without
substantial semantic context, the player may still be unable to decode the
language. Conversations in RPGs and action/adventure games often
discuss people, places or happenings not shown on-screen, and many
language learners may have a very difficult time understanding the
meaning of language describing someone or something that they cannot
see. The context of the language in sports and simulation games is much
more apparent than that of RPG or action/adventure games, which may
make language learners much more able to use bootstrapping strategies to
decode the language of sports and simulation games. Because RPGs and
action/adventure games contain so much language that is difficult to
decode, a language learner may become quickly overwhelmed and lose
interest in the acquisition of language, or in the game itself.
Furthermore, there is little that a player consciously inputs into a
conversation in a RPG or action/adventure game; all it takes is the push of
a button for language to appear. In sports games the player is substantially
more in control of when and what language they are able to analyze. In
virtual pet and simulation games, the player is responsible for the language
they use in the game because of the repercussions of giving incorrect
commands. There is little interaction with or ownership of the unrepeated
language in RPGs and action/adventure games.
RPGs and action/adventure games allow a game player to live
vicariously through dynamic characters in worlds often very unlike his/her
7

own. While these worlds and realities are captivating, there may be little
language from them that can be applied to the "real world." Through
frequent exposure, a language learner may learn language describing
magic spells, weapons or monsters, but the learner will have little
opportunity to use these language items outside of video game circles.
Sports, virtual pet and simulation games are based in the "real world" and
their language can be immediately used in a wide range of discourses.
Although being some of the most impressive and language-rich games
on the market, because of the lack of control over their unrepeated
language, only advanced language learners able to divide cognition
between simultaneous game playing and linguistic analysis would benefit
from RPGs and action/adventure games.
3. Questions for Future Research
Several genres of video games may be useful for learning language.
However, before educators encourage the use of video games in their
classrooms or language labs, and before software companies begin
producing language teaching video games, numerous research questions
need to be discussed and answered in order to determine if, when and how
language learning takes place by playing video games.
One of the most important questions that need to be answered is
whether language acquired through video games can be used when
removed from the context of the game, either receptively while reading or
listening, or productively while speaking or writing. There are several
stigmas about video games and their use in education, and proof that
language learned through video games can be applied in "real world"
contexts would help dispel these stigmas as well as justify their inclusion
in education. Additionally, although language learned by playing a video
game may help the learner play or finish the game or other games,
researchers must determine if a game's language can be used when the
kinesthetic or contextual connection to the game is absent. Active
communicative competency using language learned through video games
must be demonstrated.
Various case studies need to be undertaken in order to understand the
process of language acquisition through video games. The following
questions need answers:
1. What language is learned by playing video games? Is vocabulary,
rather than syntax, more easily and consistently acquired from
video games? If one area of language cannot be acquired, why is
this so?
2. Which genres of games are the most useful for language learners?
Does the level of learner make a difference? Beginning language
learners may benefit from the repetition of elementary language
in sports video games, while advanced learners may use various
decoding strategies to acquire the language of RPG and
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action/adventure games. Case studies with various levels of

learners and genres are needed.
3. Are video games in certain languages more beneficial than
others? Do English video games allow for the same acquisition
process that Spanish, Russian, Japanese or Korean games do? Do
alphabetic or logographic languages change the amount of
accessibility to the textual language in the game?
4. What type of language does each video game genre typically
contain? Discourse analyses of different video game genres,
especially role-playing games, should be undertaken to determine
the type of language used, if the language is recycled in the game,
and its transferability to "real-life" language tasks.
5. Do video games help language learners actually acquire
language, or do they serve more as a linguistic priming or
practicing device? Long-term case studies are needed.
6. When and how is cognition divided between game playing and
language learning while playing video games?
After these case studies are conducted and positive results are
gathered, researchers should conduct experimental studies to compare the
effectiveness of language learning through video games to language
learning through various media, for example television and movies, as
well as to current classroom instruction. These questions need to be
answered:
1. Can language be acquired more effectively (more quickly and be
retained longer) through video games or other media? Studies
should compare sports video games and televised sports games,
simulation games and video documentaries, and movies based on
video games (Resident Evil, for example).
2. Is learning language through video games effective? How long
would it take a learner to acquire language through a video game
or through classroom instruction or self-study textbook or
software use? Although motivating and enjoyable, video games
may prove to be not very effective.
3. Do students retain lexical or syntactic language studied through
video games longer than identical language studied through
traditional classroom and self-study activities?
4. Do language learners benefit from having their actions described
by a sports video game? That is, can they produce the language
on their own?
5. Do voice recognition games force native and non-native speakers
to modify their pronunciation in unnatural ways? Is voice
recognition at a beneficial stage for language learners? Do non-
native speakers use similar pronunciation modification strategies
that native speakers use? If the language choices in voice
9

recognition games are limited and improper negative feedback is

given, do learners feel that their original language choice is
incorrect and thus incorrectly alter their linguistic hypotheses?
Should various choices be displayed on the screen, or should
learners experiment with the words that the game recognizes?
Simulations are needed.
Not until these numerous research questions have been answered can
we truly say that video games effectively assist in language acquisition,
and that their inclusion in traditional classroom and individual learning
settings, as well as their development by software companies, using the
answers to these research questions as specifications for designing
language teaching games, can be justified and encouraged.

Notes
1. See 'Chapter 7: Going Interactive' of David Buckingham and
Margaret Buckingham Scanlon's "Education, Entertainment, and Learning
in the Home" (Open University Press, 2002) for a critique of current
educational software titles and a discussion of interactivity in learning.
2. Joel Foreman discusses how video games could be effectively
used to replace large lecture courses in "NEXT-Generation: Educational
Technology versus the Lecture" (EDUCAUSE Review Articles,
July/August 2003, 12-20).
3. Zoltan Dornyei and Richard Clement, "Motivational
Characteristics of Learning Different Target Languages: Results of a
Nationwide Survey," in Motivation and Second Language Acquisition, ed.
Zoltan Dornyei and Richard Schmidt (Honolulu: U Hawaii Press 2001),
399-432.
4. Satoko Van Aacken, "What Motivates L2 Learners in Acquisition
of Kanji Using CALL: A Case Study," Computer Assisted Language
Learning 12 (1999): 113-136.
5. Paul Brett, "Too many media in the multimedia? A study of the
effects of combinations of media on a recall task," CALL in the 21st
Century CD-ROM: IATEFL. (2001).
6. Jan Hulstijn and Batia Laufer, "Some Empirical Evidence for the
Involvement Load Hypothesis in Vocabulary Acquisition," Language
Learning 51 (2001): 539-558.
7. Ofer Bergman, "Wait for Me! Reader Control of Narration Rate
in Talking Books," Reading Online, October 1999, (10 July 2003),
<http://www.readingonline.org/articles/bergman/>.
8. Bergman, <http://www.readingonline.org/articles/bergman/>.
9. Jonathan deHaan's paper, "Acquisition of Japanese as a Foreign
Language Through a Baseball Video Game," is currently being reviewed
for publication by Foreign Language Annals.
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Bibliography
Bergman, Ofer. "Wait for Me! Reader Control of Narration Rate in
Talking Books." Reading Online. October 1999.
<http://www.readingonline.org/articles/bergman/> (10 July 2003).
Brett, Paul. "Too many media in the multimedia? A study of the effects of
combinations of media on a recall task." CALL in the 21st Century CD-
ROM: IATEFL. (2000).
Dornyei, Zoltan and Clement, Richard. "Motivational Characteristics of
Learning Different Target Languages: Results of a Nationwide Survey." In
Motivation and Second Language Acquisition, edited by Zoltan Dornyei
and Richard Schmidt, 399-432. Honolulu: U Hawaii Press, 2001.
Hulstijn, Jan and Laufer, Batia. "Some Empirical Evidence for the
Involvement Load Hypothesis in Vocabulary Acquisition." Language
Learning 51 (2001): 539-558.
Comprehension in the English as a Second Language Classroom."
Dissertation Abstracts International, A: The Humanities and Social
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Van Aacken, Satoko. "What Motivates L2 Learners in Acquisition of
Kanji Using CALL: A Case Study." Computer Assisted Language
Learning 12 (1999): 113-136.

Author Affiliation:
Jonathan deHaan teaches English language classes and does curriculum
research at Kanda University of International Studies in Chiba, Japan.
Contact him at [email protected].